MA300 & MA400

TOPIC NOTES
CONTENTS
1) Probability
2) Surds, Indices and Logarithms
3) Inequalities
4) Discriminant and Roots
5) Polynomials and Partial Fractions
6) Trigonometry Part I: Further Trigonometry and Practical Applications
7) Circular Measure
8) Geometrical Properties of Circles
9) Plane Geometry
10) Calculus Part I: Differentiation & Applications of Differentiation
11) Calculus Part II: Integration & Applications of Integration
12) Trigonometry Part II: Further Trigonometric Identities
13) Modulus Function
14) Functions and Curves (+ Completing the Square)
15) Linear Law
16) Binomial Theorem
17) Kinematics
18) Matrices

2
PROBABILITY

• 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸)
Layman terms: the probability of an event not happening is equal to 1 minus the probability
of that event happening. Usually used when probability of an event not happening is too
tedious to calculate directly, and the probability of it happening is known.

• In general:
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) — (1)

• Features of mutually exclusive events 𝐴 and 𝐵:

- 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0 — (2)
Layman terms: They have no intersection/they cannot both occur.

- 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) [sub. (2) into (1)]

Layman terms: Their union is equal to their sum without needing to subtract anything.

• Features of independent events 𝐴 and 𝐵:

- 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵)
Layman terms: The probability of both occurring is equal to the product of each event
occurring.

- One event occurring (or not) does not affect whether the other will occur (or not), e.g.
probability of drawing a ball from a bag of red and blue balls, putting the ball back, then
drawing another ball.
Note that 𝑛(𝐸) ≠ 𝑃(𝐸). “𝑛(𝐸)” indicates the number of elements fulfilling the condition 𝐸, while
“𝑃(𝐸)” indicates the probability of fulfilling the condition 𝐸 — for example, “𝑛(students studying
Biology)” indicates the number of students studying Biology; “𝑃(students studying Biology)”
indicates the probability of a student studying Biology from, say, a group of students.
Miscellaneous reminders

• When dealing with questions that require proof that 2 events are/aren’t mutually
exclusive/independent, do not do the following:
For example, given 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.45, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.6 and 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.28, prove that events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
not independent.
For independent events, 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵).
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.45 × 0.6
= 0.27
≠ 0.28
∴ 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not independent.

The error in the above logic is that there is initial assumption of 𝐴 and 𝐵 already known to be
independent, which may/may not be true. Therefore, stating that 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) right
away is fallacious and may be misleading when/if it turns out to be false. Instead, the following
should be done:

3
 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.45 × 0.6
= 0.27
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.28 ≠ 0.27
Since 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ≠ 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵), 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not independent.

• For questions that have context, when in doubt, draw out a tree diagram and label the
corresponding probabilities.

4
SURDS, INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
1. Surds
There is not much about surds, really. Except for 2 things:

• √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎√𝑏
• To rationalise, multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the surd. For
𝑐
example, to rationalise 𝑎+√𝑏 :
𝑐 𝑎 − √𝑏 𝑐(𝑎 − √𝑏)
× =
𝑎 + √𝑏 𝑎 − √𝑏 𝑎2 − 𝑏

Doing this removes the surds from the denominator, making the expression easier to
manipulate.

2. Indices
Basic laws:

• 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
• 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
• (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
• 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚
𝑎 𝑚
• 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑏 )
𝑞 1
𝑝
• 𝑎𝑝 = (𝑎𝑞 )𝑝 = √𝑎𝑞
• 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 ⇔ 𝑚 = 𝑛
3. Logarithms
Basic laws:

• Power Law:
log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑥

Note that the power law only applies when the entire base of the argument is raised to the
power, i.e. log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 𝑝 ≠ 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦, since the power 𝑝 only applies to 𝑦 and not 𝑥𝑦.

• Product Law:
log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦

• Quotient Law:
𝑥
log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦
𝑦

• Change-of-base Law:
log 𝑐 𝑏
log 𝑎 𝑏 = ,
log 𝑐 𝑎
where 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑐 ≠ 1.

• log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦

5
4. Solving exponential and logarithmic (simultaneous) equations
There is an important relationship that is often used when solving exponential and logarithmic
simultaneous equations:
log 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⇔ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏

Techniques to solve exponential and logarithmic equations:

• When there are different bases in logarithmic expressions, applying the change-of-base law is
usually a good start.
• When the bases in exponential/logarithmic expressions are the same, you could try combining
all the terms and apply the last law under indices and logarithms.
• Substitution may work when solving quadratic equations involving indices (see below).
• *Remember to substitute answers back into original equations to check if any solutions
should be rejected due to invalidity.
• Check with calculator.
Things to note:
- Bases of logarithms must be positive and cannot equal 1
- Arguments of logarithms must be positive
- There are no solutions for 𝑥 to equations like 𝑎 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏, where 𝑏 < 0.
- When performing substitutions (say, solving 9𝑥 − 3𝑥+1 = 0 and letting 𝑢 = 3𝑥 ), beware:

𝑢2 − 3𝑢 = 0
𝑢 = 3 or 𝑢 = 0
(DO NOT REJECT 𝒖 = 𝟎 AT THIS STEP)

3𝑥 = 3 or 3𝑥 = 0 (rej. )
(ONLY REJECT AT THIS STEP)

∴𝑥=1

6
INEQUALITIES
1. Solving quadratic inequalities

Take −𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 > 0 for example.

Step 0: Ensure coefficient of 𝑥 2 is positive. (Skip this step if you’re fine with drawing ∩-shaped
graphs)

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 < 0
(multiply by −1; remember to swap inequality sign)
Step 2: Factorise expression.
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) < 0

Step 3: Sketch ∪-shaped graph. Label 𝑥-intercepts. (or ∩-shaped graph is step 0 is skipped)

Step 4: Find range of 𝑥 that fulfils the inequality. Check whether question asks for > or ≥.
In this case, 2 < 𝑥 < 3.
2. Solving simultaneous inequalities
Generally, solve the inequalities separately, then combine the results in the final step.

Take −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 < 3𝑥 < 15 − 7𝑥 2 for example.

Step 1: Split inequality with “and”. Solve individual inequalities.

−𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 < 3𝑥 and 3𝑥 < 15 − 7𝑥 2

−𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 < 0 and 7𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 15 < 0

−3−√423 −3+√423
𝑥 < 0 or 𝑥 > 3 and 14
<𝑥< 14

Step 2: Use number line to combine solutions. “And” implies finding common solutions, “or”
implies finding all possible solutions.

−3−√423 −3+√423
∴ 14
< 𝑥 < 0 14
3

7
3. Miscellaneous reminders

• When dealing with ln 𝑥 < 0, remember that 𝑥 > 0.

• Substitute solutions back into original equations to eliminate invalid solutions.
• When sketching number line, use “ ” when representing < or >, and use “ ” when
representing ≤ or ≥.
• Whenever unsure, sketch the graph of the expression at hand.
• When dealing with inequalities like (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) < 0, note that 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑥 − 𝑏 < 0.

8
DISCRIMINANT AND ROOTS
1. Discriminant

For any quadratic equation*, say, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, without calculating the actual roots, we can
determine the nature of the roots by finding the discriminant (henceforth denoted ∆): 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. This
is because according to the quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝑥= ,
2𝑎
we observe that there can be 3 cases:
1) If ∆ < 0, then we know that there will be no real values of 𝒙, because the formula would be taking
the square root of a negative number;
2) If ∆ = 0, then we know that there is only 1 real value of 𝒙 since we would be taking the square
root of 0;
3) If ∆ > 0, then we know that there will be 2 distinct real roots of 𝒙, because taking the square root
of a positive number yields 2 real values.
Graphically:
1) For ∆ < 0, since there are no real roots, the graph will either be ∪-shaped and above the 𝑥-axis (if
𝑎 > 0), or it will be ∩-shaped and below the 𝑥-axis (if 𝑎 < 0). Either way, the graph does not cross
the 𝑥-axis;
2) For ∆ = 0, since there is only 1 real root, the graph will touch the 𝑥-axis at one point and one point
only;
3) For ∆ > 0, since there are 2 distinct real roots, the graph will cross the 𝑥-axis twice.
To find if 2 graphs (with at least one of them being a quadratic) will intersect, simply equate the 2
equations and calculate the discriminant.
2. Roots

For a quadratic equation, say, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, let the roots be 𝛼 and 𝛽. We know that:
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎
𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 = −
𝑎
Questions typically involve finding the quadratic equation with roots of a certain variation of 𝛼 and 𝛽.
For example:
1 1
Let the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0 be 𝛼 and 𝛽. Find the equation with roots 𝛼
and 𝛽
.

Step 1: Determine sum and product of roots of original equation.

−5
𝛼𝛽 = = −5
1
(−2)
𝛼+𝛽 = − =2
1

9
Step 2: Determine the sum and product of the roots of the new equation. Express them in terms of 𝛼𝛽
and (𝛼 + 𝛽) then substitute in the known values to obtain the new equation.
1 1 𝛼+𝛽 2
+ = =−
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 5
1 1 1 1
× = =−
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 5
Hence, the new equation is:
2 1
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − = 0
5 5
Or equivalently,

5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0

*Note: The terms “equations” and “expressions” are not interchangeable — “equations”, of course,
equate an expression with another, say, 2 + 4 = 6, i.e. an equal sign must be present somewhere. On
the other hand, “expressions” do not have equal signs anywhere — they are like standalone
mathematical “phrases” by themselves.

10
CALCULUS PART I: DIFFERENTIATION & APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
1. Differentiation techniques

• Power rule:

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Layman terms: reduce power by 1, then multiply by original power.

• Sum and difference rules:

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] ± [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• Chain rule:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: differentiate from outside to inside.

𝑑
E.g. 𝑑𝑥
[sin(3𝑥 2 + 4)]. Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 + 4.

By chain rule,

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[sin(3𝑥 2 + 4)] = (sin 𝑢) × (3𝑥 2 + 4) = cos 𝑢 × 6𝑥 = 6𝑥 cos(3𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: differentiate sine function first, then differentiate “inside” — 3𝑥 2 + 4.

• Product rule:

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑣) = (𝑢 ∙ ) + (𝑣 ∙ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: (copy 𝑢, differentiate 𝑣) + (copy 𝑣, differentiate 𝑢)

• Quotient rule:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 (𝑣 ∙ ) − (𝑢 ∙ )
( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

Layman terms: (copy 𝑣, differentiate 𝑢) – (copy 𝑢, differentiate 𝑣). Divide through by 𝑣 2 .

11
 • 6 trigonometric derivatives:

𝒇(𝜽) 𝒇′(𝜽)
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃
cot 𝜃 − cosec 2 𝜃
sec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
cosec 𝜃 −cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃

*Last 2 derivatives are in formula list.

*Functions that start with “c” (i.e. cosine, cosecant, cotangent) have derivatives with negative
sign.

• Logarithmic derivative:
𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥)
[ln 𝑓(𝑥)] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

Layman terms: copy 𝑓(𝑥) on bottom, add 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) on top.

• Exponential derivative:
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)
[𝑒 ] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∙ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Layman terms: copy 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) , multiply by 𝑓′(𝑥).

2. Applications of differentiation
(I) Increasing and decreasing functions
Usually, the question requires you to prove that 𝑓(𝑥) is a decreasing/increasing function. Unless the
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is given, it is common to have to make use of the knowledge that:

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing;

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing.

(II) Connected rates of change

This is usually a characteristic type of question to spot. A scenario is given, along with some rate (e.g.
“volume increases at a rate of 3 cm3/s”), and it requires you to find a related rate using the one
provided. Take this for example:
𝟐𝟒 𝟏
Given that 𝒚 = 𝒙
+ 𝟐𝒙𝟐 and that 𝒙 is increasing at a rate of 𝟔
unit per second, find the rate at
which 𝒚 is changing at the instant when 𝒙 = 𝟏.
𝑑𝑥
Step 1: Form the required equation. The question gives you 𝑑𝑡
and the relationship between 𝑦 and 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

12
Step 2: Find unknown rates.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
In this case, since 𝑑𝑡
has been given, we only need to find 𝑑𝑥
, which we can easily do so given
24
𝑦= 𝑥
+ 2𝑥 2 . Hence,

𝑑𝑦 24
= 4𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Step 3: After the required rates are found, substitute in corresponding values and units. Note that for
rates that show an increase, the sign of the rate should be positive; if they show a decrease, the sign
should be negative.
At 𝑥 = 1,
𝑑𝑦 24
= 4(1) − 2 = −20 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥 1
= units/s
𝑑𝑡 6

Step 4: Evaluate what the question is asking for. Include units.

𝑑𝑦 1 10
∴ = (−20) ( ) = − units/s
𝑑𝑡 6 3

Step 5: Interpret the rate (i.e. put it into words). Include units.
𝟏𝟎
𝑦 is decreasing at a rate of 𝟑
units per second.

Sometimes, the question may require you to get rid of a variable in order to form the equation using
chain rule. To do this, express the required variable in terms of the extra variable.
𝑑𝑉
Say that chain rule requires 𝑑ℎ
, but 𝑉 = 3𝑙 2 ℎ. “𝑙” here is the extra variable we want to get rid of.
Assume you know that 𝑙 = 2ℎ. Knowing this, we can substitute this into the expression for 𝑉 to
𝑑𝑉
remove 𝑙, making it possible to find 𝑑ℎ
.

3. Stationary points, maxima and minima

There are 3 types of stationary points: maximum points, minimum points and stationary points of
inflexion. While the first 2 can be found using the 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests, stationary points of
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
inflexion cannot be found by the latter method. Note that when = 𝟎, the test is inconclusive — it
𝒅𝒙𝟐
does not necessarily indicate a stationary point of inflexion.

13
When performing 1st Derivative Test, there are 3 cases:

𝑑𝑦
Case 1: If the sign of changes from positive to negative, it is a maximum point.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Case 2: If the sign of 𝑑𝑥
changes from negative to positive, it is a minimum point.
𝑑𝑦
Case 3: If the sign of 𝑑𝑥
does not change, it is a stationary point of inflexion.

When performing 2nd Derivative Test, there are 3 cases:

𝑑2 𝑦
Case 1: If 𝑑𝑥 2
< 0, it is a maximum point.

𝑑2 𝑦
Case 2: If > 0, it is a minimum point.
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
Case 3: If 𝑑𝑥 2
= 0, the test is inconclusive.

Maxima/minima questions rely on these tests. They usually involve forming an equation, finding
which inputs produce stationary results, then testing for whether the result is a maximum or a
minimum. Using 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests on the variable that needs to be stationary, they should
be relatively straightforward.

14
CALCULUS PART II: INTEGRATION & APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
1. Integration techniques

• General Power Rule:

[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

Layman terms: increase power by 1, divide through by new power.

Likely to be used if question raises a function to a huge power. Remember that the derivative
must be present in the integral for rule to be applicable.

• General properties:
∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫[𝑎 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥,

where 𝑎 is a constant

• Logarithmic integral:
𝑓′(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)

Likely to be used if function in denominator has a power 1 higher than that in numerator.
Remember to include modulus symbol.

• Exponential integral:
∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∙ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

Likely to be used if 𝑒 is raised to some function. Remember that derivative must be present
for rule to be applicable.

• 6 trigonometric integrals:

𝒇′(𝜽) 𝒇(𝜽)
sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 + 𝑐
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
sec 2 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + 𝑐
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃 + 𝑐
− cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 + 𝑐
− cosec 2 𝜃 cot 𝜃 + 𝑐

Work backwards from trigonometric derivatives.

Common integrals:
1 1
∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4
1 1
∫ cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4

15
 ∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

∫ cot 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝑐

∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝑐

• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]. (Layman terms: “continuous” means it is possible to sketch
𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏 without lifting your pen)

𝑑 𝑏
If [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥), then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)] 𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).
𝑑𝑥

Note absence of “+𝑐”.

• Properties of definite integrals:

𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎

where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐.

*For evaluation of definite integrals, no units are attached, unless applied in context.

2. Applications of integration
Integration is typically used to find the areas under graphs. For areas, units must be included.
Typically, it is safer to sketch the graph when finding areas under the curve. In general:

𝑏
Area enclosed by 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥-axis on interval [𝑎, 𝑏] = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0,
𝑏
Area enclosed by 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥-axis on interval [𝑎, 𝑏] = |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 |, if 𝑓(𝑥) < 0,

where 𝑎 < 𝑏.
Similar method of calculation for areas enclosed by 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑦-axis.
When the required area crosses both above and below the 𝒙-axis when integrating with respect to 𝑥
(or both to the left and right of the 𝒚-axis when integrating with respect to 𝑦), it is much safer to
calculate it as separate integrals to prevent confusion regarding modulus signs.

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Ideas for finding areas under graphs:

• Partitioning: Sometimes, it is only possible to find the required area when you consider it as 2
(or more) separate definite integrals
• Changing the variable you are integrating with respect to: e.g. if the required area is bounded
by graph and 𝑦-axis
1
• Simpler geometric observations: e.g. it’s faster to find the area of a triangle using 2 𝑏ℎ than
relying on integration
𝑏 𝑏
• Using ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 (or ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦), where 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑓(𝑦) is the upper curve
and 𝑔(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑦) is the lower curve, from 𝑎 to 𝑏
When in doubt, sketch.

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MODULUS FUNCTION
Simply defined, |𝑥| produces the “distance” between 𝑥 and 0. More formally:
𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0
Most importantly, |𝒙| ≥ 𝟎 for all real 𝒙.
Some properties:
1) |𝑎| = |−𝑎|
2) |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎| × |𝑏|
𝑎 |𝑎|
3) For 𝑏 ≠ 0, |𝑏 | = |𝑏|

4) For any integer 𝑛 > 0, |𝑎𝑛 | = |𝑎|𝑛

Hence, in general, if |𝑎| = |𝑏|, then 𝑎 = ±𝑏.
To sketch graphs involving modulus functions, simply sketch the graph of the same equation but
without the modulus function, then reflect whatever is below the 𝑥-axis along the 𝑥-axis. Label the
axial intercepts (and turning points if working with quadratic equations).

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