Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118

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Energy and Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Review

Tuning control of buildings glazing’s transmittance dependence on

the solar radiation wavelength to optimize daylighting and building’s
energy efficiency
Jeong Tai Kim a , Marija S. Todorovic a,b,∗
a
Department of Architectural Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 446-701, Republic of Korea
b
Multidisciplinary Studies Program, University of Belgrade, Serbia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Further advance of glazed, healthy building’s energy efficiency and sustainability is inextricable linked to
Received 15 March 2013 the building’s envelopes/facades fundamental physics study related to the dynamic control of sunlight
Accepted 19 March 2013 and optimal control of solar heat gains. Relevant mathematical models and algorithms, as well as infras-
tructure/hardware and software integrated performance prediction and validation are studied. Reviewed
Keywords: is the most recent analytical and experimental research, current state of science and art, as well as some
Healthy buildings
of the on-going R&D at the edge of new breakthroughs of the healthy buildings daylighting dynamic
Energy efficiency
control’s performance prediction and validation. It has been shown that, concerning the variability of
Daylighting
Dynamic control mathematical model
the solar radiation spectra incident on the building’s envelope, and also variability of outdoor and indoor
Tuning control of glazing’s solar radiation air temperature differences, it is necessary tuning control of glazing’s transmittance dependence on the
transmittance solar radiation wavelength, with an aim to optimize daylighting with the reference to people needs (their
Building performance prediction health and comfort), and energy (thermal and electrical loads minimization). Finally, presented are ele-
ments of an analytical modeling approach, as initial results of study, aimed to reach a challenging research
goal – Tuning control of buildings Glazing’s transmittance dependence on the solar radiation wavelength
to optimize daylighting and building’s energy efficiency.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction – daylighting relevance for building’s health and energy efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2. Building energy performance and daylighting simulation optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.1. Dynamic climate responsive fenestration and façade systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2. Current research and development work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3. Daylighting health impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. Tuning control of glazing’s daylight transmittance via biomimetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5. Basic elements of the optimization modeling approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.1. Unshaded window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2. Transmitted flux from sky and ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3. Solar gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.4. Switchable glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

1. Introduction – daylighting relevance for building’s

health and energy efficiency

∗ Corresponding author at: Multidisciplinary Studies Program, University of Bel- In order to stop the global climatic changes and its more
grade, Serbia. Tel.: +381 11 2667775; fax: +381 11 2660532. and more obvious consequences, current irreversible destruction
E-mail addresses: deresmt@eunet.rs, deres@agrif.bg.ac.rs (M.S. Todorovic). processes are to be replaced by the intensive growth of energy

0378-7788/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.03.036
 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
efficiency and RES utilization, especially in building sector – respon-
sible for more than one third of total energy use and, in most
countries in the world, is the largest greenhouse gas emissions
source [1,2]. Energy is mainly consumed during the use stage
of buildings, for heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, appliances,
etc. A smaller percentage (approx. 10–20%) of the energy use is
for materials manufacturing, construction and demolition. Energy-
related impacts of buildings must be considered in their life-cycle
environmental analysis focusing factors that affect energy con-
sumption: facades concepts/building envelope alternatives, glazing
and fenestration, types of building structure thermal mass and
insulating materials, lighting and day-lighting control, natural ven-
tilation and energy-recovery opportunities, and HVAC systems
regimes and operational modes such as temperature control, air
volume control, motors and pump types of control, indoor and
outdoor air quality and environmental protection. All of these con-
siderations have an impact on the buildings energy efficiency, HVAC
and refrigeration requirements and resulting CO2 emission, as well
as on the built environment indoor and outdoor health [1–4].
A holistic approach to the sustainable – healthy Zero Energy
building design requires a method to determine and optimize total
building performance, to optimize all relevant energy and differ-
ent working fluids flows and interactions between all technical
domains of buildings – HVAC and all other technical systems. In the
same time occupant comfort is not to be neglected but the multiple-
domain comfort assessment is required for all aspects of indoor
environment quality IEQ (thermal, light, air quality, acoustics/noise
and electromagnetic radiation, smell).
For buildings in four season countries, in order to create the
conditions for comfort during winter, it is necessary to “resist heat
loss” and to “promote heat gain” by using insulation and other tech-
niques to retain heat inside the occupied space (minimize heat
losses), by constructing an airtight building envelope to reduce
heat loss by air infiltration (and ex-filtration) and by application of
wind breaks to shield the building from dominating winter winds
[5]. Promoting heat gain can be achieved by application of passive
solar technologies combined with buffer zones and high building
thermal mass to reduce the daily temperature variations.
Depending on the geographic position and climatic conditions,
to provide comfort during summer conditions in many regions
worldwide, it is necessary to reduce heat gains and to increase
heat losses. To resist heat gains is important to apply passive cool-
ing techniques as reduction of internal heat loads, application of
thermal mass to dampen temperature variations and application
of solar shading to reduce the solar heat gain but at the same time
ensure a satisfactory daylight level. Increasing heat loss can be
achieved by utilizing natural cooling technologies (earth cooling
either by conductive heat loss through the building construction or
by pre-cooling of outside air, by using vegetation and water evap-
oration techniques, to cool outside and inside air, by exposing the
building construction to the cold “night sky” radiation and by uti-
lizing natural ventilation during night time with cool outside air –
called natural cooling) [5].
However, perfect balance between natural resources and com-
fort requirements can rarely be achieved, except under very specific
environmental circumstances, and the performance of climatic
designed buildings vary throughout the year depending upon
whether the prevailing climatic condition is “under-heated” com-
pared to what is required for comfort (in winter) or “over-heated”
(in summer). Also, it is necessary to stress, that as a result of
global warming, in weather conditions known as “hot waves”,
building’s bioclimatic adaptability and particularly passive and/or
natural cooling technologies, in many regions in the world, are
not any more able neither to provide people with appropriate
indoor environment and comfort, nor in some cases to save their
lives. However, bioclimatic approach, or also called passive solar
109
buildings approach, is important basic step toward energy effi-
cient building’s constructions, which are offering, via integrated
sustainable building design, opportunity to become fully energy
sustainable Zero Energy buildings, air-conditioned and cost effec-
tively supplied exclusively with the renewable energy sources
(RES).
In addition, to the building’s comfort and Zero energy features,
buildings are to be health. Among the first focusing that fact were
Turner [6] and Chen et al. [7] (outlining strong relationship between
IAQ, people productivity and people health). Methodology of the
indoor environment assessment specifying indoor environment
indicators (IEI) for acoustics, vibration, illumination, thermal and
visual comfort, indoor air quality and electromagnetic environ-
ment has been developed. It has been based on setting a weighting
among the physical categories and is carried out through the ana-
lytic hierarchy process (AHP) method [8]. The weighting of essential
categories determined by AHP method and the evaluated scales
corresponding to the field-measured values did show feasibility of
all IEQ’s relevant IEC (including daylight and illumination), assess-
ment on the buildings users health benefits.
Built environment has been studied, more in depth, as archi-
tectural field of light and relevant elements for the healthy light
determination and promotion in [8], providing clear differences
between the healthy light, and light which certain features can be
harmful for people. Based on the outlined needs, to block too exces-
sive penetration of sunlight, too much light, to discomfort glare,
and UV penetration (aimed to protect human health), the scheme of
whole research related to light and healthy living environment had
been organized and proceeded with the definitions of the relevant
design elements in terms of light [8].
Optical issues related to the harmfulness of light and surveys
of already built examples of architectural and optical solutions to
attenuate the harmfulness of light and improve the visual satisfac-
tion have been analyzed and their performances are provided in [9]
along with the citations of medical and biological research which
revealed that light entering the human eyes has, apart from a visual
effect, also an important non-visual biological effect on the human
body.
2. Building energy performance and daylighting simulation
optimization
Solar radiation, visible to the naked eye, range or daylight spans
380–780 nm. Understanding the properties of spectral distribu-
tions of daylight and its dynamical changes at different sites with
varying atmospheric conditions is an active research area.
Understanding the solar–terrestrial interaction, including cli-
matology and space weather, starts within the context of Earth’s
connection to the Sun’s activity. The energy from nuclear fusion in
the Sun’s core is released and transported to the solar visible sur-
face. This energy manifests in thermal and magnetic processes in
the solar photosphere, chromosphere, and corona, giving rise to a
highly ionized plasma in distinct features and layers and produc-
ing radiation throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. Through
interactions with the terrestrial environment, this radiation helps
create short timescale space weather as well as the longer-term
global climate [10].
Variations of the total solar irradiance, as well as variations of its
all segmental ranges, are the fundamental forcing mechanisms to
the terrestrial atmosphere, land, and oceans. The Sun varies on all
time scales and the magnitude of variability is a strong function of
wavelength. On its way to the Earth surface solar radiation is pass-
ing through the terrestrial atmosphere and related solar–terrestrial
interaction is responsible for the additional variability of the inci-
dent solar radiation on the Earth and/or objects on its surface.
110 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
Fig. 1. Extraterrestrial solar spectral irradiance (air mass = 0 left, and of few air masses > 0 right).
Extraterrestrial solar spectral irradiance curves (air mass = 0 left,
and of few air masses > 0 right) are visible in Fig. 1.
Consequently, performance requirements of glaz-
ing/fenestration systems, and their daylighting features, are
dependent on the geographical location, climate, building
type/purpose, orientation and internal spatial design, exterior
obstructions/shading, as well as on the occupants visual needs.
Daylighting’s energy relevant glazing performance (desired
illuminance and luminance levels, total luminous flux, savings
potentials, daylight efficacy and cooling loads, thermal impacts,
daylight efficacy and cooling loads) short descriptions given by
Selkowitz [11] are Desired illuminance and luminance levels, Total
luminous flux, Savings potentials. Thermal impacts. Daylight efficacy
and cooling loads and Lighting controls.
Lighting controls encompasses daylighting design as a crucial
step in integrated sustainable building design. It includes product
design (sensors and electronics), architectural design (positioning),
installation, calibration, and operational adjustments. The whole
system must maintain the desired illuminance levels under a wide
variety of daylight conditions and overall lighting must create a
visually appealing space as the illuminance levels of electric light-
ing are dimmed responding to the instantaneous daylight.
Characteristics of current glazing and fenestration systems,
particularly in office buildings are more and more dynamic. In
spreading use are electrochromic and thermochromic glazings,
control of which is linked to the whole building energy manage-
ment systems – BMS. However, recent R&D results and current
research, particularly in material science show that limits in tech-
nological development of glazing’s special features are not reached,
and new breakthroughs are to be further expected.
Daylighting design, as an integral part of lighting design tasks
within the “Zero energy approach” strategy in the integrated
sustainable building design (ISBD) methodology, addressed in
[4,12,13] foresees: determination of the function of the building
envelope ratio of transparent and opaque area and glazing proper-
ties related to visible light transmission and solar heat gains as the
primary climatic modifier to minimize heat loss in winter, to min-
imize heat gain in summer by optimizing use of natural light and
searching in general a “simple” approach promoting good instal-
lation, operation and maintenance. By “simple” is meant conflicts
between design services are to be avoided and not left to the hope
that the control system will resolve the conflicts.
Daylighting assessment and optimization encompasses: win-
dows, glazing, interior finishes, skylight, light shelves, light wells
and light pipes, as well as aimed to the harmonization of the day-
lighting and lighting interaction covered are to be fixtures, locations
of fixtures and Lamps. Further, glazed systems can be classified in
two categories: static and dynamic. Static systems include not only
glazing, such as spectrally selective and holographic glazing, but
specialized designs of light-shelves and light-pipes, while dynamic
systems cover automatically operated Venetian blinds and elec-
trochromic glazing [11].
Important knowledge and performance data on the building’s
envelopes including daylighting are IEA ECBCS Annex 32 – Integral
Building Envelope Performance Assessment Technical Synthesis
Report [14] and the IEA – ECBCS Annex 44 – Integrating Environ-
mentally Responsive Elements in Buildings [15].
More than three decades, different of the above listed systems,
are in a very intensive research and development, particularly in
domain of material sciences and technologies, as well as in the area
of building physics and building’s performance simulation – BPS
(algorithms/software development for glazing, envelope and whole
building dynamic behavior analysis and optimization) [13].
As a result, even for large glazed areas, presumed as not appro-
priate for very hot or very cold climates, are today available nearly
countless kinds of glasses with so many combinations of very
low heat transfer coefficients, and very different solar and visible
light transmittance, that even huge glass areas (including whole
glazed building) can be relatively energy efficient if their design or
redesign is based on all year round dynamic behavior simulation
study and optimization, as for example Belgrade Contemporary art
Museum’s energy refurbishment described in [12].
Constructed 25 years ago New Belgrade Contemporary art
Museum architecturally had been designed as a today’s architec-
tural master peace of work (Fig. 2). With huge glazed envelope
surfaces it deserved very careful surplus of solar radiation and solar
gains control, as well as glare-effected day-lighting control. It has
been redesigned to approach energy efficient public building status.
Its envelope and construction have been studied by BPS – Building
Performance Simulations for Belgrade’s TMY – typical meteoro-
logical year. Analyzed were and quality (glare taking in account),
dynamics of its thermal behavior, heating and cooling loads and
energy demand, indoor spaces air quality and particuloarly day-
lighting availability and artificial lighting energy demand.
In an approach to refurbishment, to select optimized glazing
features, dynamic day-lighting study via RADIANCE, DAYSIM and
ADELINE software, and BPS (Building performance simulation) to
optimize whole Museum’s envelope and structure integrally with
its HVAC and other technical systems was of crucial importance
(see a few day lighting study results in Figs. 3 and 4). Optimiza-
tioon parameters were glazing’s visual light transmittance and
solar heat gain coeficient. Obtained percentage reductions in heat-
ing loads/heating energy annual demand comparing to the existing
building status before refurbishment and glazing replacement are
34.7/53.7, reductions in cooling loads/cooling energy demand are
respectively 18.6/30.4.
 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118 111

Fig. 2. Contemporary art Museum in New Belgrade (left) in reconstruction (right) [12].

Fig. 3. Day-lighting in the plane 90 cm above the 1st floor, for glazing visible light transmittance 72% and sunny sky, left max 7010lux, min: 140lux, right max: 350lux, min:
80lux [12].

2.1. Dynamic climate responsive fenestration and façade systems
Intensive development and commercialization of complex glaz-
ing, fenestration and façade systems in late 90-ties of last century,
required standards, measurements and testing procedures devel-
opment. J.L.J Rosenfeld et al. presented in [16] results of the ALTSET
project (part of the European Commission’s Standards, Measure-
ment and Testing program), which objective was the development
of European standard test procedures for the determination of
angular-dependent light and total solar energy transmittance for
complex glazing and integrated shading elements. The measure-
ment of these quantities is difficult and laborious and therefore
expensive. Hence, it was of interest to consider whether it is possi-
ble to derive the properties of a complex glazing using models. The
input data for such models are generally the optical and thermal
properties of the components that make up the complex glazing.
For many components, such as uncoated and coated glass
and plastic films, the required properties can be measured with
relatively little effort, using standard laboratory equipment. For
more complex components, it is generally necessary to develop a
sub-model. This can itself be time consuming, so it was not evident
a priori that a modeling approach will always be practicable or
preferable to direct measurement. A disadvantage of the model-
ing approach is that samples of the components must be made
available, and there is always some residual doubt whether the
assembly into the complex glazing might affect the overall prop-
erties. An advantage of modeling is that, once the model has been
validated, it is very easy to study the effect of varying the properties
of some particular component. This is valuable for product devel-
opment. It is also easy to vary the boundary conditions, such as
the direction or spectral distribution of the incident light. Models
of complex glazing are also useful in that they can be incorporated
into other models, for example building or daylighting simulations.
Within that project, in parallel to the development of test pro-
cedures, models to predict the properties of a variety of complex
glazing, were developed and validated. Paper [16] reviewed the

Fig. 4. Day-lighting distribution in the office on 1st floor, for glazing visible light transmittance 0.72% and sunny sky, left at 12 am and right at 6 pm [12].
112 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
progress made during that ALTSET collaborative program. Models
have been developed for a wide range of complex glazing, includ-
ing those incorporating solar control films, transparent insulation
and both fixed and variable blinds. The models were based on the
concept that a complex glazing can be represented by a stack of
layers, each layer representing one of the component elements of
the glazing. Project results did show that, if the optical and ther-
mal properties of each layer are known, methods are available
to calculate the corresponding properties of the stack. Conducted
measurements demonstrated, that used carefully, the models are
able to predict the luminous and total solar energy transmittance to
an accuracy comparable to that obtainable experimentally, hence
models validation result was “models are suitable for integration
into building energy simulation tools”.
Currently, further intensive engineering work is devoted to the
improvements and innovations of both dynamic facades and also
static facades but of the dynamic features. Further advanced facades
will require enhanced automation and better sensors and controls
for optimal operations. In the case of dynamic facades of residential
buildings the opening of a window or lowering of a shade may be
done by the occupants themselves based on their comfort needs.
In office buildings a design strategy is involving more and more
predictive algorithms, integration of façade and lighting systems
with a wide range of building sensors (wired and wireless) as well
as anticipatory signals for predicted, for example evening wind and
temperature, day ahead utility price signals and next day expected
building occupancy [11].
Also, new lower cost sensors with communications based on
Internet protocols are searched for motorized blinds and elec-
trochromic windows [11]. In addition, design of advanced facades
requires advanced simulation and design tools appropriate to
describe innovative solutions and holistic – fully integrated build-
ing’s dynamics (co-simulation), as well as adequate software and
tools for building’s dynamic daylighting/lighting operation optimal
control.
However, it is necessary to stress that although application of
lighting control technologies has increased the public interest, as
these technologies have been commercialized and promoted dur-
ing the last years, their successful use in buildings has been realized
still in relative small percentage of new projects. One reason is the
difficulty in quantifying the energy savings and thus the subsequent
payback period [17]. Majority of existing simulation tools (which
are embedded in building energy codes) are needed during initial
design are based on the estimation of the potential energy savings
due to daylight, and paper [17] focuses the limitations of current
simulation approaches comparing their results, in order to assess
their accuracy.
Lighting control systems are a complex technology which is
employing a variety of currently available controllers, software,
sensors and devices, but there is a lack of information concerning
the actual performance of these systems and control strategies. In
order to fully exploit their capabilities and implement the most
energy efficient control strategies, relevant simulation software
are needed during the initial design phase. This will improve the
design parameters such as optimal ceiling or wall positions for the
photo sensor, shielding configurations from electric lighting and
daylighting sources and the control algorithms to be defined accu-
rately. In the paper [17] three stand-alone programs have been
tested while the analysis of the results revealed that simple and
basic scenarios are capable of identifying weak areas in a given
program.
In addition, recently new simulation tools have been developed
aiming at the calculation of energy savings as a result of the day-
light control (SPOT, DAYSIM). As the paper [17] states, currently
is really needed a well defined case study as benchmark and fur-
ther developments in algorithms, particularly with the reference
to the following optimization algorithm for the best position of the
photosensor, and control optimization of various types of shading
systems
The objective of the document [18] is to promote the use of
dynamic daylight performance measures for sustainable building
design. The paper review the shortcomings of static daylight perfor-
mance metrics which concentrate on individual sky conditions and
the common daylight factor, and is proceeding with review of previ-
ously suggested dynamic daylight performance metrics, discussing
the capability of these metrics to lead to superior daylighting
designs and their accessibility also to the nonsimulation experts. In
addition, several example offices are examined to demonstrate the
benefit of basing design decisions on dynamic performance metrics
as opposed to the daylight factor.
2.2. Current research and development work
Currently, worldwide search for sustainable NZEB (Net Zero
energy buildings) created numerous R&D programs aimed to fur-
ther building’s energy demand reduction to the level that could be
satisfied exclusively by the RES supply (building’s integrated and/or
in the building’s yard and/or by the municipality at the annual net
zero balance). Current research challenges are to make facades,
optimized with the reference to all performance requirements and
constrains.
NZEB goal did renew requests for more innovations and
advanced research on the smart glass – switchable glass refer-
ring exactly to the electrochromic – electrically switchable glass,
feature of which is changeable light transmission. Beside elec-
trochromic devices, to the same group belong suspended particle
devices, micro-blinds and liquid crystal devices [19,20].
Saeli et al. [21] are drawing attention to the thermochromic
glazing, and by conducting a series of BPS are demonstrating how
thermochromic glazing has significant potential to reduce energy
consumption in buildings by allowing visible light for day light-
ing, reducing unwanted solar gain during the cooling season, but
allowing useful solar gain in the heating season. Thermochromic
(TC) materials have active, reversible optical properties that vary
with temperature. Thermochromic windows are adaptive window
systems for incorporation into building envelopes. Thermochromic
windows respond by absorbing sunlight and turning the sunlight
energy into heat. As the thermochromic film warms it changes
its light transmission level from less absorbing to more absorb-
ing. The more sunlight it absorbs the lower the light level going
through it. Thermochromic materials will normally reduce opti-
cal transparency by absorption and/or reflection, and are specular
(maintaining vision).
This review on the status of the R&D on the new generation of
electrochromic glazing can be ended stating that it is still focused on
further improvement of the glazing’s adaptive response on the sun-
light changes. Consequently there is a need for renewed searching
on basic physics related to smart glazing, with coatings that could
perform climate responsively and dynamically change from clear
to spectrally absorbing and/or spectrally reflective to reduce solar
gain and control glare. Selkowitz’s statement given in [11] “Deliver-
ing dynamic, responsive control of solar gain and glare, but permitting
daylight use, is still the holy grail of façade technology” is still valid.
In addition, within the process of optimization of building design,
sometimes are neglected human factors issues and the fact that
most buildings exist to house the activities and living of people and
therefore are to accommodate their needs as well as their wants
and perhaps even their whims [11].
The review of the complex multi layered build-up of state
of the art glazing products shows that the integration of most
requirements of modern building envelopes: thermal insulation,
adjustable shading by means of electrochromic coatings and
 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
even energy generation through integrated photovoltaics [22–25].
However, because these systems require during manufacturing sig-
nificant embodied energy, and in addition most of the material
resources would be lost at the end of its life, the multi-layered
composite glazing build-ups contradict the basic principles of sus-
tainability. Therefore, there is a need for smarter concept for
adaptive – to the climate and indoor loads responsive solution –
glazing with intrinsic tuning control of buildings glazing’s transmit-
tance dependence on the solar radiation wavelength to optimize
daylighting and building’s energy efficiency.
The utilization of bio-chemical processes represents one alter-
native. Photosynthesis generates biomass by absorbing day-light
and CO2 . Because cell division rates respond directly to the exter-
nal conditions, trees and plants have long been used in landscaping
as smart shading devices. Higher plants go through a relatively
slow yearly cycle, but micro-organisms such as algae respond to
changing conditions within hours. But the question is: can micro-
organisms be utilized to shade buildings? With such goal, since
2009 Arup Germany has been leading a research collaboration with
COLT International and SSC, a small enterprise specialized in hydro-
biological processes. Project is about the integration into buildings
of photobioreactors (PBR) [24].
Based on the photobioreactors, transparent containers is based
development of the Flat Panel Uplift Bioreactor, in which air bubbles
rise up inside the cavity creating strong turbulence which helps the
algae growth. The shading factor of this system depends on the den-
sity of cells. The system represents an interactive, adaptive shading
system. During times of high solar radiation the density of the cells
increases, blocking the light. In contrast, the light transmission can
be increased by an intensified harvesting process. First generation
prototype of external louvers with integrated photobioreactors is
shown in Fig. 5.
3. Daylighting health impact
Review of the daylight health impact study at the edge of “new
breakthroughs” has been presented in [3]. Corresponding study and
results on the visual health as one of the components of a healthy
environment presents paper [26] stressing that visual health is
a vital question because of both the amount of illuminance and
the quality of light, that is, the distribution and the glare. There-
fore, making the most use of natural light is one of the promising
approaches to visual health. Based on photometric, medical, psy-
chological, and physiological criteria, these various human needs
should be accommodated: visibility, activity, health, safety, com-
fort, social contact, communication, esthetic appreciation, and so
forth. A series of computer simulations were used in evaluating the
visually severe hardships.
In order to curb the excessive penetration of UV rays, optically
functional glasses are proposed and the performance assessment
on the glazed materials has been measured. Various pair-glasses
consisting of UV control glass and conventional glasses have been
manufactured and evaluated, providing photometric data in terms
of wavelength. Relations between the visual criteria and health
should be considered with the following lighting parameters: illu-
minance uniformity, luminance, pleasantness, modeling, glare and
light color aspect or color temperature. Meeting biological lighting
needs might be very different from visual needs. This strengthens
the idea that present indoor lighting levels (and standards) are too
low for biological stimulation. Medical research has shown that a
prolonged lack of the “light vitamin” can cause health problems,
ranging from minor sleep and performance difficulties to major
depression.
Results of the conducted research presented in series of paper
[26–36] elucidate synergetic effects of interdependence of health
and the whole cluster of issues daylighting related: overview of new
113
developments in optical daylighting systems for building a healthy
indoor environment [27]; optimization of photovoltaic integrated
shading devices [28], monitoring and evaluation of a light-pipe sys-
tem used in Korea [29]; luminous impact of balcony floor at atrium
spaces with different well geometries [30]; UV-ray filtering capa-
bility of transparent glazing materials for built environments [31];
a distribution chart of glare sensation over the whole visual field
[32]; effect of background luminance on discomfort glare in relation
to the glare source size [33]; the position index of a glare source at
the borderline between comfort and discomfort (bcd) in the whole
visual field [34]; a first approach to discomfort glare in the pres-
ence of non-uniform luminance [35]; application of high-density
daylight for indoor illumination [36].
Summarized concluding statement of the listed voluminous
research work was clearly and simple formulated in [3]: an energy-
saving and sustainable design strategy could be effectively applied
in exploiting daylight, which not only decreases energy demand
and CO2 emissions but promotes occupant wellbeing by creating
the most ideal condition possible for a space occupants comfort
and health.
4. Tuning control of glazing’s daylight transmittance via
biomimetics
At the building envelope glazing are occurring interactively sev-
eral physical phenomena and processes. At the outdoor ambient
side of envelope are acting: air temperature and humidity, “sky”
equivalent temperature, wind velocity, solar radiation and other
outer electromagnetic fields. All these quantities are permanently
changeable, including the spectral distribution of the solar radi-
ation, hence sunlight and daylight are permanently variable. To
optimize building’s glazing’s features relevant for building’s energy
efficiency and indoor environment quality, it is necessary to deter-
mine the functional dependence of building’s energy efficiency (all
year round) on the relevant glazing’s features visual light transmit-
tance and solar heat gain factor/coefficient. As the solar radiation
is spectrally distributed and changeable, optimal glazing feature
will be also spectrally distributed, and its optimal control could
be obtained only by fine spectral tuning. The most of approaches
currently in use, even in the most developed smart glazing tech-
nologies are based on the separation of solar radiation in two parts
daylight and solar heat gains.
Our approach toward optimal dynamic control of the glazing
features is determination of glazing with inherently tunable fea-
tures with the reference to the spectral distribution of the incident
radiation. Such glazing’s intrinsic characteristic would be possi-
bility to be responsive to the incident solar radiation spectral –
wavelength distribution.
In our previous study of the architects interests on biomimet-
ics, and more general on the attractive recognition of potential
roles of biomimetics in scientific search [2], was introduced a new
tuning potential: biomimetic dynamically responsive self-adaptive
glazing feature to the radiation spectra changes as a biologically
inspired design search aimed to dynamically optimal control solar
radiation and daylighting, In this study we are proceeding with its
implementation.
In our searching approach bio-mimetic means approaching
bio-functional tuning, adaptability phenomena and bio-optimal
control. Fig. 3 shown the biomimetic shading of the Esplanade-
Theaters in Singapore (left) and Lycaena butterfly (right) known
on its color vision via spectral tuning of receptor arrays – their
eyes contain four spectral types of visual pigments but the dis-
tribution of these pigments within the receptor mosaic is quite
different between species. Photochemical and physiological studies
are revealing great inter-specific diversity in the spectral properties
of butterfly visual pigments and photoreceptors.
114 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
Fig. 5. First generation prototype of external louvers with integrated photobioreactors [24].
Very little is known, as yet, about how chromatic information is
processed by their visual systems. Questionable is understanding
on the physical phenomena governing sensory capabilities and lim-
itations related to the requirements of visually mediated behaviors,
as well as explanation of the color vision in Lycaena butterflies via
spectral tuning of receptor arrays? Physically sound answers, on
these questions, could be fine basis to invent new type of glazing
material’s with a special feature – ability for a tuning control of glaz-
ing’s transmittance dependence on the solar radiation wavelength
[2].
In [2] a structure with set of tasks and activities of the research
project on the healthy buildings daylighting dynamic control’s
performance prediction and validation has been defined. In its
final section study [2] presents the potential scheme of the con-
trol problem which the tuning control of glazing’s transmittance
dependence on the solar radiation wavelength is to solve. Presented
scheme items follow:
a. Based on the time dependent measurement of the outdoor solar
radiation and daylight data are to be determined time dependent
spectral distributions of solar radiation and of the daylight versus
their wavelengths.
b. Building’s physics and integrally building and HVAC as well as the
other technical systems are to be optimized with the reference
to the total building performance – energy efficiency implemen-
ting BPS and measured relevant meteorological parameters, as
well as indoor spaces by the standards defined comfort con-
ditions. This optimization is to be done with variable features
of the tuning control of glazing’s transmittance dependence on
the solar radiation wavelength and taking in account their time
dependence.
c. As a result of optimization (item b) obtained will be the time
dependence of the optimal spectral distribution of the glazing’s
transmittance and SHGC – glazing’s dynamic features relevant
for the optimal tuning control with the reference to the energy
efficiency.
d. By the measurement/monitoring/audit obtained optimal indoor
environment and health related quality (IE&HQ) data set (for
the relevant parameters and variables) are to be expressed in
mathematical form implementing “inverse” method.
e. Finally the control loop is to be closed by comparing obtained
glazing’s feature under item c. with the data set on the IE&HQ
determined under item d. and based on the comparison results if
it is concerning comfort and/or health necessary glazing features
are to be corrected (Fig. 6).
It has to be mentioned that concerning “Tuning control of
glazing’s daylight transmittance via biomimetics” our exploration
on applicable concepts is has not been exhausted in this study,
For example an attention might be deserve for example studies
[37–39]. Yang et al. in their study “Porous biomimetic microlens
arrays as multifunctional optical structures” presented an attrac-
tive material research on the microlenses as important optical
components that image, detect and couple light [37]. Most syn-
thetic microlenses, however, have fixed position and shape once
they are fabricated and therefore, the attainable range of their tun-
ability and complexity is rather limited. In comparison, biological
world provides a multitude of varied, new paradigms for the devel-
opment of adaptive optical networks. The review [37] discusses
a few inspirational examples of biological lenses and their syn-
thetic analogs. We focus on the fabrication and characterization of
biomimetic microlens arrays with integrated pores, whose appear-
ance and function are similar to a highly efficient optical element
formed by brittlestars. Authors are wandering about the possibility
to develop a tunable optical device coupled with the microfluidic
system, in which the replacement of rigid microlenses with soft
hydrogels could provide means for changing the lens geometry
and refractive index continuously in response to external stimuli,
resulting in intelligent, multifunctional, tunable optics. Hong et al.
in [39] are proceeding with investigation and development of the
approach presented in [38]
5. Basic elements of the optimization modeling approach
Finally, study is proceeding with assessment of the basic ele-
ments of the modeling approach, aimed to enable achieving
determined challenging research goal – Tuning control of buildings
glazing’s transmittance dependence on the solar radiation wave-
length to optimize daylighting and building’s energy efficiency.
As the approach to establish relevant mathematical opti-
mization model for the tuning control of buildings glazing’g
transmittance dependence on the solar radiation wavelength to
optimize daylighting and buildiing’s energy efficiency, have been
selected co-simulation and combined use of the available software
 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
Fig. 6. Biomimetic shading of the Esplanade-Theaters in Singapore (left) and Lycaena butterfly (spectral tuning of receptor arrays-right).
TRNSYS or EnergyPlus and combination of WINDOW, DAYSIM, and
RADIANCE [40–42].
A. TRNSYS based optimization problem and determination of
the resulting function of the glazing’s transmittance dependence
on the solar radiation wavelength (outdoor solar radiation spectra)
foreseen solution steps based on the TRNSYS use are
• In existing equations sets for building’s energy analysis glaz-
ing’s transmittance, absorbance and reflexivity of solar radiation,
including all its relevant wavelength parts, are to be defined as a
function of the radiation wavelength and not as a certain constant
value.
• Building performance simulation is to be performed for a series
of assumed functional forms and proceeded with the determina-
tion of the optimal one for which the building’s energy efficiency
is optimal in synergy with control of the accessible daylighting
values.
• Determination of the final optimal control function or set of the
optimal control functions implementing neural network or fuzzy
logic method.
Follows relevant equations set.
The luminous transmittance,  vis (cϑ) for light incident at an
angle ϑ is defined as

vis (ϑ) = D65 ()V ()(, ϑ)d
where D65 () is the relative spectral power distribution of the CIE
Standard Illuminant D65 and V() is the standard observer photopic
luminous efficiency function (CIE, 1986). Thus, to calculate  vis (ϑ) it
is necessary to know the spectral distribution of the transmittance,
(, ϑ) of the glazing.
The total solar energy transmittance, g(ϑ), is the sum of the
transmittance under solar irradiation,  s (ϑ) and the secondary
internal heat transfer factor, qi , caused by the heating of the glazing
as it absorbs a fraction of the incident light
g(ϑ) = (ϑ) + qi (ϑ)
The solar transmittance is defined as
 wavelength function.
s (ϑ) = Es ()(, ϑ)d
where Es () is the normalized distribution of solar radiation. In
conformity with existing standards, we have used the air mass 1.5
global distribution (ISO, 1990).
115
The solar absorptance, ˛s (ϑ) is defined analogously to the solar
transmittance, as

˛s (ϑ) = Es ()˛(, ϑ)d (4)
A detailed window model has been incorporated into the TYPE
56 component using output data from the WINDOW 4.1 program
developed by Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, USA [41]. This win-
dow model calculates transmission, reflection and absorption of
solar radiation in detail for windows with up to six panes. External
and internal shading devices and an edge correction for different
glazing spacer types are considered. The optical and thermal win-
dow model [41] is described below.
With Version 16 a 2-Band-Solar-Radiation-Window-Model was
introduced. The model is only different in regard to the shortwave
solar radiation. The model splits the external solar radiation into a
visual part and a non visual part. The fraction of the visual part can
be calculated with the radiation of a black body at a temperature of
5800 K for a wave length band between 380 nm and 780 nm related
to the total radiation of a black body at the same temperature. This
leads to the following equations for the visual radiation [41]:
Idif,visual = 0.466Idif,solar (5)
Idir,visual = 0.466Idir,solar (6)
Concerning the given above description of the calculation proce-
(1) dure, and stressed facts about the solar spectra variability, it is to be
performed additional analysis about the validity of these two equa-
tions. The same is relevant for the visual part of the solar radiation
and the expressions (7) and (8) as used in [41]:
Idif,non visual = (1 − 0.466)Idif,solar (7)
Idir,non visual = (1 − 0.466)Idir,solar (8)
The wavelength dependence of the absorption of short-wave radi-
ation (direct and diffuse solar radiation, diffuse reflected radiation
from the all the surfaces of the zone and the optional inner shading
device) on the glazing system of the window is to be taken in
(2) account in farther calculation of a heat flux from the pane to the cer-
tain zone. Consequently, in the equation (9) absorption coefficients
and direct and diffuse radiation are to be introduced as the variable
(3)  (Ri−1 + Ra )

Q̇abs,i = (Idir absdir,i + Idif absdif,i + (Iref,z + Iref,sh )absdif,i,b ) (9)
Rtot
i→n
B. EnergyPlus [43] based optimization problem and deter-
mination of the resulting function of the glazing’s transmittance
116 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118

dependence on the solar radiation wavelength (outdoor solar radi- For a vertical window (w ) the up- and down-going transmitted
ation spectra) foreseen solution steps based on the EnergyPlus use fluxes are: FW,sh = CW,sh = /2.
are  = 
w
For a horizontal skylight : FW,sh = , CW,sh = 0.
2
5.1. Unshaded window
(17)
For the unshaded window case, the luminance of the window The limits of integration of  in Eqs. (153)–(155) depend on . From
element is found by projecting the ray from reference point to win- [Fig. 12 – Winkelmann, 1983] we have sin ˛ = sin (A − /2) = (sin 
dow element and determining whether it intersects the sky or an tan w )/cos , which gives
exterior obstruction such as an overhang. If L is the corresponding
luminance of the sky or obstruction, the window luminance is A = cos−1 (tan  tan w ) (18)

Lw = Lvis (cos B) (10)

Thus min = −| cos−1 (tan  tan w )|;
where  vis is the spectrally dependent visible transmittance of the
and max = cos−1 (tan  tan w )|. (19)
glass for incidence angle B.
Exterior obstructions are generally opaque (like fins, overhangs,
neighboring buildings, and the building’s own wall and roof sur-
faces) but can be transmitting (like a tree or translucent awning). The flux incident on the window from direct sun is inc
Exterior obstructions are assumed to be non-reflecting. If Lsky is = Aw EDN cos ˇ fsunlit . (20)
the sky luminance and  obs is the transmittance of the obstruction
(assumed independent of incidence angle), then L = Lsky  obs . Interior
obstructions are assumed to be opaque ( obs = 0).
The transmitted flux is  = T (ˇ) inc (21)

5.2. Transmitted flux from sky and ground
The luminous flux incident on the center of the window from
a luminous element of sky or ground at angular position (, ), of
luminance L (, ), and subtending a solid angle cosdd is
where T is the net transmittance of the window glazing (plus shade,
if present).
For an unshaded window all of the transmitted flux is downward
since the sun always lies above the window midplane. Therefore
FW,unsh =  and CW,unsh = 0.

dinc = Aw L(, ) cos ˇ cos dd (11)

5.3. Solar gains
The transmitted flux is d = dinc T (ˇ) (12)
Solar radiation incident on a window is calculated separately as
where T(ˇ) is the window spectral transmittance for light at inci-
sun, sky, and ground radiation. A different transmittance must be
dence angle ˇ. This transmittance depends on whether or not the
applied for each type of radiation.
window has a shade.
For beam radiation the TDD beam transmittance  TDD () for the
For an unshaded window the total downgoing transmitted flux
solar spectrum is used as described above. For sky and ground radi-
is obtained by integrating over the part of the exterior hemisphere
ation a diffuse transmittance for the TDD must be developed. The
seen by the window that lies above the window midplane. This
transmittance of diffuse radiation can be defined as the total trans-
gives
mitted flux divided by the total incident flux.
 
max (2) 
I
FW,unshaded = Aw L(, )T (ˇ) cos ˇ cos dd (13) diff =  trans (22)
Iinc
min 0
For a given pipe or TDD,  diff,iso is a constant. The program calculates
The upgoing flux is obtained similarly by integrating over the part  diff,iso once during initialization using a numerical integration.
of the exterior hemisphere that lies below the window midplane: The diffuse isotropic transmittance is useful, but not sufficient, for
determining the transmittance of sky radiation. As described in the

max 0 Sky Radiance Model section, sky radiation has an anisotropic distri-
CW,unshaded = Aw L(, )T (ˇ) cos ˇ cos dd (14) bution modeled as the superposition of three simple distributions:
a diffuse isotropic background, a circumsolar brightening near the
min /2−w
sun, and a horizon brightening. While the daylighting model is
where w is the angle the window outward normal makes with the capable of calculating the luminance of any position in the sky, the
horizontal plane. solar code only calculates the ultimate irradiance on a surface. For
For a window with a diffusing shade the total transmitted flux this reason it is not possible to integrate over an angular distribu-
is tion function for sky radiance. Instead the three sky distributions
must be handled piecewise.

max 
/2
It is important to note that transmittance above is for the total
sh = Aw L(, )T (ˇ) cos ˇ cos dd (15) TDD. The transmittance of the dome and diffuser must be included
min /2−w to account for their angular dependence as well. The beam trans-
mittance is used as an approximation for all circumsolar radiation.
The downgoing and upgoing portions of this flux are Since the radiance of the horizon is isotropic, and therefore constant
across the entire horizon, the actual value of the radiance cancels
FW,sh = (1 − f ); CW,sh = f (16)
out. The result is a constant that is calculated once during initial-
where f, the fraction of the hemisphere seen by the inside of ization. Ground radiation is assumed to be isotropic diffuse. The
the window that lies above the window midplane, is given by transmittance of ground radiation is the diffuse isotropic transmit-
f = 0.5 − w /. tance  diff,gnd =  diff,iso .
 J.T. Kim, M.S. Todorovic / Energy and Buildings 63 (2013) 108–118
The solar flux transmitted by a TDD due to beam, sky, and ground
radiation is calculated as normal for a window but uses the respec-
tive transmittances for the TDD.
qTDD−trans,beam = (Isun cos )fsunlit TDD ()
qTDD−trans,sky = Ih,sky fskymult TDD,diff,aniso
qTDD−trans,gnd = (Isun cos  + Ih,sky )Fsk TDD,diff,iso
where, Isun = solar beam intensity of the sun; Ih,sky = total hori-
zontal diffuse solar radiation due to the sky;  = incident angle
of the beam on the dome; fsunlit = sunlit beam fraction of the
dome area; fskymult = anisotropic sky view multiplier (see AnisoSky-
Mult); Fsg = view from ground to dome;  TDD () = TDD beam
transmittance;  TDD,diff,aniso = TDD anisotropic sky transmittance;
 TDD,diff,iso = TDD isotropic diffuse transmittance
5.4. Switchable glazing
For switchable glazing, such as electrochromics, the solar and
visible optical properties of the glazing can switch from a light state
to a dark state. The switching factor, fswitch , determines what state
the glazing is in. An optical property, p, such as transmittance or
glass layer absorptance, for this state is given by
p = (1 − fswitch )plight + fswitch pdark
where plight is the property value for the unswitched, or light state,
and pdark is the property value for the fully switched, or dark state.
The value of the switching factor in a particular time step depends
on what type of switching control has been specified: “schedule,”
“trigger,” or “daylighting.” If “schedule,” fswitch = schedule value,
which can be 0 or 1.
6. Conclusions
Reviewed is the most recent analytical and experimental
research, current state of knowledge, science and art, as well as
some of the on-going R&D on the healthy buildings daylighting
dynamic control’s performance optimization.
It has been shown that, concerning the variability of the solar
radiation spectra incident on the building’s envelope, and also vari-
ability of outdoor and indoor air temperature difference, with and
aim to optimize daylighting with the reference to people needs
(their health and comfort), and energy (thermal and electrical loads
minimization), it is necessary to realize tuning control of glazing’s
transmittance dependence on the solar radiation wavelength.
Presented are basic elements for the development of an analyt-
ical model, aimed to be used for the invention of might be a new
optimal control method, and/or new material and technology.
Understanding the properties of spectral distributions of solar
and daylight spectra and its dynamical changes with varying
atmospheric conditions is to be improved. For their precise deter-
mination (mathematically and measuring, as well as vice-versa via
inverse modeling) a need for new research approach is outlined.
Outlined are as necessary: advanced biomimetically inven-
tive research in material science, nano level materials intrinsic
phenomena relevant for the fine DL natural wavelength tuning
and related mathematical description – modeling (experimentally
verified); enriched innovative co-simulation/modeling, and syner-
getic inter-operative experimenting/on-line co-simulation based
dynamic control tools development.
117
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation
of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (No.
(23) 2008-0061908).
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