MA300 & MA400

TOPIC NOTES
CONTENTS
1) Probability
2) Surds, Indices and Logarithms
3) Inequalities
4) Discriminant and Roots
5) Polynomials and Partial Fractions
6) Trigonometry Part I: Further Trigonometry and Practical Applications
7) Circular Measure
8) Geometrical Properties of Circles
9) Plane Geometry
10) Calculus Part I: Differentiation & Applications of Differentiation
11) Calculus Part II: Integration & Applications of Integration
12) Trigonometry Part II: Further Trigonometric Identities
13) Modulus Function
14) Functions and Curves (+ Completing the Square)
15) Linear Law
16) Binomial Theorem
17) Kinematics
18) Matrices

2
PROBABILITY

• 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸)
Layman terms: the probability of an event not happening is equal to 1 minus the probability
of that event happening. Usually used when probability of an event not happening is too
tedious to calculate directly, and the probability of it happening is known.

• In general:
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) — (1)

• Features of mutually exclusive events 𝐴 and 𝐵:

- 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0 — (2)
Layman terms: They have no intersection/they cannot both occur.

- 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) [sub. (2) into (1)]

Layman terms: Their union is equal to their sum without needing to subtract anything.

• Features of independent events 𝐴 and 𝐵:

- 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵)
Layman terms: The probability of both occurring is equal to the product of each event
occurring.

- One event occurring (or not) does not affect whether the other will occur (or not), e.g.
probability of drawing a ball from a bag of red and blue balls, putting the ball back, then
drawing another ball.
Note that 𝑛(𝐸) ≠ 𝑃(𝐸). “𝑛(𝐸)” indicates the number of elements fulfilling the condition 𝐸, while
“𝑃(𝐸)” indicates the probability of fulfilling the condition 𝐸 — for example, “𝑛(students studying
Biology)” indicates the number of students studying Biology; “𝑃(students studying Biology)”
indicates the probability of a student studying Biology from, say, a group of students.
Miscellaneous reminders

• When dealing with questions that require proof that 2 events are/aren’t mutually
exclusive/independent, do not do the following:
For example, given 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.45, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.6 and 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.28, prove that events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
not independent.
For independent events, 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵).
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.45 × 0.6
= 0.27
≠ 0.28
∴ 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not independent.

The error in the above logic is that there is initial assumption of 𝐴 and 𝐵 already known to be
independent, which may/may not be true. Therefore, stating that 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) right
away is fallacious and may be misleading when/if it turns out to be false. Instead, the following
should be done:

3
 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.45 × 0.6
= 0.27
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.28 ≠ 0.27
Since 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ≠ 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵), 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not independent.

• For questions that have context, when in doubt, draw out a tree diagram and label the
corresponding probabilities.

4
SURDS, INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
1. Surds
There is not much about surds, really. Except for 2 things:

• √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎√𝑏
• To rationalise, multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the surd. For
𝑐
example, to rationalise 𝑎+√𝑏 :
𝑐 𝑎 − √𝑏 𝑐(𝑎 − √𝑏)
× =
𝑎 + √𝑏 𝑎 − √𝑏 𝑎2 − 𝑏

Doing this removes the surds from the denominator, making the expression easier to
manipulate.

2. Indices
Basic laws:

• 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
• 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
• (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
• 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚
𝑎 𝑚
• 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑏 )
𝑞 1
𝑝
• 𝑎𝑝 = (𝑎𝑞 )𝑝 = √𝑎𝑞
• 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 ⇔ 𝑚 = 𝑛
3. Logarithms
Basic laws:

• Power Law:
log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑥

Note that the power law only applies when the entire base of the argument is raised to the
power, i.e. log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 𝑝 ≠ 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦, since the power 𝑝 only applies to 𝑦 and not 𝑥𝑦.

• Product Law:
log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦

• Quotient Law:
𝑥
log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦
𝑦

• Change-of-base Law:
log 𝑐 𝑏
log 𝑎 𝑏 = ,
log 𝑐 𝑎
where 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑐 ≠ 1.

• log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦

5
4. Solving exponential and logarithmic (simultaneous) equations
There is an important relationship that is often used when solving exponential and logarithmic
simultaneous equations:
log 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⇔ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏

Techniques to solve exponential and logarithmic equations:

• When there are different bases in logarithmic expressions, applying the change-of-base law is
usually a good start.
• When the bases in exponential/logarithmic expressions are the same, you could try combining
all the terms and apply the last law under indices and logarithms.
• Substitution may work when solving quadratic equations involving indices (see below).
• *Remember to substitute answers back into original equations to check if any solutions
should be rejected due to invalidity.
• Check with calculator.
Things to note:
- Bases of logarithms must be positive and cannot equal 1
- Arguments of logarithms must be positive
- There are no solutions for 𝑥 to equations like 𝑎 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏, where 𝑏 < 0.
- When performing substitutions (say, solving 9𝑥 − 3𝑥+1 = 0 and letting 𝑢 = 3𝑥 ), beware:

𝑢2 − 3𝑢 = 0
𝑢 = 3 or 𝑢 = 0
(DO NOT REJECT 𝒖 = 𝟎 AT THIS STEP)

3𝑥 = 3 or 3𝑥 = 0 (rej. )
(ONLY REJECT AT THIS STEP)

∴𝑥=1

6
INEQUALITIES
1. Solving quadratic inequalities

Take −𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 > 0 for example.

Step 0: Ensure coefficient of 𝑥 2 is positive. (Skip this step if you’re fine with drawing ∩-shaped
graphs)

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 < 0
(multiply by −1; remember to swap inequality sign)
Step 2: Factorise expression.
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) < 0

Step 3: Sketch ∪-shaped graph. Label 𝑥-intercepts. (or ∩-shaped graph is step 0 is skipped)

Step 4: Find range of 𝑥 that fulfils the inequality. Check whether question asks for > or ≥.
In this case, 2 < 𝑥 < 3.
2. Solving simultaneous inequalities
Generally, solve the inequalities separately, then combine the results in the final step.

Take −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 < 3𝑥 < 15 − 7𝑥 2 for example.

Step 1: Split inequality with “and”. Solve individual inequalities.

−𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 < 3𝑥 and 3𝑥 < 15 − 7𝑥 2

−𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 < 0 and 7𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 15 < 0

−3−√423 −3+√423
𝑥 < 0 or 𝑥 > 3 and 14
<𝑥< 14

Step 2: Use number line to combine solutions. “And” implies finding common solutions, “or”
implies finding all possible solutions.

−3−√423 −3+√423
∴ 14
< 𝑥 < 0 14
3

7
3. Miscellaneous reminders

• When dealing with ln 𝑥 < 0, remember that 𝑥 > 0.

• Substitute solutions back into original equations to eliminate invalid solutions.
• When sketching number line, use “ ” when representing < or >, and use “ ” when
representing ≤ or ≥.
• Whenever unsure, sketch the graph of the expression at hand.
• When dealing with inequalities like (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) < 0, note that 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑥 − 𝑏 < 0.

8
DISCRIMINANT AND ROOTS
1. Discriminant

For any quadratic equation*, say, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, without calculating the actual roots, we can
determine the nature of the roots by finding the discriminant (henceforth denoted ∆): 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. This
is because according to the quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝑥= ,
2𝑎
we observe that there can be 3 cases:
1) If ∆ < 0, then we know that there will be no real values of 𝒙, because the formula would be taking
the square root of a negative number;
2) If ∆ = 0, then we know that there is only 1 real value of 𝒙 since we would be taking the square
root of 0;
3) If ∆ > 0, then we know that there will be 2 distinct real roots of 𝒙, because taking the square root
of a positive number yields 2 real values.
Graphically:
1) For ∆ < 0, since there are no real roots, the graph will either be ∪-shaped and above the 𝑥-axis (if
𝑎 > 0), or it will be ∩-shaped and below the 𝑥-axis (if 𝑎 < 0). Either way, the graph does not cross
the 𝑥-axis;
2) For ∆ = 0, since there is only 1 real root, the graph will touch the 𝑥-axis at one point and one point
only;
3) For ∆ > 0, since there are 2 distinct real roots, the graph will cross the 𝑥-axis twice.
To find if 2 graphs (with at least one of them being a quadratic) will intersect, simply equate the 2
equations and calculate the discriminant.
2. Roots

For a quadratic equation, say, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, let the roots be 𝛼 and 𝛽. We know that:
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎
𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 = −
𝑎
Questions typically involve finding the quadratic equation with roots of a certain variation of 𝛼 and 𝛽.
For example:
1 1
Let the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0 be 𝛼 and 𝛽. Find the equation with roots 𝛼
and 𝛽
.

Step 1: Determine sum and product of roots of original equation.

−5
𝛼𝛽 = = −5
1
(−2)
𝛼+𝛽 = − =2
1

9
Step 2: Determine the sum and product of the roots of the new equation. Express them in terms of 𝛼𝛽
and (𝛼 + 𝛽) then substitute in the known values to obtain the new equation.
1 1 𝛼+𝛽 2
+ = =−
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 5
1 1 1 1
× = =−
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 5
Hence, the new equation is:
2 1
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − = 0
5 5
Or equivalently,

5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0

*Note: The terms “equations” and “expressions” are not interchangeable — “equations”, of course,
equate an expression with another, say, 2 + 4 = 6, i.e. an equal sign must be present somewhere. On
the other hand, “expressions” do not have equal signs anywhere — they are like standalone
mathematical “phrases” by themselves.

10
CALCULUS PART I: DIFFERENTIATION & APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
1. Differentiation techniques

• Power rule:

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Layman terms: reduce power by 1, then multiply by original power.

• Sum and difference rules:

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] ± [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• Chain rule:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: differentiate from outside to inside.

𝑑
E.g. 𝑑𝑥
[sin(3𝑥 2 + 4)]. Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 + 4.

By chain rule,

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[sin(3𝑥 2 + 4)] = (sin 𝑢) × (3𝑥 2 + 4) = cos 𝑢 × 6𝑥 = 6𝑥 cos(3𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: differentiate sine function first, then differentiate “inside” — 3𝑥 2 + 4.

• Product rule:

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑣) = (𝑢 ∙ ) + (𝑣 ∙ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: (copy 𝑢, differentiate 𝑣) + (copy 𝑣, differentiate 𝑢)

• Quotient rule:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 (𝑣 ∙ ) − (𝑢 ∙ )
( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

Layman terms: (copy 𝑣, differentiate 𝑢) – (copy 𝑢, differentiate 𝑣). Divide through by 𝑣 2 .

11
 • 6 trigonometric derivatives:

𝒇(𝜽) 𝒇′(𝜽)
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃
cot 𝜃 − cosec 2 𝜃
sec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
cosec 𝜃 −cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃

*Last 2 derivatives are in formula list.

*Functions that start with “c” (i.e. cosine, cosecant, cotangent) have derivatives with negative
sign.

• Logarithmic derivative:
𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥)
[ln 𝑓(𝑥)] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

Layman terms: copy 𝑓(𝑥) on bottom, add 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) on top.

• Exponential derivative:
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)
[𝑒 ] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∙ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: copy 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) , multiply by 𝑓′(𝑥).

2. Applications of differentiation
(I) Increasing and decreasing functions
Usually, the question requires you to prove that 𝑓(𝑥) is a decreasing/increasing function. Unless the
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is given, it is common to have to make use of the knowledge that:

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing;

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing.

(II) Connected rates of change

This is usually a characteristic type of question to spot. A scenario is given, along with some rate (e.g.
“volume increases at a rate of 3 cm3/s”), and it requires you to find a related rate using the one
provided. Take this for example:
𝟐𝟒 𝟏
Given that 𝒚 = 𝒙
+ 𝟐𝒙𝟐 and that 𝒙 is increasing at a rate of 𝟔
unit per second, find the rate at
which 𝒚 is changing at the instant when 𝒙 = 𝟏.
𝑑𝑥
Step 1: Form the required equation. The question gives you 𝑑𝑡
and the relationship between 𝑦 and 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

12
Step 2: Find unknown rates.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
In this case, since 𝑑𝑡
has been given, we only need to find 𝑑𝑥
, which we can easily do so given
24
𝑦= 𝑥
+ 2𝑥 2 . Hence,

𝑑𝑦 24
= 4𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Step 3: After the required rates are found, substitute in corresponding values and units. Note that for
rates that show an increase, the sign of the rate should be positive; if they show a decrease, the sign
should be negative.
At 𝑥 = 1,
𝑑𝑦 24
= 4(1) − 2 = −20 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥 1
= units/s
𝑑𝑡 6

Step 4: Evaluate what the question is asking for. Include units.

𝑑𝑦 1 10
∴ = (−20) ( ) = − units/s
𝑑𝑡 6 3

Step 5: Interpret the rate (i.e. put it into words). Include units.
𝟏𝟎
𝑦 is decreasing at a rate of 𝟑
units per second.

Sometimes, the question may require you to get rid of a variable in order to form the equation using
chain rule. To do this, express the required variable in terms of the extra variable.
𝑑𝑉
Say that chain rule requires 𝑑ℎ
, but 𝑉 = 3𝑙 2 ℎ. “𝑙” here is the extra variable we want to get rid of.
Assume you know that 𝑙 = 2ℎ. Knowing this, we can substitute this into the expression for 𝑉 to
𝑑𝑉
remove 𝑙, making it possible to find 𝑑ℎ
.

3. Stationary points, maxima and minima

There are 3 types of stationary points: maximum points, minimum points and stationary points of
inflexion. While the first 2 can be found using the 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests, stationary points of
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
inflexion cannot be found by the latter method. Note that when = 𝟎, the test is inconclusive — it
𝒅𝒙𝟐
does not necessarily indicate a stationary point of inflexion.

13
When performing 1st Derivative Test, there are 3 cases:

𝑑𝑦
Case 1: If the sign of changes from positive to negative, it is a maximum point.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Case 2: If the sign of 𝑑𝑥
changes from negative to positive, it is a minimum point.
𝑑𝑦
Case 3: If the sign of 𝑑𝑥
does not change, it is a stationary point of inflexion.

When performing 2nd Derivative Test, there are 3 cases:

𝑑2 𝑦
Case 1: If 𝑑𝑥 2
< 0, it is a maximum point.

𝑑2 𝑦
Case 2: If > 0, it is a minimum point.
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
Case 3: If 𝑑𝑥 2
= 0, the test is inconclusive.

Maxima/minima questions rely on these tests. They usually involve forming an equation, finding
which inputs produce stationary results, then testing for whether the result is a maximum or a
minimum. Using 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests on the variable that needs to be stationary, they should
be relatively straightforward.

14
CALCULUS PART II: INTEGRATION & APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
1. Integration techniques

• General Power Rule:

[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

Layman terms: increase power by 1, divide through by new power.

Likely to be used if question raises a function to a huge power. Remember that the derivative
must be present in the integral for rule to be applicable.

• General properties:
∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫[𝑎 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥,

where 𝑎 is a constant

• Logarithmic integral:
𝑓′(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)

Likely to be used if function in denominator has a power 1 higher than that in numerator.
Remember to include modulus symbol.

• Exponential integral:
∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∙ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

Likely to be used if 𝑒 is raised to some function. Remember that derivative must be present
for rule to be applicable.

• 6 trigonometric integrals:

𝒇′(𝜽) 𝒇(𝜽)
sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 + 𝑐
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
sec 2 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + 𝑐
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃 + 𝑐
− cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 + 𝑐
− cosec 2 𝜃 cot 𝜃 + 𝑐

Work backwards from trigonometric derivatives.

Common integrals:
1 1
∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4
1 1
∫ cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4

15
 ∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

∫ cot 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝑐

∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝑐

• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]. (Layman terms: “continuous” means it is possible to sketch
𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏 without lifting your pen)

𝑑 𝑏
If [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥), then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)] 𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).
𝑑𝑥

Note absence of “+𝑐”.

• Properties of definite integrals:

𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎

where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐.

*For evaluation of definite integrals, no units are attached, unless applied in context.

2. Applications of integration
Integration is typically used to find the areas under graphs. For areas, units must be included.
Typically, it is safer to sketch the graph when finding areas under the curve. In general:

𝑏
Area enclosed by 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥-axis on interval [𝑎, 𝑏] = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0,
𝑏
Area enclosed by 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥-axis on interval [𝑎, 𝑏] = |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 |, if 𝑓(𝑥) < 0,

where 𝑎 < 𝑏.
Similar method of calculation for areas enclosed by 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑦-axis.
When the required area crosses both above and below the 𝒙-axis when integrating with respect to 𝑥
(or both to the left and right of the 𝒚-axis when integrating with respect to 𝑦), it is much safer to
calculate it as separate integrals to prevent confusion regarding modulus signs.

16
Ideas for finding areas under graphs:

• Partitioning: Sometimes, it is only possible to find the required area when you consider it as 2
(or more) separate definite integrals
• Changing the variable you are integrating with respect to: e.g. if the required area is bounded
by graph and 𝑦-axis
1
• Simpler geometric observations: e.g. it’s faster to find the area of a triangle using 2 𝑏ℎ than
relying on integration
𝑏 𝑏
• Using ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 (or ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦), where 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑓(𝑦) is the upper curve
and 𝑔(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑦) is the lower curve, from 𝑎 to 𝑏
When in doubt, sketch.

17
MODULUS FUNCTION
Simply defined, |𝑥| produces the “distance” between 𝑥 and 0. More formally:
𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0
Most importantly, |𝒙| ≥ 𝟎 for all real 𝒙.
Some properties:
1) |𝑎| = |−𝑎|
2) |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎| × |𝑏|
𝑎 |𝑎|
3) For 𝑏 ≠ 0, |𝑏 | = |𝑏|

4) For any integer 𝑛 > 0, |𝑎𝑛 | = |𝑎|𝑛

Hence, in general, if |𝑎| = |𝑏|, then 𝑎 = ±𝑏.
To sketch graphs involving modulus functions, simply sketch the graph of the same equation but
without the modulus function, then reflect whatever is below the 𝑥-axis along the 𝑥-axis. Label the
axial intercepts (and turning points if working with quadratic equations).

18
FUNCTIONS AND CURVES (+ COMPLETING THE SQUARE)
1. Transformations
There are 3 main methods for performing transformations: translation, scaling and reflection. A
typical transformation typically requires 2 or more of these methods.
Take for example, transforming 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝑦 = −3𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) − 1.
Step 0: Rewrite equation to separate transformations involving 𝑦 and transformations involving 𝑥 (so
that it is easier to isolate transformations to be performed).
For example, we could rewrite the above equation as:
1 1
− 𝑦 − = 𝑓(4𝑥 + 2)
3 3
Step 2: Begin with the expression within the function. In this case, you could:

• Replace 𝑥 with (𝑥 + 2):

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2) — translation by 2 units* in the negative 𝒙-direction
• Replace 𝑥 with 4𝑥:
𝟏
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2) → 𝑦 = 𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) — scaling by a factor* of 𝟒
parallel to 𝒙-axis

Another (riskier) way to do this could be to:

• Replace 𝑥 with 4𝑥:

𝟏
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑦 = 𝑓(4𝑥) — scaling by a factor of 𝟒
parallel to 𝒙-axis
1
• Replace 𝑥 with (𝑥 + 2
):
1 𝟏
𝑦 = 𝑓(4𝑥) → 𝑦 = 𝑓 [4 (𝑥 + 2)] = 𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) — translation by 𝟐
unit in the negative 𝒙-
direction

2 things to note:
1) There is a difference between the terms “unit” and “factor” — “unit” is used when performing
translations, “factor” is used when scaling.
2) It is generally safer to perform translations before scaling. As seen above, there is an extra
consideration involved if you perform scaling before translations: the number of units the graph is
translated by is also affected by the scaling factor.
Step 2: Perform transformations affecting 𝑦.
You could:
1
• Replace 𝑦 with (𝑦 − ):
3
1 𝟏
𝑦 − 3 = 𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) — translation by 𝟑
unit in the positive 𝒚-direction
1
• Replace 𝑦 with 𝑦:
3
1 1
3
𝑦 − 3 = 𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) — scaling by a factor of 3 parallel to 𝒚-axis

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 • Replace 𝑦 with −𝑦:
1 1
− 3 𝑦 − 3 = 𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) — reflection about the 𝒙-axis

From here, we can rearrange the equation to obtain our original equation:
𝑦 = −3𝑓(4𝑥 + 2) − 1

2. Circles
General equation of a circle:
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 ,

where (ℎ, 𝑘) are the coordinates of the centre and 𝑟 is the radius.
However, most questions do not provide the equation is such a form and requires you to find (i) the
coordinates of the centre, and (ii) the radius. To do so, we need to complete the square in order to
rearrange the given equation into the form which we can use.
(I) Completing the square
Say we have a quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, for example, 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5, and we wish to
express it in the form (𝑥 + 𝑝)2 + 𝑞.
Step 1: Divide through by 𝑎. We have:
5
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 +
2
𝑏 2 𝑏 2
Step 2: Add (2𝑎) and subtract (2𝑎) . We had 𝑏 = −6 and 𝑎 = 2, so:

2
−6 2 −6 2 5 9 1
{𝑥 − 3𝑥 + [ ] }−[ ] + = (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + ) +
2(2) 2(2) 2 4 4

𝑏 2
Adding (2𝑎) allowed us to form the expanded version of our to-be (𝑥 + 𝑝)2 (in green). Subtracting
𝑏 2
( ) was done to make sure we didn’t change the original expression.
2𝑎

𝑏
Step 3: Express the expanded square (whatever is in green) in the form (𝑥 + 𝑝)2 , where 𝑝 = 2𝑎 . We
obtain:

3 2 1
(𝑥 − ) +
2 4
We are done.
(II) Applying “completing the square” to circles
Say the question gives us 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐. By completing the square, we obtain:
2
𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
[𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 + ( ) ] + [𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 + ( ) ] = 𝑐 + ( ) + ( ) = (√
2 2
+ 𝑐)
2 2 2 2 4

20
 2
2
𝑎 2 𝑏 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
[𝑥 − (− )] + [𝑦 − (− )] = (√ + 𝑐)
2 2 4

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 2 +𝑏2
Therefore, the coordinates of the centre are (− , − ) and the radius is (√ + 𝑐) . Of course,
2 2 4

these are not meant to be memorised, but were included to serve as an example of how “completing
the square” can be used in relation to circles.
Miscellaneous reminders

• An important property of circles: the perpendicular bisector of a chord always passes through
the centre of the circle. For example, knowing the coordinates of the centre and the equation
of the chord, you could find the equation of the perpendicular bisector by using the fact that
the product of the gradient of perpendicular lines equals −𝟏.
• The tangent to a point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius. For example, given the
coordinates of the centre and the equation of the tangent, you could find the equation of the
radius by using the same fact as above.
• When in doubt, sketch.

21
BINOMIAL THEOREM
1. Formulae

• Number of permutations of 𝑛 elements:

𝑛! = 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) … × 3 × 2 × 1

• Number of ways to choose 𝑟 elements out of 𝑛 elements:

𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
( )= =
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!

The number of terms in the numerator of the 2nd expression is 𝑟.

• Symmetry of permutations:
𝑛 𝑛
( )=( )
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟

• Binomial theorem (given in formula list):

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑏 𝑛 ,
1 2 𝑟
where 𝑛 is a positive integer.
Some observations:
1. (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 has (𝑛 + 1) terms.
2. Along the expansion, 𝑟 increases from 1 to (𝑛 − 1), the power of 𝑎 decreases from 𝑛 to
0, and the power of 𝑏 increases from 0 to 𝑛.
3. The sum of powers of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in each term is equal to 𝑛.

• Formula for the general term:

𝑛
𝑇𝑟+1 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 ,
𝑟
for 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛

2. Application
Common questions include expanding binomial expressions in ascending/descending powers of, say,
𝑥 up to a certain number of terms, finding specific terms/constants/coefficients of terms in binomial
expansions, finding terms in the product of 2 expansions, and estimation.
2 8
For example, find the terms in 𝑥 4 and 𝑥 7 of the expansion of (𝑥 2 − 𝑥) . Hence, find the term in 𝑥 7 of
2 8
(1 + 3𝑥 3 ) (𝑥 2 − ) .
𝑥

22
 2 8
Step 1: Find the terms in 𝑥 4 and 𝑥 7 of the expansion of (𝑥 2 − 𝑥) .
2
(One way to do this is to notice that if the expression is expanded with 𝑎 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑏 = − 𝑥 , the
powers of 𝑥 is decreasing, i.e., 16, 13, 10, 7, 4, 1, −2, −5, and −8. To figure out what the interval
between the powers are, sum the positive powers of 𝑥 in 𝑎 and 𝑏, i.e. in our example, the interval is
2 + 1 = 3. Hence, the terms in 𝑥 4 and 𝑥 7 are the 5th and 4th terms respectively. Indeed:

2 8
(𝑥 − ) = 𝑥 16 − 16𝑥 13 + 112𝑥 10 − 448𝑥 7 + 1120𝑥 4 − ⋯ + 256𝑥 −8 . )
2
𝑥

However, the safer (and recommended) method (as taught) is the following:
Combine the powers of 𝑥 (from the general term formula) into a single power. Meaning:
8 2 𝑟
𝑇𝑟+1 = ( ) (𝑥 2 )8−𝑟 (− )
𝑟 𝑥
8
= (−2)𝑟 ( ) (𝑥 16−2𝑟 )(𝑥 −1 )𝑟
𝑟
8
= (−2)𝑟 ( ) (𝑥 16−3𝑟 )
𝑟
From this, to obtain the term in 𝑥 4 , let 16 − 3𝑟 = 4 and solve for 𝑟 to get 𝑟 = 4. Hence, the term in
𝑥 4 , which is 𝑇5 , is:
8
(−2)4 ( ) 𝑥 16−3(4) = 1120𝑥 4
4
Similarly, the term in 𝑥 7 , which is 𝑇4 , is:
8
(−2)3 ( ) 𝑥 16−3(3) = −448𝑥 7
3
2 8
Step 2: Find the term in 𝑥 7 of the expansion of (1 + 3𝑥 3 ) (𝑥 2 − 𝑥) .

Notice that the term in 𝑥 7 can be obtained from 2 products: that of 1 in (1 + 3𝑥 3 ) with −448𝑥 7
2 8 2 8
in (𝑥 2 − 𝑥) , and that of 3𝑥 3 in (1 + 3𝑥 3 ) with 1120𝑥 4 in (𝑥 2 − 𝑥) . Hence, the term in 𝑥 7 is:

(1)(−448𝑥 7 ) + (3𝑥 3 )(1120𝑥 4 ) = 2912𝑥 7

Miscellaneous
1) There is a difference between “term in 𝑥 𝑛 ” and “coefficient of 𝑥 𝑛 ”. “Term in 𝑥 𝑛 ” refers to the
entire term, including positive/negative sign, coefficient, and “𝒙𝒏 ”; “coefficient of 𝑥 𝑛 ” would
refer only to the number in front of 𝑥 𝑛 , including positive/negative sign.
2) When performing estimations, simply substitute suitable values into the binomial expansion,
and round off to whatever precision the questions requires.
3) The notation “+ ⋯” refers to additional terms left unwritten for practical reasons. It does not
refer to an estimation — it is merely a shortcut way of writing something. For estimations,
you can choose to use the notation “≈”. If you’re using this notation, “+ ⋯” is no longer
needed.

23
KINEMATICS
Relationship between 𝑠, 𝑣 and 𝑎:

Differentiate
Integrate

𝑠 𝑣 𝑎
E.g. From 𝑠, differentiate to obtain 𝑣.
Some commonly used terms:
1) “Moves from O” implies that 𝑠 = 0 when 𝑡 = 0
2) “At rest” implies that 𝑣 = 0
3) “Initial 𝑠/𝑣/𝑎” refers to 𝑠/𝑣/𝑎 when 𝑡 = 0
4) “Returns to starting point” implies that 𝑠 equals whatever value it equals when 𝑡 = 0 at that
particular instant (Note: Starting point may not be the same as origin O)
5) Speed = |𝑣|
Change in distance
6) Average speed = Change in time

Change in displacement
7) Average velocity = Change in time

To solve questions on kinematics, it is usually required to find a certain 𝑠/𝑣/𝑎 value using certain
equations given. In that case, there are 2 common approaches — solving using graphs, or solving
using particle diagrams. When solving using graphs, the following relationship is most commonly
used:
Area under 𝑣-𝑡 graph = displacement
Hence, when the question asks for “distance travelled from 𝑡 = 𝑎 to 𝑡 = 𝑏”, you can make use of this
fact and simply integrate 𝑣 with respect to (w.r.t.) 𝑡 from 𝑎 to 𝑏, adding the modulus sign if the area is
below the 𝑡-axis.
Note that if the questions asks for “displacement at 𝑡 = 𝑐”, you should not integrate 𝑣 w.r.t. 𝑡 from 0
to 𝑐. You should, instead, find the formula for 𝑠 using the formula for 𝑣, solving for the constant of
integration, then substituting in 𝑡 = 𝑐 to find the displacement.
When solving for distance travelled, another approach is to use particle diagrams. In this case, it is
typical to solve for 𝑡 when 𝑣 = 0 (to find turning points) as well as the initial and final positions,
drawing the diagram, then observing and adding up the relevant distances.
Miscellaneous reminders
1) Speed ≠ velocity
2) Distance ≠ displacement
3) The starting point may not be the origin. Hence, after integrating whatever you need to integrate,
substituting 𝑡 = 0 should allow you to solve for the constant of integration. Be aware of the initial
values of 𝑠/𝑣/𝑎.

24
4) Since 𝑠, 𝑣 and 𝑎 are vectors, direction matters. Positive values indicate forward/rightward/upward
directions, negative values indicate negative/leftward/downward directions.
5) 𝑡 ≥ 0 (i.e. when solving for 𝑡 for whatever reason, reject values of 𝑡 if 𝑡 < 0.
6) Remember to include units in final answers if required.

25
MATRICES
This is a very straightforward topic. Few basic rules about matrices:

• Matrix addition/subtraction — 2 things:

1) The 2 matrices must have the same order (i.e. both must be 𝑚 × 𝑛 for some 𝑚 and 𝑛)
2) Simply add/subtract corresponding elements

• Matrix multiplication — 3 things:

1) For 2 matrices (say, one of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 and another of order 𝑝 × 𝑞) to be compatible for
multiplication, 𝑛 must be equal to 𝑝 (i.e. no. of columns of the 1st matrix = no. of rows of the
2nd matrix)
2) The resultant matrix will be of order 𝑚 × 𝑞
3) Matrix multiplication is not commutative (i.e. for 2 matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵, in general, 𝐴𝐵 ≠
𝐵𝐴)
2 6
2 3 5
For example, say we wish to find ( ) ( 0 8).
−1 −7 0
−3 9
2 6
2 3 5 4 + 0 − 15 12 + 24 + 45 −11 81
( ) ( 0 8) = ( )=( )
−1 −7 0 −2 − 0 − 0 −6 − 56 + 0 −2 −62
−3 9
For problem sums, they either require you to form matrices (which should be pretty intuitive) or solve
3 linear equations, the latter of which using calculator (MODE – “3” – “2”, then key in respective
values).

26