International Thinkers

Greek philosophers
Democritus: bastard (sensory data) and legitimate (by analysing sensory data)
knowledge

recognised pleasure as a common pursuit, brave is he who overcomes his

pleasures (Buddha?)

Socrates: introspection, Socratic examination of a problem

I know that I know nothing

Socratic dying: willing to die for one's cause, chose death for spreading
rationality and curiosity among youth ("polluting" them)

philosopher king: everybody pursuing self-interest in democracy → ruler can be

unworthy, authoritarian; better have philosopher king

the unexamined life is not worth living

Plato: teleological philosophy, just war

cardinal virtues: wisdom, temperance, justice, fortitude

One of the penalties for refusing to participate in governance is

to be governed by one's inferiors

Aristotle: virtues as golden mean (Madhyamika marga?)

eg: rashness, courage, fear; underconfidence, confidence, hubris

should possess both intellectual and moral virtues to be successful

We make war so we can live in peace

Stoicism (similarity to Buddhism): inner peace, mastery over desires and emotions

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 path of happiness found by accepting what life has given us, instead of blaming
externalities for our situation

clear, unbiased and self-disciplined thinker can read 'logos' of the universe;
unhappiness and evil are results of ignorance of universe's logos

4 cardinal virtues: prudence (wisdom), temperance, justice, fortitude/courage

Political thinkers
Voltaire: critiqued French society and govt

I may not agree with what you have to say, but I shall defend to
my death your right to say it

Montasque: separation of powers, system of checks and balances (adopted by US

Constitution and later others)

Rousseau: liberty, equality, fraternity

social contract: people pooled together some of their freedom and accepted
authority of a state; but in practice, a flawed state with higher influence for the
rich and powerful

Thomas Hobbes: social contract to avoid chaos and violence (upward delegation
of powers)

central authority should control civil, military, judicial and religious powers
(context: British civil war)

minimise anarchy, allow humans to socialise

but states become leviathan; seek to control too many aspects of human life

laws vs ethics: primary laws >> secondary laws

laws can be moral (atrocities, PCA, EPA), amoral (tax laws), immoral
(habitual offenders act, gambling laws)

Machiavelli (influential and notorious The Prince): techniques to achieve political

influence without considering moral implications of efforts

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 corruption inevitable; vices and virtues shouldn't be chased by themselves, but
merely as means

interests of state take priority over that of individual; every action should be
viewed in terms of its end and not the means to achieve it

human nature: usually happy, admire honesty and courage in others (but
usually lack them themselves)

affectionate and benevolent in times of prosperity; deceitful and cunning in

hard times

ambition found in those who have achieved some power; most people
happy with the status quo however

leadership traits: being loved or feared (not hated), having people's support,
convincingly displaying virtues, using one's own arms, intelligence

Weber: efficient bureaucracy: absolute neutrality

John Locke: universal rights available to all; separation of powers (religion outside
civil domain, should be Church's influence)

social contract: progressive interpretation (contract to maximize happiness, not

to escape anarchy)

Social thinkers
Rawl: distributive justice

when determining distribution of wealth, we should be unaware of what class

we are born in (thinking under veil of ignorance) → fair determination (synergy
with Sarvodaya?)

rational thinking, and not morality key to determining distribution of wealth

Thomas Aquinas: 4 cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, justice, fortitude)

applicable in all cases, teleological approach

conditions for just war: for just cause and not wealth accumulation, via a
central authority like state, pursuit of peace even amidst war

religion among the most important sources of ethics

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 types of laws: universal/eternal laws, divine laws, natural laws, human laws

Jean Paul Sartre: people always have a choice ⇒ responsible for their actions
Rene Descartes:

refused to accept authority of previous philosophers, developed own philosophy

by starting from scratch and accepting observations with evidence beyond
doubt

moral code for living: take decisions and stick to them,

obey customs and rules of the country and religion and avoid extreme
steps, try to change oneself instead of world

analyse all occupations and decide what to pursue

A state is better governed if it has few laws, and those are

strictly enforced

I think, therefore I am

Karl Marx: historic materialism, economic determinism, class struggle, revolution to

overthrow bourgeoisie

intellectual base for communism

Friedrich Nietzsche: criticised prevailing philosophies (utilitarianism, Kantianism,

Christianity)

Christianity needs reforms: weak are suppressing artistic creativity and will to
power of the masses

secularisation, progressive science and technology ⇒ reducing influence of

religion

God is dead, and we have killed him

individualism: in the vacuum, one must live uninhibited, achieve fullest potential,
values and truths to be determined by the individual

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 Deontological, teleological
utilitarianism:

JS Mill: pleasure desirable; higher the faculties exercised, higher the pleasure
attained

Bentham: utilitarianism

deontological:

Kant: freedom in decision-making pre-requisite for moral judgement

rationality is fountain-head of morality; all people are rational

some moral orders are categorial imperatives: must be obeyed no matter

what (eg: kindness, non-violence)

moral duty: one is dutybound to do the right thing (not by choice)

universalism of action: one should act as if his action will become universal
norm

Chinese philosophers
Taoism: balance in nature (yin yang)

diversity is a resource, not a hindrance (like a large orchestra playing together

to produce a melodious symphony)

Confucius: philosophy to arrest fall of Chinese society after Zhou components of

philosophy:

Jen (supreme goodness of character, integrity, empathy etc)

traits of leader: charisma, virtues, discipline, honor

arts of peace: creative aspect of society → makes culture sustainable

a mature person: one who is comfortable with himself and his surroundings,
acts confidently

the way things should be done (everything has its place): when you find
yourself feeling out of place, need to reassess situation, seek advice from
elders

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 stressed that knowledge is infinite, learning never stops

should love others and respect elders, while exercising self-discipline

Maslov's needs
L1: basic needs of food, shelter, clothing

L2: security, safety

L3: love, intimacy, sense of belonging

L4: ego satisfaction, prestige, sense of accomplishment

L5: achieving one's full potential (self-actualisation)

Social contract

Thomas Hobbes John Locke

original state of nature: anarchy, original state of nature: happiness, love; but threatened by
chaos → need for state to bring those seeking to spread violence and hatred → need for state
law and order to safeguard happiness

state supreme; can do no wrong individual rights are important

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