PUBLISHED: 1 MARCH 2017 | VOLUME: 1 | ARTICLE NUMBER: 0102

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Greening peace in Colombia

Brigitte Baptiste, Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez, Victor H. Gutierrez-Velez, Germán I. Andrade, Pablo Vieira,
Lina M. Estupiñán-Suárez, Maria C. Londoño, William Laurance and Tien Ming Lee
As peace consolidates in Colombia, can biodiversity survive development? We discuss challenges
and opportunities for integrating forest biodiversity conservation into developing, war-dilapidated
economies of post-conflict regions, paving the way for a green economy and climate resilient society.

I
f the peace agreement that was recently
approved by the Colombian congress
holds after 50 years of civil war, what
might be the fate of forest biodiversity?
Concerns were raised by the scientific
community following the narrow rejection
of the Colombian peace agreement in a
referendum1. Colombian forests are known
to contain 10% of the planet’s biodiversity
and a great number of these forests are
found in regions that have suffered from
the conflict, leaving them in vulnerable
condition2,3. It has been estimated that half a
in post-conflict regions7. The ecological
resilience of the forested areas could be
compromised by the building of roads8
and intensification of illegal gold mining 9.
Although mining, logging and other
extractive activities have produced a shifting
mosaic during the conflict times, the
construction of the roads and the explosion
10° 0' 0" N
of legal and illegal mining could negatively
impact biodiversity and the provisioning
of vital ecosystem services9. Furthermore,
land occupation along roads tends to be
notoriously difficult to control; any effort to
conserve forests might also be offset by the
human settlements that would arrive as part
of the spontaneous and direct migration8.
N

400 200 0 km
century of war has led to 1 million hectares
of forest loss in Colombia (Fig. 1). Most
areas that have been historically affected by
conflict coincide with fragile natural forest
ecosystems4. Forest biodiversity has been
shaped by cycles of gun-point land grabbing
and abandonment that have resulted
in complex mosaics of spontaneously
regenerated vegetation and patches of
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natural forests2. The extended post-conflict

forest regrowth areas are heterogeneous
and inter-linked by networks of riparian
vegetation along streams, remnants of
old growth in slopes as well as clusters or
patches of forests in grasslands5.
Until now, generalized settlements in
forests have been discouraged, although
some colonization in critical areas (that is,
some national parks) has been promoted
by guerrillas (Fig. 1). Coca leaf production
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for international markets has come to the

relief of impoverished farmers2,6, but social
displacement due to violence and the war
on drugs have pushed farmers to remote
Ecosystems (modified from IDEAM 2015) Forest change 1990–2012
forested areas. In areas near urban centres,
Waterbodies (modified from IDEAM 2016)
forests have been replaced by extensive Forest From forest to no forest
cattle ranching 2,6. Unstable and informal Fragmented forest
economies, in many cases distorted by Savanna Administrative organization
money laundering from illicit activities, Secondary vegetation Towns with armed conflict
Agroecosystems National natural parks
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continue, depleting the natural capital of Others (from SINAP 2016)

forest ecosystems.
Social peace is expected to increase 80° 0' 0" W 75° 0' 0" W 70° 0' 0" W
the proliferation of official and unofficial
roads and infrastructure to access natural Figure 1 | Map of major ecosystem types in Colombia. Administrative boundaries of national parks and
resources, particularly gold and timber post-conflict regions are mapped.

NATURE ECOLOGY & EVOLUTION 1, 0102 (2017) | DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0102 | www.nature.com/natecolevol 1

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‘wonder grasses’13. Investment to promote

legal crops to substitute for coca and other
illegal crops have made San Martin one of
the three top coffee and cacao producing
regions, but has exposed farmers to
catastrophic landslides and flash floods, as in
the events of 201513.
Could the experience of post-conflict
peace building from other regions
help Colombians find a path toward
sustainable, low carbon emission and
biodiversity-friendly development? It is
clear that Colombia needs to complement
the establishment and management
REUTERS / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO

of protected areas (that is, parks and

Figure 2 | The last march of the FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia). Guerrilla fronts are
giving up their arms and relocating into peace transitioning zones set up by the Colombian government.
In a postwar context, governing bodies
need coordinated local responses for dealing
with socio-ecological transitions involving
economic development and demographic
changes. However, opportunities rely upon
the very nature of war landscapes. Here,
we outline the biodiversity conservation
challenges and opportunities facing post-
conflict Colombian regions. We discuss how
investors could integrate conservation efforts
into securing food and energy production
systems as well as in investments of global
commodities such as cattle and coffee,
thereby safeguarding the long term future of
Colombian forests and biodiversity.
The legacy of conflict
In over five decades of violence, forest
biodiversity was exposed to different spatial
and temporal scales of fragmentation
and degradation8. For instance, it is well
documented that in conflict-ridden Andean
landscapes (Fig. 2), many forests located in
slopes and narrow valleys were converted
to agriculture and pastures5. In contrast,
abandonment of lands has left extensive
re-growth forests in the San Lucas mountain
range6,10, and other areas in the Amazon and
Orinoquía natural regions4. Forest regrowth
resulted in increased land cover in those areas
from 2001–2010, and that has been providing
refuge and habitat for several endemic
plants and animal species2,6. In contrast,
in some parts of the Central Andes an
estimated 6.5 million to 10 million hectares
of abandoned or illegally acquired lands have
suffered deforestation and degradation2,6.
The fragmentation and degradation of
forests in the Andes have greatly impacted
local hydro-climatic regimens and has made
the region more vulnerable to shocks and
stresses produced by El Niño and other
socio-environmental constraints2,10. Drastic
declines in rainfall during El Niño years
along with the loss of forests have translated
into record low water levels and high rates
of sedimentation in the Magdalena, Cauca
and other rivers, with severe repercussions
on hydroelectric production2,6. The
situation is critical considering that the
Magdalena–Cauca watershed generates
80% of the national GDP and holds 84% of
the hydroelectric power in the country11.
In less than four decades, Colombia has
transitioned from energy self-sufficient
to insufficient 3,11.
Learning from others
Regions of countries that have emerged
from conflict through peace agreements
or military victories provide valuable
lessons in dealing with forest biodiversity
in post-conflict peace-building situations.
For example, the post-conflict region of
San Martin in Peru12 is enjoying high GDP
but at the same time is undergoing the
highest deforestation rates in the Peruvian
Amazon13. San Martin is experiencing an
increase in the frequency and severity of
accidental or escaped agricultural fires as
a result of the introduction and spread
of exotic invasive species such as kudzu
(Pueraria montana), and brachiaria
(Brachiaria decumbens) and other exotic
reserves) as well as indigenous and Afro-
Colombian communities’ territories with
legal mechanisms and economic incentives
for promoting biodiversity-friendly land
and resource use systems in regions that
are transitioning from war to peace2,3.
Post-conflict forest biodiversity offers an
opportunity for integrating conservation
into development investments such as
cattle production and plantations of global
commodities (for example, coffee, cacao
and tropical fruits). For example, forest
biodiversity in post-conflict areas could
substantially add to the existing coffee
shade systems known to protect Colombia’s
unique and rich bird and pollinator diversity
as well as bolster economic development.
This is important as Colombia is the third
largest global producer of coffee, but it is an
example that can also be followed by cacao
and other crops.
The way forward
Post-conflict forest biodiversity and the
associated diversity of local land/resource
use systems can be assets rather than
impediments to investing in biodiversity-
friendly productive and extractive
activities2,3,14. An inclusive development
that provides incentives for small, medium
and large holders to plant trees, manage
forest stands and conserve forest fragments
has the potential to secure the sustainable
provision of ecosystem services (that is, the
mitigation of the impacts of droughts and
floods) as well as socio-ecological resilience
to climatic, political and market shocks and
stress15. It will also help consolidate peace.
The present hydroelectric crisis in Colombia
also shows that forest biodiversity is valuable
not only for the provision of food security
but also for the provision of energy security
and other valuable ecosystem services3.
Degradation and biodiversity loss are
clearly problems that need special attention.
However, in some regions the high levels
of landscape connectivity caused by the
conflict have sustained a variety of species
in an anthropogenically accelerated beta

2 NATURE ECOLOGY & EVOLUTION 1, 0102 (2017) | DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0102 | www.nature.com/natecolevol

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diversity turnover 2,14,16. The contribution of
spatial and temporal changes of post-conflict
forests in shaping local species assemblages
could therefore catalyse a transition to
biodiversity-friendly rural development.
The great diversity of habitats and forests
are critical resources for the sustainable
provision of ecosystem services and
benefits to society. Therefore, the inclusion
of biodiversity in land-use and rural
development plans should not be limited
to the preservation of large ‘no go’ areas; it
should also be considered in designing a
dynamic ecological–economic equilibrium,
in which nature has a significant role in
the peace-building process (Fig. 1). In
fact, large and small private landholders
have established protected areas on their
properties to secure the provision of water 17.
Such areas function as refuges and bio-
environmental pathways, and play a crucial
role in mitigating floods, droughts and
other hydro-climatic disturbances, which
are likely to be more intense and frequent
with climate change5. The provision of tax
and other economic incentives could help
to encourage private investors to protect
forests as bio-environmental corridors in
their landholdings.
Colombian attempts to save its vast and
unique biodiversity while accomplishing
goals of sustainability after five decades of
armed conflict will require considerable
efforts to access on-the-ground information
and field-based evidence. Despite
contributions by many sectors, including
governmental and non-governmental
institutions and experts, reliable information
about biodiversity and ecosystem services
trends remains elusive4,14,16,17. Although
promote indiscriminate intensive high-
input agricultural production or poorly
designed local development strategies.
Natural and restored/rehabilitated
landscapes, mostly those dominated by
forest, represent a great opportunity to shift
from unsustainable management practices
of the past into a green economy based on
low-emissions land/resource use systems.
During the war, incentives for forestry
were not an option, and related policies
were weakened. Now, these incentives can
be upgraded so they bring true benefits to
people and biodiversity. For instance, agro-
silvoforestry (or land-use practices that
combine agroforestry and the production
of domesticated animals) have proven to
be sustainable practices during the past
decades, and are being rapidly adopted in
cacao, coffee and fruit production systems,
and even within the palm oil and sugar cane
industry for biofuels3. Promoting forest-
friendly land-use systems in the production
of global commodities is the best peace-
building strategy that Colombia can bring
to the world in light of its international
commitments. It is important we support
this major endeavour. ❐ 9. Idrobo, N., Mejía, D. & Tribin, A. M.
Brigitte Baptiste, Germán I. Andrade,
Lina M. Estupiñán-Suárez and Maria C. Londoño
are at the Instituto de Investigación de Recursos
Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Calle 28A
no. 15-09 PBX: 3202767, Bogotá DC, Colombia.
Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez and Tien Ming Lee are at
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede. Bogor Barat 16115,
Indonesia. M.P.-V. is also at International Research
Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Columbia
University Lamont Campus. 61 Route 9W, Monell
University 1115 W. Polett Walk, 308 Gladfelter
Hall Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, USA.
Pablo Vieira is in the Facultad de Administración,
Universidad de los Andes Calle 21 No. 1-20. PBX:
2014-1, Bogotá, Colombia and was the former
deputy minister at the Ministry of Environment
and Sustainable Development, Colombia.
William Laurance is at the Center for Tropical
Environmental and Sustainability Science Building
A2, Room 110, Cairns Campus James Cook
University. Macgregor Road Smithfield, Queensland
4878, Australia. T.M.L. is also in the School of Life
Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University 135 Xinggang West
Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510275, China.
e-mail: map57@columbia.edu
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species extinction in conflict areas has not Building Palisades, New York 10964-1000, USA.
been documented, extinctions are likely Victor H. Gutierrez-Velez is in the Department Competing interests
to increase in post-conflict situations that of Geography and Urban Studies, Temple The authors declare no competing financial interests.

NATURE ECOLOGY & EVOLUTION 1, 0102 (2017) | DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0102 | www.nature.com/natecolevol 3

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