From Muscle Forces to Joint Moments 267 268 Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscles
the iliotibial tract contributes to a passive
  From the Literature  ■  ■  ■
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contribution of the Windlass mechanism
to Gait mechanics
Source: Caravaggi, P., T. Pataky, J.Y. Goulermas, R. Savage, and R. Cromp-
ton. 2009. A dynamic model of the windlass mechanism of the foot: Evi-
dence for early stance phase preloading of the plantar aponeurosis. J Exp
Biol 212(Pt 15):2491-2499
The authors estimated the temporal elongation of the plantar aponeu-
rosis during normal walking using a subject-specific multisegment
rigid-body model of the foot. Reflective markers were attached to bony
landmarks to track the kinematics of the calcaneus, metatarsus, and
toes during barefoot walking. Ultrasonography measurements were
performed on three subjects to determine (a) the location of the origin
of the plantar aponeurosis on the plantar aspect of the calcaneus and
(b) the radii of the metatarsal heads. The results show that the plantar
aponeurosis experienced tension significantly above rest during early
stance phase in all subjects (p < .01), thus providing support for a
hypothesis that the plantar aponeurosis is actively preloaded prior to
forefoot contact. The mean maximum tension exerted by the plantar
aponeurosis was 1.5 time body weight over the three subjects.
Plantar fascia assists in storing and release of strain energy during land-
ings and subsequent takeoffs. For instance, total energy storage by the foot
for a 79 kg man running at 4.5 m/s was estimated at 17 J. Removal of plantar
fascia reduced the energy recoil by approximately 15%.
5.2.3.2 Fascia Lata and Iliotibial Tract
Representative publications: Evans 1979; Benjamin 2009
The fascia lata is a deep fascia of the thigh that forms an ectoskeleton for
thigh muscles. It is thicker on the lateral aspect of the leg. This thickening
is called the iliotibial tract. The iliotibial tract is also a tendon of tensor
fascia latae muscle and gluteus maximus (figure 5.7).
The iliotibial tract is stretched in a standing person. It is shortest when
the knee is fully flexed and the hip maximally abducted. Because of its
location with respect to the hip and knee joints and its tensile strength,
abduction moment with respect to the hip
and knee during activities like walking and
standing. The contribution of this passive
moment to the total hip abduction moment
during standing is estimated at about 40%,
and the contribution is much higher when
the pelvis is tilted in the frontal plane,
thereby increasing iliotibial tract stretch. At
the knee the iliotibial tract maintains stabil-
ity of the lateral compartment of the joint
and contributes to an extension moment at
the knee.
Examine the supporting function of fascia
lata and the iliotibial tract on yourself. Stand
and shift your weight to one leg such that the
pelvis drops on the non–weight-bearing side.
Try to relax muscles on the weight-bearing
leg and palpate the lateral aspect of your
thigh by the ipsilateral hand. This tension
is caused by fascia stretch in this leg posi-
tion, and if you are able to completely relax Figure 5.7 The iliotibial
E4720/Zatsiorsky/Fig5.7/402671/alw/pulled-R1
your leg muscles, the body support in the tract.
frontal plane will be provided mostly by the
fascia.
5.3 muscle momenT arms
This section introduces the notion of a muscle moment arm, the geometric
characteristic of a muscle that determines the transformation from a muscle
force to a muscle moment of force. Essentially, the moment arm is a coef-
ficient in the following equation: Moment of Force = Force × Moment Arm.
The basic mechanics of moments (described in section 1.1.1.2 of Kinetics
of Human Motion) is valid but measurement of muscle moment arms is
nontrivial, requiring sophisticated techniques.
We start by defining muscle moment arm vectors (section 5.3.1) and then
discuss methods used to determine muscle moment arms (section 5.3.2).
Finally, we consider factors that affect the magnitude of muscle moment
arms in human joints (section 5.3.3).
 From Muscle Forces to Joint Moments 269
5.3.1 muscle moment arm Vectors and Their components
Representative publications: Dostal and Andrews 1981; Wood et al.
1989a, 1989b; Pandy 1999
5.3.1.1 Moment Arms as Vectors
As defined in section 1.1.1.2 of Kinetics of Human Motion (equation 1.8),
the moment of force about a point O is a vector mO obtained as a cross-
product of vectors r and F, where r is the position vector from O to any
point along the line of force F:
mO = r × F. [5.1]
The magnitude of moment is MO = F(rsinθ) = Fd, where θ is the angle
between vectors r and F and d is the moment arm, the shortest distance
from the O to the line of action of F. Equation 5.1 can be represented in a
slightly different form, as a product of the muscle force magnitude and the
moment arm vector d:
mO = r × F = r × Fu = F(r × u) = Fd, [5.2]
where u is a unit vector along the line of force action (figure 5.8). The
moment arm vector d equals the moment per unit of force. The moment arm
vector is also called the normalized moment vector. Note that in equation
5.2, muscle force F acts on a bone forming the joint.
When defined for a muscle, the cross-product
d = (r × u) [5.3]
is the muscle moment arm vector. The magnitude d of the muscle moment
arm vector d is equal to the perpendicular distance from the joint center
(point O) to the line of muscle force action, or the shortest distance between
the muscle force line of action and point O (figure 5.8), that is, rsinθ,
where r is the magnitude of vector r and θ is the angle between vectors
r and u.
A concept of the moment arm vector is not generally used in classical
mechanics, where moment arms are commonly treated not as vectors but
as line segments. The concept was introduced in biomechanics because
denoting a moment of muscle force as a product of the force magnitude
F and a vector d is a convenient notation that represents the essence of
muscle moment production. The moment arm vector d depends on human
anatomy and for a given joint position cannot be voluntarily changed.
270 Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscles
The direction of the muscle
moment arm vector is the same
as the direction of the moment
of force mO and can be defined
by the right-hand rule—when the
right-hand fingers are curling from
vector r to vector F, the extended
thumb shows the direction of the
moment of force vector and the
muscle moment arm vector. The Figure 5.8 The definition of the muscle
vector is along the moment axis; moment E4720/Zatsiorsky/Fig5.8/402672/alw/pulled-R1
arm vector d (the moment per
if F were the only force acting on unit of muscle force). Muscle force F (not
the body, the body would rotate shown in the figure) is applied at point P
about this axis. Note (this is impor- and acts along the line prescribed by unit
vector u. The moment arm vector is cal-
tant!) that by definition the muscle culated as d = r × u, where r is a vector
moment arm vector d is not along from the joint center O to any point along
the moment arm d shown in figure the line of muscle force action. The direc-
5.8. As follows from equation 5.2, tion of d is orthogonal to the plane Q in
if a moment arm vector d is known, which vectors r and u are located. d is the
muscle moment arm, that is, the perpen-
the moment of force can be found dicular distance from the joint center O to
by multiplying d by the muscle the line of muscle force action. d is a line
force magnitude F. As already segment (not a vector). Its length equals
mentioned, the magnitude of the the magnitude of d. Vector d and line seg-
moment arm vector is numerically ment d are orthogonal. The vector d is
equal to the moment of force pro- along the moment axis, the same axis as
the vector of moment of force F. The axis
duced by a force of unit magnitude. is not specified in advance; its orientation
As an example, consider the is the consequence of the r and u spatial
humerus and scapula, which form arrangements. Compare this figure with
a two-link kinematic chain con- figure 1.3 in Kinetics of Human Motion.
nected at the glenohumeral joint
and to which several muscles attach including teres major (figure 5.9). We
shall assume that a muscle path can be represented by a straight line (such
models are described in section 1.6.1), and we shall use the classic methods
of vector analysis.
In the reference system XYZ specified by the unit vectors i, j, and k, the
coordinates of the points A and B are (Ax, Ay, Az) and (Bx, By, Bz), respectively.
To avoid clutter, point coordinates and unit vectors are not depicted in the
figure. The vectors rA and rB are then equal:
rA = Axi + Ayj + Azk
rB = Bxi + Byj + Bzk. [5.4]
 From Muscle Forces to Joint Moments 271
E4720/Zatsiorsky/Fig5.9/402673/alw/pulled-R2
Figure 5.9 Definition of the moment arm vector d and its scalar components
dx, dy, and dz. The glenohumeral joint is formed by the humerus and scapula and
shown with several muscles crossing the joint including the teres major muscle
(TM). The origin of the orthogonal coordinate system O is located at the joint
center, and the coordinate axes X, Y, and Z correspond to anatomical axes of rota-
tion at the joint. The long dashed line passing through the midpoints of origin and
insertion of the muscle is a linear approximation of the line of action of the TM
muscle. The direction of the line is defined by the unit vector u (equation 5.2).
The TM force vector is F = Fu. The position vectors rA and rB are directed from
the joint center O to the midpoint of TM insertion area (the point of TM force ap-
plication) and to the midpoint of TM origin, respectively. d is the muscle moment
arm vector; dx, dy, and dz are its scalar components that specify the relative turning
effects of a unit TM force on the humerus with respect to the corresponding axes
of rotation at the joint. Note that d (the perpendicular distance from the line of
muscle force action to joint center O) is a scalar.
The muscle force vector F equals Fu, where F is the magnitude of F and
u is the unit vector. Vector u specifying direction from A to B can be found
from the difference between the vectors rB and rA:
r −r
u= B A , [5.5]
rB − rA
where the vertical lines in the denominator signify vector magnitude. If
B and A are the points of muscle origin and insertion and the straight line
model of muscle path is accepted, vector u specifies the line of force action
272 Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscles
of the muscle of interest. Because r is known (r corresponds to rA in figure
5.9), equation 5.3 is used to determine d.
Assuming that the force and the speed of muscle shortening do not
change, increasing the muscle moment arm (e.g., because of a tendon trans-
fer) will increase the joint moment and decrease the joint angular velocity.
The proof of this statement is left to the reader.
5.3.1.2 Muscle Moment Arms About Rotation Axes
Representative publications: Rugg et al. 1990; Nakajima et al. 1999;
Ackland et al. 2008
Equations 5.1 and 5.2 define the moment of muscle force about a point,
for example, a joint center (if such a center exists; see chapter 4 on joint
geometry and joint kinematics in Kinematics of Human Motion). The
moments represent the tendency to cause rotation, and rotations are
performed about axes. Therefore, in practice the topic of interest is the
moment of muscle force about a predefined rotation axis. This axis (axes)
can be the same as the axis of the muscle moment or can be different. In
the former case, (a) the task is planar, (b) the bone movement is in the
plane of muscle line of action, (c) the axis of rotation is orthogonal to
the muscle line of action, and (d) the muscle moment arm vector is along
the joint axis of rotation. The moment magnitude equals Fd, where the
symbols are explained previously.
In three dimensions a muscle could generate a moment about an axis
that is different from the axis (axes) of interest (e.g., the flexion–extension
axis or an instantaneous rotation axis). The moment of force Moo about an
axis O-O equals a component of moment mO along this axis (the mechan-
ics are explained in section 1.1.1.2.2 in Kinetics of Human Motion). Note
that Moo is a scalar whereas mO is a vector; it has both magnitude and
direction. The same is valid for the muscle moment arm vector d and the
moment arm about a predefined axis, for example, moment arm dx about
axis X. Because the moment mO and the vector d are along the same axis,
the results of the vector’s decomposition will be similar.
The muscle moment vector can be defined for the instantaneous joint
axis of rotation. According to Chasles’ theorem (see section 1.2.5.3 in
Kinematics of Human Motion), any rigid-body motion (e.g., a motion of
bone A with respect to bone B at a joint) can be obtained as the rotation
around an axis (e.g., instantaneous axis of bone rotation), called the screw
or helical axis, and a translation parallel to this axis. To determine the
turning effect of the muscle force applied to the bone with respect to the
 From Muscle Forces to Joint Moments 273
instantaneous axis of bone rotation, the translation of the bone along that
axis typically is not considered. The turning effect of muscle force on the
bone with respect to the axis around which the bone instantly rotates is
characterized by the moment of force about the axis:
Moo = uoo ⋅ Fd = uoo ⋅ (r × F) = uoo ⋅ (r × Fu), [5.6]
where Moo is the moment of muscle force about the instantaneous axis of
bone rotation specified by the unit vector uoo; F is the vector of muscle
force; F is the magnitude of the vector of muscle force applied to the
bone whose direction is defined by the unit vector u; and r is the position
vector from any point on the axis of rotation to any point on the line of
muscle force action. Equation 5.6 is a mixed triple product of the three
vectors: uoo, r, and F (this is essentially equation 1.23 from Kinetics of
Human Motion).
The projection doo of muscle moment arm vector on axis O-O can be
defined as the moment per unit of muscle force that causes rotation of the
bone about the instantaneous axis of rotation:
M oo
d oo = = u oo⋅ (r × u) = u oo⋅ d. [5.7]
F Achilles tendon by 3.1% and the tibialis anterior by 2.5%. For both
As can be seen from equation 5.7, the magnitude of the muscle moment
arm about axis O-O is equal to the projection of the vector d = r × u
onto the instantaneous axis of rotation uoo. The magnitude of the moment
arm also equals the perpendicular, or shortest, distance d between the
axis of rotation, specified by uoo, and the line of muscle force action,
specified by u, multiplied by the sine of the angle ϕ between the two
lines:
d sin φ = u oo⋅ (r × u) . [5.8]
When the line of muscle force action is along the axis of rotation, sinϕ
= 0 and the force does not produce any moment about this axis. When
uoo and u are at a right angle to each other, sinϕ = 1 and the moment is
maximal.
At the joints, three situations can be discerned: (a) the orientation of
the instantaneous axis is changed during a joint motion but the axis still
intersects the same center, a fixed joint center; bone B rotates but does
not translate about bone A; (b) bone B moves—rotates and translates—in
a plane, the instant center of rotation migrates, but the orientation of the
instant axis of rotation does not change; and (c) both rotation and transla-
tion occur in three dimensions.
274 Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscles
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moment arms of the achilles Tendon and Tibialis
anterior are approximately similar for the Fixed
and instant centers of rotation
Source: Rugg, S.G., R.J. Gregor, B.R. Mandelbaum, and L. Chiu. 1990. In
vivo moment arm calculations at the ankle using magnetic resonance imag-
ing (MRI). J Biomech 23(5):495-501
In this study the authors measured in vivo moment arms of the Achilles
tendon and tibialis anterior muscles in 10 adult male subjects using a
series of sagittal plane magnetic resonance images. The moment arm
was defined as the shortest distance between the joint center of rotation
and the center of the muscle’s tendon. The position of the center of
rotation for a given joint angle was determined using a modification
of the graphic method of Reuleaux. The assumption of the fixed center
of rotation at the ankle increases the measured moment arm of the
fixed and instantaneous centers of rotation, moment arms increased
by approximately 20% for the Achilles tendon and decreased by
approximately 30% for the tibialis anterior when the ankle moved
from maximum dorsiflexion to maximum plantar flexion. The authors
concluded that the averaged moment arm lengths for the Achilles
tendon and the tibialis anterior were relatively unaffected by the use
of a fixed versus moving center of rotation.
5.3.1.3 Muscle Moment Arms About Anatomical Axes: Muscle
Functions at a Joint
Representative publications: Youm et al. 1976; Dostal et al. 1986
Determining vector d components along the anatomical axes (i.e., the flex-
ion–extension, abduction–adduction, and internal–external rotation axes)
is done using the same equations as for the helical axes, equations 5.4 to
5.6; this allows us to classify the muscles according to their functions, for
example, as flexors or extensors. Strictly speaking, any muscle generates
a moment of force at a joint about only one axis. So, it can be said that a
muscle has only one function. The muscle moment axis, however, does
not coincide typically with anatomical axes, the axes that are selected by
anatomists to describe joint movements. Hence, the muscle functions are