Module 6 Optical Properties Lessons 3

Expo
ABEn 147
Properties of AB Materials
Module 6 – Lesson 3. STUDENT LEARNING GUIDE
Determination of the Different TP-IMD-02 v0 No. CET.ESC SLG20-03_
Electrical Properties of AB
Materials
Dr. Roberto C. Guarte
College of
ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
Department of
AGRICULTURAL AND
BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
2020
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Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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SLG20-03
Vision
A globally competitive university for science, technology,
and environmental conservation
Mission
Development of a highly competitive human resource,
cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative
technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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University, commit to:
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science and technology (S&T), especially for agriculture,
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Student Learning Guide in
Properties of AB
Materials
ABEn 147. Properties of AB Materials
Table of Contents
Vision i
Mission i
Table of Contents 3
Lesson 6.3 Determination of the Different Electrical Properties of AB
Materials 4
Lesson Summary 4
Learning Outcomes 4
Discussion 4
Electrical Conductivity 4
Electrical Resistivity 6
Electrical Resistance 13
Dielectric Properties 14
Electromagnetic Radiation 19
Assessment 21
References 21
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation. TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Lesson 6.3 Determination of the Different
Electrical Properties of AB
Materials
Lesson Summary
This lesson discusses the different methods in measuring the different
mechanical properties of AB materials
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the different methods in determining the electrical properties

of AB materials
2. Apply these methods in solving electrical properties of AB materials.
Discussion
Various methods and mathematical models are used to express and solve
important electrical properties of AB materials, particularly food materials. The
following sections present and discuss these methods.
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical Conductivity or specific conductance, the reciprocal of electrical
resistivity, represents the material’s ability to conduct electric current. It is a
measure of electric current flows through a food of unit cross-sectional area
A, unit length L, and resistance R.
It is commonly signified by the Greek letter σ. The SI unit of electrical

conductivity is Siemens per meter (S/m) and is expressed in the formula:
𝐿
𝜎= (1)
𝐴𝑅
Where:
𝜎 = electrical conductivity, S/m; (S=Siemens)
𝐿 = length, m
𝐴 = cross-sectional area, m2
𝑅 = resistance, Ω (ohm)
Electrical conductivity of a food material is measured using an electrical

conductivity cell. In this cell, a food sample is placed between two electrodes
are connected to a power supply. Care is taken to ensure that the electrodes
make a firm contact with the food sample. Electrical conductivity of foods
increases with temperature in a linear manner. The following equation may be
used to calculate electrical conductivity of a food:
𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎𝑜 (1 + 𝑚" 𝑇) (2)
Where:
𝜎𝑜 = electrical conductivity at 0°C (S/m)
m” = coefficient, (1/°C)
T = temperature (°C)
If a reference temperature other than 0°C is chosen then an alternate

expression for estimating electrical conductivity as follows:
𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎𝑟𝑒𝑓 [1 + 𝐾(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )] (3)
Values of 𝜎𝑜 , 𝜎𝑟𝑒𝑓 , and coefficients m” and K for different foods are given in
Table 1 shown below.
Table 1. Coefficients for equations 1 and 2 to estimate Electrical Conductivity

Product 𝝈𝟐𝟓 𝑲 𝝈𝟎 (S/m) m”
(S/m) (°𝑪−𝟏 ) (°𝑪−𝟏 )
Potato 0.32 0.035 0.04 0.28
Carrot 0.13 0.107 -0.218 -0.064
Yam 0.11 0.094 -0.149 -0.07
Chicken 0.37 0.019 0.194 0.036
Beef 0.44 0.016 0.264 0.027
Sodium Phosphate 0.189 0.027 0.614 0.083
0.025 M
0.05 M
0.1M
The electrical conductivity of food is a function of its composition – the

quantity and type of various components present in the food. Foods
containing electrolytes such as salts, acids, certain gums, and thickeners
contain charged groups that have a notable effect on the value of electrical
conductivity.
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6 ABEn 147. Properties of AB Materials
Illustrative Problem 1.
Estimate the electrical conductivity of 0.1M Sodium Phosphate solution at

30°C.
Solution:
Given : Temperature = 30°C; 0.1M Sodium Phosphate Solution
Computation:
1. Using the equation 2 and appropriate values for electrical

conductivity at the reference temperature of 0°C and coefficient
m”, we obtain:
𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎𝑜 (1 + 𝑚" 𝑇)
𝜎𝐸 = 0.321 (1 + 0.0442 × 30)
𝝈𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝑺/𝒎
2. Note that if we use Equation 3 with appropriate values of electrical

conductivity at reference temperatures of 25°C and coefficient K,
we obtain
𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎𝑟𝑒𝑓 [1 + 𝐾(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )]
𝜎𝐸 = 0.676[1 + 0.021(30 − 25)]
𝝈𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟕 𝑺/𝒎
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies
how strongly it resists electric current. It is commonly represented by the
Greek letter ρ with SI unit of ohm-meter. It can be solved using the formula:
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅 (4)
𝑙
Where:
𝜌 = electrical resistivity, Ω.m
𝑙 = length, m
Various models and methods have been suggested to measure the electrical
resistance. Factors affecting the suitability of various methods and precision
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attainable include contact resistance and shape of the sample i.e. whether is
it in the form of single crystal, thin film, powder pellet or small crystallite.
Two probes method (ohmmeter or voltmeter – ammeter measurements) can

be used for higher resistive samples and four probes method (potential probe
measurements) for the low resistive and single crystals. Whereas,
Montgomery, van der Pauw, and Smith techniques for the pellets and bulky
samples.
The following sub-sections discuss the different methods in measuring

resistivity as cited by Singh, Y. (20130.
a. Two probe measurement
This is the simplest method of measuring resistivity and is illustrated in

Figure 2. In this method, voltage drop V across the sample and current
through the sample I are measured. Then the resistivity is given as
𝑉𝐴
𝜌= (5)
𝐼𝐿
Where:
𝜎 = electrical resistivity
v = voltage drop, volts
𝐼 = current, A
This method is useful for sample that has large resistance.
Figure 2. Electrical resistivity measurement using two-probe method
b. Four probes measurements
The potential probe is the most widely used method for resistivity
measurements on the low resistive samples. In this method, the potential
drop is measured across two probes and distance between these probes
D replaces the sample length L in equation 5. When the probes are not
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point contacts, in that case, the most accurate value for the probe
distance is the distance between the centres rather than the closest
distance between the probes. Figure 3 shows the schematically
arrangement for this method.
Figure 3. Electrical resistivity measurement by four probe method
In this case ρ is given by
𝑉𝐷 𝐴
𝜌= (6)
𝐷𝐼
Four probe method can be used to determine the resistance of the single
crystal as well as the bulk specimen also. Here, current passes through
the outer contacts which are close to the edges of the sample. The
potential difference is measured across the inner contacts. This method
can eliminate the effects of contact resistance between the sample and
electrical contacts and therefore is most suitable for low and accurate
resistance measurements.
Contact and lead resistances are cancelled out by the four point method,
however the contact resistance can still cause error if these produce
enough heat. Thus, it is imperative that the contacts should have low
resistance. Self-induced voltage offsets in the circuit further add to the
error. This problem can be corrected by reversing the flow of current
through the sample. When the low level of the voltage (in the range of µV)
is produced across the sample, signal noise also adds to the error. By
using the proper shielded cables and low thermal contactors, as well as
making single point grounding, noise problem can be reduced.
c. Four probes measurements
The ‘four point probe’ method has proven to be a convenient tool for the
resistivity measurement of small size (of the order of mm) specimen. This
method is applicable when the distance between the probes is small
compared to the smallest dimension of the sample, and provided none of
the probe is too close to an edge of the sample. The arrangement of
probes is shown in Figure 4. This gives the functional relationship
between the resistivity ‘ρ’ and the voltage and current ratio for various
geometries.
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Figure 4. Electrical resistivity measurement by four point probe method
In the case of a four point probe on a sheet, the two outside current
points represent the dipole. Therefore, the resistivity in this case can be
given by:
𝑉𝐷
𝜌= 𝐼
2𝜋𝑠 (7)
Here, the distance between all the four points is equal. I, is the current
flowing through the sample, 𝑉𝐷 is produced voltage across two inner
points and S is the distance between the adjacent points. If the distance
between contact points is not equal and it is given as S1, S2 and S3
respectively, then the resistivity is given as
𝑉 2𝜋
𝜌= [ ] (8)
𝐼 (1+1− 1
−
1
)
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
1 3 1 +𝑆2 𝑆2 +𝑆3
Where, V is the floating potential difference between the inner probes,

and I is the current through outer pair of probes. A detailed study has
been done by F. M. Smith for different geometries with various correction
factors in the resistivity as shown in Figure 5 and correction factors are
tabulated in the Table 2.
Figure 5. Arrangement for the measurement of sheet resistivity with four

point probe method
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Table 2. Correction factor C for the measurement of Sheet resistivity with

the four point probe method.
d. Resistivity measurement for a disc of arbitrary shape (Pauw

Method)
This is the method discussed by vander Pauw to measure resistivity of flat

disc (pellet) of arbitrary shape without knowing the current pattern. This
method is applicable only when satisfying the following conditions:
A. The contacts are at the circumference of the sample.

B. The contacts are sufficiently small.
C. The sample is homogeneous in thickness.
D. The surface of the sample is singly connected, i.e. the sample does
not have isolated holes. A sample of comparatively low resistance
and of arbitrary shape satisfies all conditions (A) to (D) as shown
in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Samples of any arbitrary shape with four small contacts for
electrical resistivity measurement
The resistance 𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 is defined as the potential difference 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑐

between D and C contacts per unit current through the contacts A and B.
Here, the current enters in the sample through contact A and leaves it
through B. Similarly resistance 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 is defined. If the sample has a
uniform thickness “d”, the resistivity ρ as a function of 𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 , 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 and
“d” of the sample can be determined as:
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𝜋𝑑 𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 𝑅
𝜌= [ ] 𝑓 ( 𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 ) (9)
ln 2 2 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴
𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷
Where 𝑓 is a function of ( ) only and satisfies the relation
𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴
ln 2
𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 𝑓 exp( 𝑓 )
( )= 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ { } (10)
𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 ln 2 2
𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷
𝑓 can be given approximately as and plotted against the ratio ( )
𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴
2 4
𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷− 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 ln 2 𝑅 −𝑅 (ln 2)2 (ln 2)3
𝑓 ≅1−[ ] − [ 𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 ] { − } (11)
𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 2 𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷+ 𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 4 12
However, this method is very useful to determine electrical resistivity of

arbitrary shaped samples with some limitations but it is also modified by
some scientists later on including Chwang et al. (1974) and Weiss et
al.,(2008).
e. Resistivity measurement of a pellet using Montgomery

Method
The samples are obtained in powder form, used for pellet study. The
pellet should be made by pressing the powder up to a sufficient and
known pressure without using any binder. Usually these are shaped in the
form of circular discs. A pellet of uniform thickness and circular in shape
has four point contacts on the top surface of it arranged in the form of
rectangle ABCD. The distance between the contacts at A and B is ‘b’ and
that between the contacts at B and c is ‘a’. The thickness of the pellet is
‘d’ must be less than or of the order of 0.3 √𝑎𝑏. This is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Circuit arrangement for electrical resistivity measurement of a pellet
The resistance R1 is determined by sending current through AB and the

potential difference is measured across CD. Now, the resistance R2 is
determined by sending current through AD and the produced potential
difference is measured across BC. To change the direction of current and
measure the resistances R1 and R2 a schematic arrangement as shown
in the Figure 7 has made. The theory behind the method of calculating the
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resistivity of the pellet from the knowledge of resistances R1, R2 and

thickness of pellet d is described by Montgomery.
Consider a rectangular pellet of width ‘b’, length ‘a’ and the thickness ‘d’
and if ABCD represent the corners of the top face of such a pellet, then
according the theory developed by Montgomery, the resistivity can be
given by
𝜌 = 𝐻 𝐸 𝑅1 (12)
H is geometric parameter which is a function of the ratio of width and

length (b/a), and E is an effective thickness of the specimen. The effective
thickness E, which is determined by the plot of a curve drawn in between
𝑑
the ratio (b/a) and d. However, for 𝑏 < 0.3, E does not depend on b/a
𝑎
significantly, and is almost equal to thickness of the sample.
Figure 8. The function f used for determining electrical resistivity of a

sample, plotted as a function of 𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 /𝑅𝐵𝐶,𝐷𝐴 .
f. Resistivity measurement by using pulse probe method
A modified dc method known as the pulse probe method has reported by

C.R.B. Lister can also be used to determine the resistivity of some
samples by some modifications. Figure 9 shows the block diagram for the
pulse method
Figure 9. Block diagram for electrical resistivity measurement by pulse

method
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In this method, a short pulse of high voltage is applied to the sample and
the current or the potential drop across a pair of probes of the sample is
measured, usually by means of a fast oscilloscope or other amplifying and
recording systems. Since the pulse is of very short duration and repeated
only a few in times in a second or even less. The current density during
the time of application of the pulse is very high without unduly heating or
affecting the sample. This technique is most suitable for the samples
having small dimensions, more fragile and having Joule heating problems.
Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric
current. The reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease
with which an electric current passes. The SI units for electrical resistance is
ohm, while electrical conductance is measured in Siemens (S) formerly called
mho.
The resistance R of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage V across it to

current I through it, while the conductance G is the reciprocal. This
relationship is represented by the formula below:
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance)
𝑉
𝑅= (13)
𝐼
𝐼 1
𝐺= = (14)
𝑉 𝑅
Resistance also depend on the material the product is made of as well as the
product’s shape and size. For a given material, resistance is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area, meaning the bigger the area, the
lower the resistance. Considering the same given material, resistance is
proportional to length, longer material has higher resistance compared to the
same material with shorter length. The resistance R and conductance G of a
given material of uniform cross-section, therefore, can be computed as:
𝑙
𝑅= 𝜌 (15)
𝐴
𝐴
𝐺= 𝜎 (16)
𝑙
While resistance and conductance are extrinsic properties, both resistivity and
conductivity are intrinsic properties. This means that every material,
irrespective of their shape and size, has their own characteristic resistivity.
For example, all pure copper wires (which have not been subjected to
distortion of their crystalline structure) have the same resistivity, but a long,
thin copper wire has a much larger resistance than a thick, short copper wire.
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Illustrative Problem 2
The resistance of a wire of length 10 m is 2 ohm. If the area of cross section

is 2 × 10−7 𝑚2 , determine its resistivity, conductance, and conductivity.
Solution
Given:
Length = 10 m
Resistance = 2 ohm
Area = 2 × 10−7 𝑚2
Computation:
𝐴 (2 𝛺) 2 × 10−7 𝑚2
Resistivity, 𝜌=𝑅 =
𝑙 10 𝑚
= 4 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 Ω m
1 1
Conductance, 𝐺 = =
𝑅 2
= 0.5 S
𝒍 𝟏 𝟏
Conductivity, 𝝈= = 𝝆 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝐦
𝑨𝑹
= 0.25 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 S/m
Dielectric Properties
The dielectric properties of biological materials are important in the research
on microwave processing of foods and agricultural materials, and the
destruction of insect pests of postharvest and stored products. Dielectric
properties, among other parameters, are required to provide insight into the
interaction between materials and microwave and radio frequency (RF)
energy during microwave and RF heating. For example, the dielectric
properties of apples are required in modeling microwave and RF heating for
the development of a thermal alternative quarantine treatment against codling
moth.
There are two types of dielectric properties, dielectric constant ε’ and

dielectric loss ε”. The values of the dielectric constant and loss factor plays
an important roles in determining the interaction of microwaves with food. The
dielectric loss factor for the material, ε”, which expresses the degree to which
an externally applied electrical field will be converted to heat, is given by
ε” = ε’ tan δ (17)
The loss tangent, tan δ, provides an indication of how well the material can be
penetrated by an electrical field and how it dissipates electrical energy as
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heat. The dielectric constant, loss factor, and loss tangent are dimensionless
quantities.
Dielectric constant   is the ability of a material to store microwave energy

and dielectric loss factor   is the ability of a material to dissipate
microwave energy into heat. The parameter that measures microwave
absorptivity is the loss factor. The values of dielectric constant and loss factor
will play important roles in determining the interaction of microwaves with
food.
Determine the loss factor of ice (pure distilled water) given that its dielectric
constant at 2450MHz is 3.2 and loss tangent is equal to 0.0009.
Solution:
Given:
ε’ = 3.2
tan δ = 0.0009
Computation:
Using equation (17)
ε” = ε’ tan δ
Substituting the known values:
ε” = (3.2) (0.0009)
ε” = 0.00288
Chicken meat has a dielectric constant of 53.2 and dielectric loss factor of
18.1. Find the loss tangent.
Solution
Given:
ε’ = 53.2; ε” = 18.1
Computation. Solving for the for the loss tangent, then’
𝛆”
tan δ = 𝛆’
𝟏𝟖.𝟏
= 𝟓𝟑.𝟐
= 0.34
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The rate of heat generation per unit volume (Q) at a location inside the food
during microwave heating can be characterized by Eq. (18).
Q = 2  f 0 E 2 (18)
where
f = frequency,
 0 = dielectric constant of free space (8.854 × 10−12 F/m),
  = dielectric loss factor, and
E = electric field.
As microwaves move through the slab at any point, the rate of heat generated
per unit volume decreases. For materials having a high loss factor, the rate of
heat generated decreases rapidly and microwave energy does not penetrate
deeply. A parameter is necessary to indicate the distance that microwaves
will penetrate into the material before it is reduced to a certain fraction of its
initial value.
 
This parameter is called power penetration depth  p , which is defined as the
depth at which power decreases to 1/e or (36.8%) of its original value. It
depends on both dielectric constant and loss factor
of food.
1
0  1     2  1 

p 
2
(19)
2 2   
where  0 is wavelength of the microwave in free space.
Dielectric constant and loss factor of various food materials can be seen in
Figures 10 and 11, respectively. As can be seen in the figures, dielectric
properties of cooking oil are very low because of its nonpolar characteristic.
Dielectric properties of water and high-moisture-containing foods such as
fruits, vegetables, and meat are high because of dipolar rotation. The highest
loss factor is observed in the case of salt-containing foods such as ham.
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Figure 10 Dielectric constant of various food materials at 25C.
Figure 11. Dielectric loss factor of various food materials at 25◦C.
Dielectric properties of foods depend on moisture content, temperature, and

compositional properties of foods. They are also a function of the frequency of
the oven. Information about the effects of frequency on dielectric properties
can be found in the review of Datta, Sumnu, and Raghavan (2005) and
Nelson and Datta (2001).
Estimate the penetration depth of a chicken meat during processing in home

type microwave oven. Chicken meat has a dielectric constant of 53.2 and
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dielectric loss factor of 18.1. Assume that dielectric properties are constant
during heating.
Solution:
The frequency of a home type microwave oven is 2450 MHz.

Wavelength in free space is calculated as:
c 3 x 108
0    0.122 m
f 2450 x 106
Using Eq. (4.24):
1
0  1       1 

p  2 2
2 2   
(4.24)
1

  18.1 
2  2
p 
0.122  1    1   0.00794m
2 253.2   53.2 
 
A number of researches established the dielectric constant and loss factor of

various types of materials. Table 3 shows the characteristics of the selected
dielectric materials at room temperature and at frequency 2.45 GHz. Table 4
shows the bulk density and dielectric properties of six different species of
starch.
Table 3. Characteristics of the selected dielectric materials at room

temperature and at frequency 2.45 GHz
Materials Dielectric Constant Loss Factor

Alumina 9.0 0.0006
Bacon (smoked) 2.50 0.05
Beef (frozen) 4.4 0.12
Beef (raw) 52.4 0.3302
Blood (37°C) 58 0.27
Butter (salted) 4.6 0.1304
Butter (unsalted) 2.9 0.1552
Borosilicate glass 4.3 0.0047
Concrete (dry) 4.5 0.0111
Corn oil 2.6 0.0077
Cottonseed oil 2.64 0.0682
Sandy soil (dry) 2.55 0.0062
Egg white 35.0 0.5
Fused quartz 4.0 0.0001
Fat (37°C) 5.5 0.21
Glass Ceramic 6.0 0.0050
Lard 2.5 0.0360
Lung (37°C) 32 0.3
Muscle (37°C) 49 0.33
Nylon 2.4 0.0083
Olive oil 2.46 0.0610
Paper 3.4 0.0125-0.0333
Soda lime glass 6.0 0.02
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Materials Dielectric Constant Loss Factor

Teflon 2.1 0.0003
Thermoset polyester 4.0 0.0050
Wood 1.2-5 0.0040-0.4167
Table 4.2 Bulk Density and Dielectric Properties of Dry Granular

Starches at 30◦C
Bulk Density Starch Type Dielectric
Loss Factor
(g/cm3) Constant
Corn 0.810 2.74 0.14
Rice 0.678 1.25 0.00
Tapioca 0.808 2.25 0.08
Wheat 0.790 2.42 0.05
Waxymaize 0.902 2.81 0.43
Amylomaize 0.886 2.42 0.37
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation encompasses a wide variety of phenomena as
represented by the various regions along its broad spectrum. Only a few
specialized, narrow regions are utilized in food applications which includes
light, infrared, and microwave frequencies. Electromagnetic radiation is
classified by wavelength or frequency. The electromagnetic spectrum
between frequencies of 300 MHz and 300 GHz is represented by
microwaves. Since microwaves are used in radar, navigational equipment,
and communication equipment, their use is regulated by governmental
agencies. In the United States, the Federal communications Commission
(FCC) has set aside two frequencies for industrial, scientific, and medical
(ISM) apparatus in the microwave range, namely 915 ± 13 MHz, and 2450 ±
MHz. Similar frequencies are regulated worldwide through the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).
In contrast to conventional heating systems, microwaves penetrate a food,

and heating extends within the entire food material. The rate of heating is
therefore more rapid. Note that microwaves generate heat due to their
interactions with food materials. The microwave radiation itself is nonionizing
radiation, distinctly different from ionizing radiation such as X-rays and
gamma rays. When foods are exposed to microwave radiation, no known
non-thermal effects are produces in food material.
The wavelength, frequency, and velocity of electromagnetic waves are related

by the following expression:
𝜆 = 𝑐/𝑓 (20)
Where
λ= wavelength in meters
c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
f = frequency
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC.
SLG20-03
Compute the wavelength of a home type microwave oven with a frequency of

2450 MHz.
Solution
Given: 𝑓 = 2450 MHz
From the formula:
𝜆 = 𝑐/𝑓
Substituting the values:

3 × 108
𝜆=
2450 × 106
𝜆 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝒎
Electromagnetic Radiation
As microwaves move through the slab at any point, the rate of heat generated
per unit volume decreases. For materials having a high loss factor, the rate of
heat generated decreases rapidly and microwave energy does not penetrate
deeply. A parameter is necessary to indicate the distance that microwaves
will penetrate into the material before it is reduced to a certain fraction of its
initial value. This parameter is called power penetration depth (δ𝑝 ), which is
defined as the depth at which power decreases to 1/e or (36.8%) of its
original value. It depends on both the dielectric constant and loss factor of
food.
−1
𝜆0 2
𝛿𝑝 = (√1 + (𝜀"/𝜀′)2 − 1) (21)
2𝜋√2𝜀′
Where;
𝛿𝑝 = penetration depth
𝜆0 = wavelength of microwave in free space
𝜀′ = dielectric constant
𝜀" = dielectric loss
Estimate the penetration depth of a chicken meat during processing in home

type microwave oven with frequency of 2450 MHz. Chicken meat has a
dielectric constant of 53.2 and dielectric loss factor of 18.1. Assume that
dielectric properties are constant during heating.
Solution:
Given:
𝑓 = 2450 MHz; 𝜀′ = 53.2; 𝜀" = 18.1
2020
SLG20-03
Required: 𝛿𝑝
Solve for wavelength first:
𝜆 = 𝑐/𝑓
3 × 108
𝜆= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝒎
2450 × 106
Plug in the values to the equation, thus:

−1
𝜆0 2 2
𝛿𝑝 = (√1 + (𝜀"/𝜀′) − 1)
2𝜋√2𝜀′
−1
0.122 2
𝛿𝑝 = (√1 + (18.1/53.2)2 − 1)
2𝜋√(2)(53.2)
= 0.00794 m
Assessment
1. Discuss the different methods in determining the electrical properties of

AB materials
2. Differentiate dielectric constant from dielectric loos factor.
3. Discuss how power generation depth is computed.
References
1. Ronald Chwang, B. J. Smith and C. R. Cowell (1974). Solid state

electronics 17 issue 12, December 1974, P. 1217-1227.
2. Jonathan D. Weiss, Robert J. Kaplar and Kenneth E. Kambur (2008).
Solid state electronics 52 issue 1, January 2008, P. 91-98.
3. Jonathan D. Weiss, Robert J. Kaplar and Kenneth E. Kambur (2011).
Solid state electronics 62 issue 1, August 2011, P. 123-127.
4. Sing, Y. (2013). Electrical Resistivity Measurements: A Review.
International Conference on Ceramics, Bikaner, India International
Journal of Modern Physics: Conference Series Vol. 22 (2013) 745–
World Scientific Publishing Company DOI: 10.1142/S2010194513010970
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC.
SLG20-03
DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
College of Engineering and Technology
For inquiries, contact:
ENGR. ELDON P. DE PADUA

eldon.depadua@vsu.edu.ph • dabe@vsu.edu.ph
+63 53 565 0600 Local 1015
Use this code when referring to this material:
TP-IMD-02 v0 07-15-20 • No. CET.ESC SLG20-03

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Dr. Roberto C. Guarte

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1. Discuss the different methods in determining the electrical properties

2. Apply these methods in solving electrical properties of AB materials.

It is commonly signified by the Greek letter σ. The SI unit of electrical

Electrical conductivity of a food material is measured using an electrical

If a reference temperature other than 0°C is chosen then an alternate

𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎𝑟𝑒𝑓 [1 + 𝐾(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )] (3)

Table 1. Coefficients for equations 1 and 2 to estimate Electrical Conductivity

The electrical conductivity of food is a function of its composition – the

Estimate the electrical conductivity of 0.1M Sodium Phosphate solution at

Given : Temperature = 30°C; 0.1M Sodium Phosphate Solution

1. Using the equation 2 and appropriate values for electrical

𝜎𝐸 = 0.321 (1 + 0.0442 × 30)

2. Note that if we use Equation 3 with appropriate values of electrical

𝜎𝐸 = 0.676[1 + 0.021(30 − 25)]

Two probes method (ohmmeter or voltmeter – ammeter measurements) can

The following sub-sections discuss the different methods in measuring

a. Two probe measurement

This is the simplest method of measuring resistivity and is illustrated in

This method is useful for sample that has large resistance.

Figure 2. Electrical resistivity measurement using two-probe method

b. Four probes measurements

Figure 3. Electrical resistivity measurement by four probe method

In this case ρ is given by

c. Four probes measurements

Figure 4. Electrical resistivity measurement by four point probe method

Where, V is the floating potential difference between the inner probes,

Figure 5. Arrangement for the measurement of sheet resistivity with four

Table 2. Correction factor C for the measurement of Sheet resistivity with

d. Resistivity measurement for a disc of arbitrary shape (Pauw

This is the method discussed by vander Pauw to measure resistivity of flat

A. The contacts are at the circumference of the sample.

The resistance 𝑅𝐴𝐵,𝐶𝐷 is defined as the potential difference 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑐

However, this method is very useful to determine electrical resistivity of

e. Resistivity measurement of a pellet using Montgomery

Figure 7. Circuit arrangement for electrical resistivity measurement of a pellet

The resistance R1 is determined by sending current through AB and the

resistivity of the pellet from the knowledge of resistances R1, R2 and

H is geometric parameter which is a function of the ratio of width and

Figure 8. The function f used for determining electrical resistivity of a

f. Resistivity measurement by using pulse probe method

A modified dc method known as the pulse probe method has reported by

Figure 9. Block diagram for electrical resistivity measurement by pulse

The resistance R of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage V across it to

The resistance of a wire of length 10 m is 2 ohm. If the area of cross section

= 0.25 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 S/m

There are two types of dielectric properties, dielectric constant ε’ and

Dielectric constant   is the ability of a material to store microwave energy

Using equation (17)

Substituting the known values:

Computation. Solving for the for the loss tangent, then’

where  0 is wavelength of the microwave in free space.

Figure 10 Dielectric constant of various food materials at 25C.

Figure 11. Dielectric loss factor of various food materials at 25◦C.

Dielectric properties of foods depend on moisture content, temperature, and

Estimate the penetration depth of a chicken meat during processing in home

The frequency of a home type microwave oven is 2450 MHz.

A number of researches established the dielectric constant and loss factor of