Feature Wet electrostatic precipitators

for superior sulfuric acid gas and mist

cleaning
By: Gary Siegel, Marketing Director, Beltran Technologies Inc.

A sulfuric acid plant that is downstream from any one of a number

of operations, such as metallurigical smelters and refineries,
petrochemical operations, natural gas processing facilities, spent
acid regenerating plants, electric generating units, municipal waste
incinerators, and ore mining is not only practicable but also highly
profitable.

This versatile mineral acid is both the world’s most widely used
chemical, and the one with the highest production volume. Its use
as both a primary and intermediate raw material spans hundreds
of industrial processes, especially agricultural fertilizer
manufacturing, which consumes 70 percent of H2SO4 production.
This application alone may continue to fuel a vigorous global trade
in this chemical. Sulfur provides both a direct nutritive value for
plants, as well as an indirect value as a soil amendment. It also
facilitates a plant’s use of the three other major nutrients: nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Growth in the fertilizer industry, and
consequently in the global sulfuric acid trade, is expected to be
driven due to the need for more farm land for developing countries
as their populations expand.

As global trade in sulfuric acid accelerates, acid plant operators will

be under increasingly intense competition to supply the purest,
highest quality product. At the same time, operators must remain
price competitive by achieving maximum cost efficiency as they
maintain these high levels of purity.

To remain competitive in price and quality, an efficient sulfuric

acid manufacturing process requires the maximum possible
removal from input gas streams of fine particulates, acid mists,
condensable organic compounds, and other contaminants. This is
necessary for protecting downstream components such as catalyst
beds from corrosion, fouling, and plugging, as well as for
preventing the formation of a “black” or contaminated acid
endproduct. Proper gas cleaning also results in lower costs for
maintenance, operations, and equipment replacement.

Wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs) can vary greatly in design,

materials, gas flow rates, durability, and collection efficiency. It is
thus important for engineers to recognize the key differences
among these various systems. Beltran Technologies’ advanced
WESPs are designed around a multistage system of ionizing rods
with star-shaped discharge points, enclosed within square or
hexagonal tubes which are lined with grounded collection surfaces.
The unique electrode geometry generates a corona field 4-5 times
stronger than that of ordinary wet or dry ESPs. The multistage
charging configuration also avoids corona quenching due to high
particle densities, and assures maximum corona field strength with
a minimum of energy load.

As flue gas travels through the tubular array, these intense corona
fields induce a negative charge, propelling even submicron-size
particulates and acid mists toward the collection surfaces, where
they adhere as cleaned gas is passed through. The surfaces are
cleansed of residues by recirculating water sprays. A heated
purgeair stream should be used to keep the high-voltage insulators
dry, reducing maintenance costs. Since fine particles have little
significant mass, they generally pass through scrubbers and other
devices, but are captured with remarkable efficiency by advanced
Beltran WESP equipment.

The cool, saturated environment in the WESP is highly effective on

condensable or oily compounds, which can elude conventional
equipment. The continuous aqueous flushing process prevents re-
entrainment of particles, sticky residue buildups, and particle
resistivity. By eliminating the need for mechanical or acoustical
rappers, the cleansing system also minimizes energy costs.

With very little pressure drop through the WESP, gas velocities can
be extremely high, boosting efficiency. Plant engineers can use
smaller-scale, less costly equipment and still achieve superior
collection efficiencies. Other critical features to look for in WESP
equipment are sophisticated electronic controls linked to a close-
coupled gas flow management system. These components can
squeeze even more efficiency out of the system by optimizing such
operating parameters as gas velocity, saturation, temperature,
corona intensity, etc.

Forward-thinking industrial plant operators around the world

constantly seek out and deploy more advanced gas cleaning
technologies throughout their enterprises, not only to stay ahead of
the regulatory compliance curve, but also to achieve superior
operating performance and to control maintenance and other costs
in a competitive marketplace. In this context, the role of wet
electrostatic precipitators should continue to grow as an essential
primary or adjunct gas treatment option.

For more information, contact Beltran Technologies, Inc., at (718)

338-3311 or info@ beltrantechnologies.com;or visit the company
website at www.beltrantechnologies.com. q
In Zambia, Mopani Copper Mines’ WeSp unit from
Beltran Technologies. Doe Run’s peru operation
equipped with Beltran’s WeSp.

Feature acid plant debottlenecking

strategies
By: Guy Cooper, P. Eng.; Dr. Andres Mahecha-Botero, P. Eng.; Dr.
Werner Vorster, P. Eng.; Neal Londry, E.I.T.; NORAM Engineering
and Constructors Ltd., Vancouver, Canada.

take advantage of your assets

NORAM receives many requests for strategies to increase the
capacity of an acid plant. Each plant has a unique set of
debottlenecking solutions which can result in capacity increases
between 10-30% or even higher. Compared to the cost of a new acid
plant, a plant upgrade taking maximum advantage of existing
assets is a much more economical approach. And if equipment
needs to be replaced for maintenance reasons, so much the better,
because the new equipment can be sized for the target capacity.

Play to your (so2) strengths

One of the first things we ask of a client who is looking for more
capacity is to provide us with the current operating data, including
SO2 concentrations. A plant operating with an SO2 strength to the
first converter pass of, say, 10%, could achieve a 15% increase in
capacity by increasing the gas strength to 11.5% SO2. Of course,
emissions and heat exchange equipment will need to be assessed
and may need upgrades/replacement. Cesiumpromoted and
recently introduced highactivity vanadium catalysts make it
possible to accommodate increased SO2 loadings within the
existing converter. Heat removal from the sulfuric acid loop can be
handled with acid side upgrades. More on that later.

Checking the pressure (drops)

We also ask for recent pressure surveys. Routine pressure surveys
(say, monthly) are one of the best ways to track plant performance
and equipment condition. Typically, measurements are taken
across all gas-side equipment with a digital manometer and
recorded with the production rate, blower rate/rpm, and the SO2
strength. In one plant, we found an extremely high pressure drop
across a cold gas exchanger due to fouling and the design. A
replacement cold exchanger with a hot sweep feature (see Fig. 1)
designed for low pressure drop contributed to that plant achieving
and maintaining a 20% increase in capacity. In another plant, we
identified high pressure drops in the towers and addressed this by
upgrading to a low-pressure drop packing (see Fig. 2). Replacing
high pressure drop equipment, even if more capacity is not
immediately required, will often improve overall plant
performance and lower blower energy costs.

Fig. 2: NORaM Hp™ Low pressure Drop Saddle.

Metallurgical acid plant opportunities

Temperature limits for catalysts restrict SO2 concentration to the
first pass to a maximum of about 12% with standard catalyst, and
13-14% with cesiumpromoted catalyst operating at a lower inlet gas
temperature. Smelters with oxygen enrichment may produce an
SO2 gas with up to 30% strength prior to air dilution upstream of
the acid plant. NORAM has designed pre-converter systems for such
plants, which take a portion of the high strength gas flow, dilute it,
then convert two thirds of the SO2 to SO3 which is then removed as
acid. The low-concentration SO2 residue gas is mixed with the
highstrength gas upstream of the existing acid plant. The
preconverter system uses standard processing steps found in every
acid plant, including a converter, a gasto-gas heat exchanger, and
an absorbing tower. NORAM has designed pre-converter systems to
increase capacity by 20-35%.

Blower enhancements
One may be tempted to go out and purchase a bigger blower to
increase gas flow through the plant. A word of caution here:
pressure drop increases with the square of the flow. So a 20%
increase in flow results in a 44% increase in pressure drop
corresponding to much larger energy requirements. A large
pressure increase may cause mechanical challenges with
downstream equipment, in addition to the significant price tag for
a full-flow, highhead 200” W.C. (5,000 mm) blower and drivers.

However, there are some blower techniques that we use for modest
increases in flow and capacity. For a sulfur burning plant with the
blower taking suction on the dry tower, rerouting some ducting can
allow the blower to take suction on the air filter and then discharge
the air into the dry tower. This arrangement has the advantage of
cooler air going into the blower, allowing more air flow for the
same horsepower and an increased compression ratio (discharge/
suction pressure), which also improves performance. Flow and
corresponding capacity increase of 3-7% are possible for this
ducting reconfiguration. There is a slight loss of energy efficiency
per ton of sulfur burned because the blower’s heat of compression
now is removed by the dry tower acid cooler instead of the waste
heat boiler, but the increased production actually results in a net
increase in steam produced compared to that produced before the
upgrade.

Booster blowers designed for full gas flow and low head, less than
50” W.C. (1250 mm), are sometimes used for increased capacity by
supplementing a main blower. They can be located either
downstream of an interpass tower (stiffening of the candle housing
shell may be necessary) or take suction on the air filter and
supplement a blower taking suction on the dry tower. The
increased capacity offsets the increased energy operating cost of a
second blower.

high pressure drop sulfur furnace and

boiler?
For plants where the sulfur furnace and boiler experience a high
pressure drop, we have the solution for you: A furnace and boiler
bypass system. With this ducting arrangement, a slip stream of cold
air bypasses the sulfur furnace (increasing the gas strength and
furnace temperature), mixes with the hot furnace gas that bypasses
the waste heat boiler, and combines with the main process stream
downstream of the boiler. A schematic is shown in Fig. 3.

This simple arrangement gives several benefits. First off, there is a

reduced pressure drop which varies to the second power with flow.
For example, a 10% bypass results in a 21% reduction in the total
furnace/blower pressure drop. If you have a total furnace and
boiler pressure drop of 20” W.C. (500 mm), there would be a
pressure reduction of 4.2” W.C. (105 mm) for the 10% bypass. For a
2,400 TPD acid plant, this could add 35 TPD of production.

The reduced flow to the sulfur furnaces increases the residence

time, which improves sulfur combustion and reduces the chances
of uncombusted sulfur. The higher temperature improves the
thermal driving force (LMTD) of the boiler, resulting in better heat
transfer. The furnace refractory needs to be checked that it can
accommodate the higher furnace temperatures.

And as a final benefit, this arrangement may permit replacement of

the maintenance-prone jug valve controlling the hot furnace gas
split with a stainless-

steel damper controlling a much cooler air/furnace gas stream.

upgrades to the acid system

With an increase in gas flow to the acid towers, more acid flow will
often be required, especially for the interpass tower. An increased
flow will keep the acid concentration and the acid temperature at
the bottom of the tower in the proper range. The good news is that
acid side upgrades are relatively inexpensive compared to
replacing gas side equipment. Changes here depend on the amount
of capacity increase, but can range from simply installing a larger
pump impeller to replacing an acid cooler, acid pump, and acid
piping.

A new acid distributor may be required for the higher acid flow
and if there are blanks on the candle tubesheet, a few more candles
may be added to limit pressure drop increase with the higher gas
flow. Fortunately, Brownian diffusion candles operate in the
laminar flow range and pressure drop only increases linearly with
flow. As mentioned earlier, consider low-pressure drop packing so
that increases in gas flow do not result in higher tower pressure
drops.

your mileage may vary

How much of a capacity increase makes sense for your plant? That
raises another question: How much do you plan to spend? For a
plant study, we rank the cost of each upgrade option versus the
incremental capacity increase, and we compare that to the unit cost
of acid produced for a new acid plant.

Your mileage may vary, but we have seen plants increase in

capacity by 20-30% economically compared to the capital cost/acid
production ($/ton) for a new acid plant. Older plants may have
older high-pressure drop equipment which provides more
opportunities for easier savings. Newer acid plants often have less
maintenance downtime and may require less peripheral
equipment to be replaced as part of the upgrade.
And if your plant has frequent shutdowns due to ducting leaks, acid
piping leaks, and fouled equipment, improving reliability with new
equipment can be a simple

By Gary Siegel, Marketing Director, Beltran Technologies Inc.

Industries that generate sulfur oxides and sulfuric acid include

metallurgical smelters and refineries, petroleum refineries, natural
gas processing facilities, electric generating units, spent acid
regeneration plants, and municipal waste incinerators. In many
cases, a common and cost-effective solution for capturing and
utilizing sulfur oxides and corrosive sulfuric acid emissions is to
have a downstream sulfuric acid manufacturing plant.

Operators of these facilities can take advantage of the high

industrial market value of purified sulfuric acid, a primary
industrial chemical used in fertilizer manufacturing; mineral
processing; petroleum refining; wastewater processing; the
manufacture of paints, dyes, detergents, lead batteries, and
explosives; and the synthesis of other chemicals, as in the
alkylation of gasoline additives.

An efficient sulfuric acid manufacturing process strictly requires

the removal of contaminants from the input gas streams, especially
fine particulates and acid mists such as those emitted from metal
ore roasters and smelters, petroleum refineries, and coal-fired
industrial boilers. This is necessary for protecting downstream
components such as catalyst beds from corrosion, fouling, and
plugging, as well as for preventing the formation of a “black” or
contaminated acid end-product. Proper gas cleaning also results in
lower maintenance and operating costs for affected industries.

For removing fine particulates, acid mists, and other contaminants

from the gas stream, the one technology that is almost universally
specified for this application is the wet electrostatic precipitator
(WESP).

Primarily targeted at capturing submicron-scale particulate matter,

saturated sulfuric or other acid aerosols, and condensable organic
chemicals, the advance designed Beltran WESP system is often
specified to be incorporated after the gas scrubbers, and can
achieve collection efficiencies including submicron particulate
matter of greater than 99.9%—far superior to other equipment.

However, it is important for engineers to recognize that there are

key differences in features and benefits offered by the various
precipitator systems. Although they may share the similar
operating principles and basic structures, WESPs can vary greatly
in design, materials, gas flow rate, durability—as well as collection
efficiency.

A basic WESP is comprised of an array of ionizing electrodes such

that negatively charged discharge rods generate a strong electric
field and corona. These are surrounded by or interfaced with
positively charged or grounded collection surfaces, which attract
and hold the charged particles. In operation, the source gas is
passed through the electrode array, which induces a negative
charge in even the most minute, submicron-size particles,
propelling them toward the grounded collection surfaces, where
they adhere as the cleaned gas passes through. The captured
particles are cleansed from the plates by recirculating water
sprays; residues, including aqueous sulfuric acid, are extracted for
further use or disposal. The cleaned gas is ducted to downstream
equipment or to the stack, depending on the application.

A traditional problem has been with high-resistivity contaminants,

such as lowsulfur coal ash. However, Beltran WESP configurations
and designs can overcome this challenge. The system is engineered
with multistage ionizing rods, star-shaped discharge points, and
space-saving hexagonal tube designs. This unique geometry
generates a corona field 4-5 times more intense than other ESPs,
achieving superior collection efficiency on resistant materials.
These features also allow higher velocity gas streams, resulting in
faster throughput. WESPs impose a significantly lower pressure
drop compared to scrubbers, and also contribute to increased
production speeds. Furthermore, these gains in efficiency enable
the use of smaller-scale, less-expensive equipment for a given set of
operating parameters.

Another challenge for traditional precipitator designs was the re-

entrainment back into the gas stream of particles from the
collection surfaces. Dry-operating ESPs, especially those using
mechanical or acoustical vibrating rapper machinery, are
particularly susceptible to this phenomenon. Precipitators based on
wet operation, however, minimize re-entrainment, as the aqueous
flushing is continuously effective. The elimination of mechanical
rapping also reduces the higher cost and energy drain imposed by
that equipment.

Other critical features to look for in WESP equipment are the more
advanced electronic controls, which can optimize operating
parameters such as gas flow, saturation, temperature, and corona
intensity to achieve maximum efficiency.

Mopani Copper Mines currently has nine Beltran

WeSps for sulfuric acid gas cleaning at their copper
smelter plants in Zambia, Mufulira, and Kitwe.

Special alloys changing how sulfuric

acid plants are built and operated
Since the first industrial sulfuric acid plants were built in the early
1900s, very little change occurred in the materials used to handle the
harsh conditions of the acid producing environment. More recently,
the development and increased availability of special alloys has
dramatically simplified the design and construction of the plants—
small, skid-mounted plants can now be built and shipped to
customers for installation with minimal field work and assembly.

old school construction

The contact process was first patented in 1831, and the process
variant for applying vanadium catalyst was developed by BASF in
1913. Until the late 20th century the materials of construction applied
in sulfuric acid plants changed very little. But in the later years of the
last century, the development of new alloys and special materials as
well as a reduction in their costs led to innovation throughout the
contact section of acid plants.

oxidation converters

SO2 oxidation converters are the core of any sulfuric acid facility. As
a general rule, they are large, cylindrical, vertical vessels (though
Clark Solutions has used horizontal vessels on small skid mounted
plants.) They house 3, 4, or 5 catalytic beds where the SO2 to SO3
oxidation reaction takes place when the gases contact vanadium-
based catalyst at reaction temperatures that range from 380-650
degrees C (7151200 degrees F).

The high temperatures associated with the presence of a small

amount of water and a sulfur trioxide rich atmosphere make the
converter environment extremely aggressive when temperatures fall
below the dew point or there are steam/water leaks. Historically, the
approach to handling the gases in these converters has been the use
of a refractory brick lined carbon steel vessel shell coupled with high
temperature resistant cast iron internals (support grids and posts).
Although construction can be excellent and long-lasting, carbon steel
and cast iron have some disadvantages. The mechanical resistance of
carbon steel is strongly affected in the temperature range above 500
degrees C (900 degrees F). Cast iron may suffer deformation in
temperatures above 650 degrees C (1200 degrees F) (although some
cast iron, such as Meehanite™, can withstand higher temperatures).

The industry and designers always aim to increase production with

the smallest plant possible. This drove designs to increase SO2
concentration in the reactor and thus increase operating
temperatures. First pass bottoms operating above 620 degrees C (1150
degrees F) that were unusual in the mid 1900s became the new
standard. Some plants, at the expense of fast catalyst aging, would
operate at 650 degrees C (1200 degrees F) continuously.

The prevalence of these shifts became possible with the

popularization of different grades of stainless steels. The carbon steel
and cast iron construction has slowly but steadily been replaced by
special 304 stainless steel grades, more resistant to the thermal stress
and corrosion than the carbon steel.

The new material has also led the industry to change converter
design. While in the past the first catalytic pass had to be placed on
top of the reactor due to thermal stress and increases in pressure
drop increase, stainless steel construction (not as affected by thermal
stress as carbon steel) allowed the first pass to be positioned
wherever it made more sense to the designer. Many designers chose
to install the first catalytic bed at the bottom of the reactor to simplify.
Also, superheaters could be located on the ground level, which saved
on ducting and supports.

The heavy duty high temperature resistant cast iron castings used for
catalyst support and internals of the converter have also been
replaced by special grades of 304 or 321 stainless steel, the latter in
the hotter areas.
With proper design, the new materials of construction allowed the
refractory brick to be partially or completely eliminated, depending
on process conditions, making the vessels cheaper and lighter than
prior versions.

gas-gas heat exchangers

Another traditional piece of equipment in double absorption plants

that has benefited from improved and more accessible materials is
the gas-gas heat exchanger.

Heat exchangers cool the gases prior to entering the interpass

absorption tower while at the same time re-heating the cold gases
exiting the absorption tower. In the hot side of the exchanger
temperatures and SO2/SO3 laden gas are the challenges; on the cold
side acid mist and SO3 slippage are potential problems. In a way, the
same problems afflicting the converter affect hot gas-gas heat
exchangers.

Temperatures that could surpass 500 degrees C (900 degrees F) and

the SO3 laden gas requires that hot heat exchangers use high
temperature resistant materials of construction. An early solution
was metallized carbon steel, a strategy to make the base material bear
the hot and harsh conditions. The metallization process is extremely
difficult, though, and if done improperly can actually shorten tube
life.

What happened with hot gas-gas heat exchangers has its parallel in
cold gas-gas exchangers. For nearly one century gas-gas heat
exchangers have been built in plain carbon steel. The material
selection is perfect and should last a very long time with regular
design operating conditions of the exchanger. The only problem is
that actual operation does not always go by the book.
When engineers design a plant, they choose materials that operate at
the design conditions. The problem with these designs is the non-
expected operating conditions: low capacity operation, poor air/gas
drying performance, unexpected mist carryover from the interpass
absorption, improper SO3 absorption, and water or steam leakage.

When one of these conditions exist, the cold exchangers are pushed
beyond their design limits. Hot, strong, and corrosive acid will
completely change the dynamics of corrosion. When this happens, the
consequences are the same: accelerated corrosion, sulfate formation
and pressure drop build up, gas leaks, increased emissions, reduced
capacity, and earlier than expected plant shut down. This is why cold
gas-gas heat exchangers are among the most frequent maintenance
items and shutdown drivers in a double-absorption plant.

The answer? Stainless steel construction in gas-gas heat exchangers

increases equipment life, reduces corrosion and sulfate formation in
upset conditions, and saves money on cleaning and maintenance.
When properly designed and operated, stainless steel exchangers last
longer and will pay for the extra cost on a “total cost of ownership”
basis.

strong acid piping

For more than a century hot strong sulfuric acid piping was designed
and built using cast iron piping and connections. Cast iron grades
changed from place to place, from country to country. Some places
use 250# class piping and fittings to provide extra wall thickness for
corrosion. Conventional cast iron fittings and gravity cast parts have
chaplets to separate the molds—another weak point that in many
situations is the starting point of a leak.

In the end, the corrosion resistance of cast iron allied to the thick
walls has for a long time been the only option to strong acid piping
despite the natural shortfalls. Thus, the development of special alloys
and steels, such as Clark solutions CSX™ family of high silicon
stainless steels, was very welcome.

Special alloys are designed to operate with corrosion rates below 0.02-
0.04 mm/year (1-2 mils/year), while even the best cast irons will show
corrosion rates at average transport velocities in the range of 0.15-
0.30 mm/year (5-10 mils/year). The thick walls guarantee a long
lifetime, at expense of substantial iron being captured by the acid.

As an example, while some of the most frequently used cast irons

have wall thicknesses as high as 22 mm (0.9 in), CSX piping uses wall
thicknesses of 4 mm (0.2 in) or 6 mm (0.3 in) while still providing 20
or more years of service.

The thinner walls make special alloy piping lighter, but this is not the
only advantage. Cast iron piping is generally operated with acid at
velocities of 1.0-2.0 m/s. Corrosion rates on cast iron increase with
transport velocity. CSX and special alloy piping are normally designed
for around 3 m/s for long runs and 5 m/s for short runs. The special
alloys’ corrosion rates are not sensitive to transport velocity, so the
design is limited only by acceptable pressure drop.

Another advantage is welding capability. Welded lines substantially

reduce the number of flanges used, which significantly reduces the
risk of leaks at flanged connections. Even better, in the event of a leak
or failure special alloy lines can be locally welded. No cranes, no
replacement of large parts, no new gasketing or tightening. This saves
a huge amount of time and energy when compared to cast iron lines,
which may cost one or two days of production loss.

In Brazil, where Clark Solutions designed and replaced cast iron

pipelines with CSX, the customer reported gains in plant operation
and up to 60-80% less downtime compared to prior operation.

Corrosion of different alloys.

CSX™ Isocorrosion curve.

drying, absorption towers & pump tanks

Drying and absorbing towers and tanks face the harshest conditions
in an acid plant. As a result, it is this equipment that industry experts
have the most disagreement about. The traditional approach to
preventing corrosion is to build a bricklined carbon steel vessel to
avoid direct contact of acid with the metal.

Every technology vendor has its special recipe. The basic concept
around surface protection of this equipment is the installation of a
resin or polymeric material, a rubber, an asphaltic mastic, or a special
resin in contact with the carbon steel shell sometimes followed by an
adhesive PTFE film over which potassium or sodium mortar is
applied with acid resistant brick.

Lining a carbon steel vessel to operate with hot strong acid is a work
of art. It requires extremely skilled installers and attention to detail.
Properly done, a good lining system may last as long as 35-40 years.
Skilled masons are becoming more scarce and expensive; and quality
work takes time.

In addition, resins and polymers are not all the same—their

resistance to acid varies. Sometimes shelf life affects performance.
Improper mixing or installation may leave weak spots where acid
attack will initiate.

Bricks and mortars are permeable—it is a question of time when acid

will contact the liners. If the installation was not properly done or if
the materials were not properly chosen, the lining may last for just a
few years.

Brick-lined towers and tanks are extremely heavy, requiring

extremely strong foundations and in most cases requiring the lining
service to be constructed in place.

New materials eliminate the need for lining, PTFE, and brick. Towers
and tanks, just like piping, can be in direct contact with the hot and
strong acid.

Special alloys including Clark Solutions’ CSX or Outotec’s SX are the

premium option for metal tower construction. Special grades of 310
stainless steel, such as Clark Solutions 310M can be used with good
performance and long life in 98.0-98.5% strong acid and in heat
recovery towers, where acid can be as hot as 240 degrees C and at
concentrations as high as 99.5% in heat recovery systems, such as in
Clark Solutions Safehr® .

Lighter metal towers can quickly replace brick-lined towers, without

requiring new foundations. In some replacement situations,
eliminating the brick lining while keeping the outside diameter the
same can increase cross-sectional area, which can mean a substantial
capacity gain.

Of course, nothing is perfect. Alloy towers do require proper

concentration and temperature controls. While a shortterm
concentration or temperature excursion may be tolerated and won’t
lead to substantial corrosion, long-term excursions may accelerate
corrosion and lead towers to an early failure.
acid distributors

As in piping, improved alloys also took over acid distributor

manufacturing. Cast iron distributors corrode, which means sulfate in
the tower and iron in circulating acid. Sulfate on top of the packing
may increase pressure drop and in extreme cases compromise drying
or absorption efficiency.

Alloy distributors are currently built in different forms and designs,

and are lighter weight, simpler to install, and less prone to corrosion.
They also allow more design flexibility. Old standard irrigation
densities used in cast iron distributor equipped towers are usually
around 10 to 15 distribution points per square meter. This calls for
increased packing heights to guarantee proper liquid distribution
across the total height of the ceramic packing.

Special alloy distributors can be made of smaller parts that allow a

much richer liquid distribution. Clark Solutions has built distributors
with up to 500 points/ square meter for some special applications. For
sulfuric acid plants, given the nature of the service and the packing
used, distribution densities with special alloy will usually vary from
25 to 50 points per square meter.

The 2-5 times denser irrigation allows substantial reduction in

packing heights, not only shortening tower heights but also reducing
pressure drop across packing or allowing the design of smaller towers
running at the same pressure drop.

acid coolers

The first acid coolers used in the sulfuric acid industry were cast iron
construction. Huge installations used very large areas where water
would wet the external surface of the hot cast iron tube banks while
hot acid was flowing inside. The water cooled the tubes by
evaporation and convection, and the tubes cooled the acid flowing
inside.

The long lengths added a lot of iron to the product acid. This
additional iron can be a problem, depending on the industry. And cast
iron coolers, like piping, also used dozens and dozens of flanges and
connection points, each a potential leak source.

The first attempt to replace the cast iron coolers started in the early
1980s with the introduction of anodically protected (AP) acid coolers.
These shell and tube heat exchangers, with acid flowing on the shell
and water in the tubes, operate with an impressed current that
guarantees that the metal exposed to the flowing acid is always on a
passive region.

One of the few disadvantages of the anodically protected acid coolers

is that the corrosion protection film formed by the passivation
current film is temperature sensitive. An increase in the temperature
may cause the metal to move from a passive state to an active state,
accelerating corrosion. Luckily this is a rather unusual occurrence,
especially when trained operators are in charge.

The development of new alloys brought a myriad of options to the

sulfuric acid producer. Shell and tube heat exchangers do not need
anodic protection anymore. They can be built out of CSX, 310M, Alloy
3033, and others. Any of these are adequate for some process
conditions.

Alloyed shell and tube heat exchangers give the operator the same
benefits of anodically protected acid coolers with the advantage of not
requiring the instrumentation and controls needed by AP acid
coolers. Kept and operated properly, alloy shell and tube coolers will
have a long service life with little maintenance.

But the shell and tube were not the only heat exchangers to benefit
from new alloys. Gasketed, semi-welded, and fully welded plate and
block exchangers can also be made of special alloys, such as Hastelloy
D-205 or Alloy 33. Plate exchangers are smaller and cheaper than
shell and tube exchangers.

However, 0.3 mm distance between 0.5 mm thick plates require good

quality water treatment as well as an acid with little or no dissolved
silica or other materials and ions that may foul, clog, or precipitate
corrosion on the plates.

Alloy plate coolers also work fine at temperatures as high as 150-160

degrees C in 98-98.5% acid and without issues maintaining cooling
water temperature or flow. Both shell & tube and plate exchangers in
stainless steel construction are much more forgiving in this regard
compared to AP coolers.

More recently Clark Solutions and Alfa Laval developed a fully

welded 310M block exchanger designed to handle high temperatures
and concentrations of the Safehr® heat recovery system. The newly
designed 310M Compabloc® systems have now been in service at
99.0+% acid and 220-240 degrees C with no sign of corrosion and no
loss of performance.

Cast iron acid coolers. CSX shell and tube strong acid cooler.

Conclusion

All the improvements provided by the development and application

of new materials in the sulfuric acid industry combined to simplify,
reduce weight, and increase capacity of the new plants. These
features allowed plants to be built faster, at lower costs, and with less
field labor.