Chapter 6

Architecture and
Infrastructure
 Learning Objectives

• Understand how strategy drives architecture, which then drives

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

infrastructure.

• Identify and define the three configurations for IT architecture.

• Define how business goals can be translated into IT architecture and

then into infrastructure.

• Know the different types of frameworks used to design and build the IT
architecture and infrastructure.
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• Understand the importance of knowing the details of the existing

architecture and infrastructure of the organization.
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 From Vision to Implementation

• Architecture translates strategy into infrastructure (Figure 6.1).

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

• The architect develops plans based on a vision of how the customer will use the
system (or in the example a house), which is a blueprint of the company’s
systems.
• Home architect develops a blueprint of a proposed house —based on customer

• Business architect develops a “blueprint” of a company’s proposed

systems—based on strategy
• This IT architecture “blueprint” is used for translating business strategy into a
plan for IS.
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• The IT infrastructure is everything that supports the flow and processing of

information (e.g., hardware, software, data, and networks).

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 Figure 6.1 From abstract to concrete – building vs. IT.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter
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© John Wiley & Sons

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 The Manager’s Role

• The manager’s role is to:

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o Understand what to expect from IT architecture and infrastructure to

make full and realistic use of them.
o Effectively communicate the business vision to IT architects and
implementers.
o Modify the plans if IT cannot realistically support them.
o Be involved in the decision-making process.
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 From Strategy to Architecture

• The manager must start out with a strategy.

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o Use the strategy to develop more specific goals (Figure 6.2).

• Business requirements for each goal must be fleshed out in

order to provide the architect with a clear picture of what IS must

accomplish.

• The manager must work with the IT architect.

o Translate the business requirements into a more detailed view of the
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systems requirements, standards, and processes.

• The architectural requirements include considerations such as:

o Data demands, process demands, and security objectives. 6-6
 From Architecture to Infrastructure
• This stage entails adding more detail to the architectural plan such as:
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o specifying hardware, data, networking, and software(Figure 6.2).

• Decisions are made about how to implement these specifications:

o What hardware, software, storage, interface, network, etc. to use in the

infrastructure.

• Components must be assembled in a coherent pattern according to the blueprint

in order to have a viable infrastructure.

• Infrastructure has several levels:

o Global level
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o Interorganizational level
o Application-level

• Infrastructure also refers to the platform. 6-7

 Figure 6.2 From strategy to business requirements.
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© John Wiley & Sons

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 Example
• Strategy: Be a customer-oriented company
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

Goal: 30-day money back guarantee

Business Requirement: ability to track problems

Goal: Answer email questions within 6 hours

Business Requirement: Ability to handle the volume
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© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9 6-9

 The Example Continues
▪ Business Requirement: Ability to track purchases
• Architectural Requirement:
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

Database that can handle all details of more than a

30-day history

▪ Adds more detail to the architectural plan.

▪ actual hardware, software, data, and networking
▪ Components need coherent combination
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 The Example Continues
❑ Architectural Requirement: Database that can
handle all details of more than a 30-day history
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

Functional Specification: be able to hold 150,000 customer

records, 30 fields; be able to insert 200 records per hour
Hardware specification: 3 gigaherz Core 2 Duo Server
Hardware specification: half terabyte RAID level 3 hard
drive array
Software specification: Apache operating system
Software specification: My SQL database
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Data protocol: IP (internet protocol)

11 6-11
 A Framework for the Translation

• The framework for transforming business strategy into architecture

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

and then into infrastructure should consider basic components

(Figure 1.8):
o Hardware – physical components.
o Software – programs.
o Network – software and hardware.
o Data – numbers and text.

• Understanding the technology behind each component of the

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infrastructure and the technical requirements of the architecture is a

much more complex task.

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 Figure 6.3 Infrastructure and architecture analysis framework with sample questions.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter
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 A Framework for Translation (Cont.)

• Managers must begin with an overview that is complete and delivers

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

a big picture.
o Figure 6.3 entails questions that typify those asked in addressing
architecture and infrastructure issues associated with each component.

• The framework asks three types of questions that must be answered

for each infrastructure component:

o What is the specific type of technology?
Who is involved (individuals, groups, departments)?
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o Where is everything located?

• Figure 6.3 shows the connections between the business strategy and
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 Common IT Architecture
Configurations
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

• Three common configurations of IT architecture (Figure 6.4).

o Centralized architecture: everything is purchased, supported, and

managed centrally via a data center.
o A large data center with a mainframe and a number of legacy mainframe
environments.
o Many computers are linked together to form a centralized IT core that
operates very much like the mainframe, providing the bulk of IT services
necessary for the business.
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 Common IT Architecture
Configurations (Cont.)
• Decentralized architecture arranges the hardware, software,
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

networking, and data in a way that distributes the processing and

functionality between multiple small computers, servers, and devices.
o Relies heavily on a network to connect them.
o Utilizes numerous servers located in different physical locations.
o A server-based architecture.

• Service-oriented Architecture (SOA) utilizes relatively small chunks of

functionality available for many applications or reuse.

o Useful for building applications quickly.
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o Offers managers a modular and componentized design that is easily modifiable.

o SOA utilizes software-as-a-service (SaaS) or Web services.

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 Figure 6.4 Common architectures.
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© John Wiley & Sons 6-17

 Centralized Versus Decentralized
Architectures
• A manager must be aware of the trade-offs when considering
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

centralized versus decentralized architectures.

o Decentralized architectures are more modular than centralized
architectures.
o Additional servers can be added with relative ease and provide greater
flexibility for adding clients with specific functionality for specific
users.
o Decentralized organizational governance, such as that associated with
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the networked organization structure, is consistent with decentralized

architectures.
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 Additional Infrastructures
• Peer-to-peer – allows networked computers to share resources without a
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

central server.

• Wireless (mobile) – allows communication from remote locations using a

variety of wireless technologies.

• Web-based – significant hardware, software, and possibly even data elements

that reside on the Internet.

o Offers greater flexibility when used as a source for capacity-on-demand or for
additional processing capability for a fee.

• Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) - employees bring their own devices and
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connect to enterprise systems.

o Raises issues with capacity, security, and compatibility.
o Consumerization of IT – the push for employees and customers to use their own
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devices to access corporate systems and the ensuing issues to make them work.
 From Strategy to Architecture to
Infrastructure
• The process of converting strategy to architecture to infrastructure:
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o Define the strategic goals.

o Translate goals into business requirements.
o Specify architectural requirements.
o Translate specs into hardware, software, data protocols, interface designs,
and other components that will make up the infrastructure.

• Figure 6.5 lists questions raised when applying the framework to TennisUp’s

architecture goals and related infrastructure.

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• Figure 6.6 lists possible infrastructure components.

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 Figure 6.5 Framework application to TennisUp.
Component What Who Where
Architecture Infrastructure Architecture Infrastructure Architecture Infrastructure
Hardware What kind of Will TennisUp’s NA Who is Where does Which hardware
supplemental current dual CPU responsible for responsibility for components will
server capacity will NT servers handle setting up owning and need to be replaced
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

the new EDI the capacity, or will necessary maintaining EDI or modified to
transactions the company have to hardware at the hardware fall connect to the new
require? add additional CPUs partner site? within TennisUp? EDI hardware?
and/or disks?
Software What parts of Will TennisUp’s Who knows the Who will do any NA Where will software
TennisUp’s current Access current software new SQL coding patches be required
software database interface architecture well required to to achieve
architecture will adequately with the enough to manage accommodate the compatibility with
the new new EDI software? the EDI new software? changes resulting
architecture affect? enhancements? from new software
components?
Network What is the High volume may Who is responsible NA Where will Where will
anticipated volume require leased lines for additional security concerns TennisUp house
of transactions to carry transaction networking expense arise in new networking
between TennisUp data; dial-up incurred by partners TennisUp’s hardware required
and its connections may due to increased current network for EDI?
manufacturing suffice for low demands of EDI architecture?
partners? volume. architecture?
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Data Will data formats Which formats must Who will be Who will be Where does the Does the new
supporting the new TennisUp translate? responsible for responsible for current architecture require
architecture be using sales data to backing up architecture TennisUp to switch
compatible with project future additional data contain potential from its current
TennisUp’s existing volumes to report to resulting from bottlenecks given 10Base-T Ethernet
formats? the manufacturing new architecture? the changes to 100Base-T?
partner? anticipated in 6-21
data flows?
 Figure 6.6 TennisUP’s infrastructure components.

Hardware Software Network Data

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

3 servers: ERP system with Cable modem to Database:

•Sales modules for: ISP •Sales
•Manufacturing •Manufacturing •Manufacturing
•Accounting •Sales Dial-up lines for •Accounting
•Accounting backup
Storage systems •Inventory
Routers
Enterprise Application Hubs
Integration (EAI) Switches
software Firewalls
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© John Wiley & Sons

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 Architectural Principles

• Based on a set of principles or fundamental beliefs about how the

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

architecture should function.

• Architecture principles must be consistent with both the

enterprise values as well as the technology used in the infrastructure.

• The number of principles vary widely.

• Principles should define the desirable behaviors of the IT systems

and the role of the organization(s) that support it.

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• Sample architectural principles (Figure 6.7).

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 Enterprise Architecture
• The “blueprint” for all IS and its interrelationships in the firm.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

• Specifies how IT will support business processes by identifying:

o core processes of the company and how they will work together.
o how the IT systems will support the processes.
o the standard technical capabilities and activities for all parts of the
enterprise.
o Guidelines for making choices.

• Four key elements:

1. Core business processes.
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2. Shared data.
3. Linking and automation technologies.
4. Customer groups.
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 Figure 6.7 Sample architectural principles.
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 Enterprise Architectures (Cont.)

• TOGAF (The Open Group Architecture Framework)

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o Includes a methodology and set of resources for developing an enterprise

architecture.

• Zachman Framework

o Determines architectural requirements by providing a broad view that

guides the analysis of the detailed view.

• Building an enterprise architecture is a joint exercise with business

leaders and IT leaders.

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• Business processes are designed concurrently with IT systems.

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 Virtualization and Cloud Computing
• Virtualization infrastructure - computing capabilities,
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

storage, and networking provided by a third party or group of

vendors, usually over the Internet or through a private network (e.g.,
virtualized desktop).
o Includes servers, storage, backup, network, and disaster recovery.
o Enables resources to be shared and allocated as needed by the user.
o Makes maintenance easier since resources are centralized.

• Cloud computing - virtual infrastructure provided over the

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Internet.

• SaaS (Software as a Service), PaaS (Platform as a Service), and

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IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service).
 Virtualization and Cloud Computing
(Cont.)
• Users purchase capacity-on-demand.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

• Utility computing - computing capability is purchased on an as-needed basis.

• Examples of applications in the cloud:

o Salesforce.com, Facebook, Gmail, Windows Azure, Apple iTunes, and

LinkedIn.

• Benefits of virtualization and cloud computing:

o Consolidated physical servers.

o Reduced physical costs of the data center.
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o No upgrading.
o No maintenance, power, or electricity costs.
o No need for physical space or storage servers.
o Increased speed of attaining additional capacity (provisioning). 6-28
 Virtualization and Cloud Computing –
Managerial Considerations
• Managers must also understand the risks of a third-party supplier.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o Retooling existing applications for the cloud’s infrastructure.

o No established standards for virtual infrastructure.
o Applications not porting easily from one vendor’s infrastructure to
another’s.

• As coordination costs drop and platforms in the cloud open up,

cloud computing utilization will increase.

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 Understanding Existing Architecture

• The primary reason to base architecture on an organization’s

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

strategic goals is to allow for inevitable future changes to:

o the business environment.
o organization.
o IT requirements.
o the technology itself.

• Future consideration for IT architecture should include:

analysis of the existing architecture.

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o the strategic time frame.

o technological advances.
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o financial constraints.
 Understanding Existing Architecture
- Managerial Considerations
• Relevant questions for managers:
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o What IT architecture is already in place?

o Is the company developing the IT architecture from scratch?
o Is the company replacing an existing architecture?
o Does the company need to work within the confines of an existing
architecture?
o Is the company expanding an existing architecture?

•
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A strong business strategy is a prerequisite for IT architecture

design, which is a prerequisite for infrastructure design.

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 Additional Managerial Considerations

• Managers can derive the most value and incur minimal loss when
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

working with legacy architectures and infrastructures by

objectively analyzing:
1. the existing architecture and infrastructure.
2. the strategy served by the existing architecture.
3. the ability of the existing architecture and infrastructure to further
the current strategic goals.

• Managers must ensure that the architecture will satisfy their strategic
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requirements and that it is modern and efficient.

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 Assessing Strategic Time Frame
• Understanding the life span of IT infrastructure and architecture is
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

critical.

• Strategic time frames depend on industry-wide factors such as:

o the level of commitment to fixed resources, maturity of the industry,

cyclicality, and barriers to entry.

• Business strategy planning horizon.

• Management reliance on IT and on the specific rate of advances

affecting IT.
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• Design with maximum flexibility and scalability to ensure handling

of future business changes.

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 Factors to Consider in Assessing
Strategic Time Frame
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Adaptability
Scalability
Standardization
Maintainability
Security
Financial
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 Assessing Technical Issues: Adaptability
• Can the architecture adapt to emerging technologies?
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• Must be able to handle and absorb technological advances.

o Innovations in storage capacity and computing power.

o Unexpected technological leaps.

• Consider both hardware and software.

• Guidelines for planning adaptable IT architecture and infrastructure:

o Plan for applications and systems that are independent and loosely
coupled rather than monolithic.
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o Set clear boundaries between infrastructure components.

o Provide access to all users when it makes sense to do so (e.g. security
concerns) when designing a network architecture.
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 Assessing Technical Issues: Scalability

• Refers to how well an infrastructure component can adapt to

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increased, or in some cases decreased, demands.

• A scalable network system should start with just a few nodes but

have the ability to easily expand to thousands of nodes.

• It is important to analyze the impact of strategic business

decisions on IT architecture and infrastructure.

• Ensure a contingency plan exists for potential unexpected effects

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of a strategy change.

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 Assessing Technical Issues:
Standardization
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

• Hardware and software use a common standard.

• Easier to plug into infrastructure or architecture (e. g., Microsoft

Office suite).
o Interfaces often accompany the standard.
o It is easy to move data between systems.
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 Assessing Technical Issues:
Maintainability
• The manager needs to ask:
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o How easy is it to maintain the infrastructure?

o Are replacement parts available?
o Are support services available?

• Maintainability is a key technical consideration.

o The complexity of the systems increases the number of things that

can go wrong, need fixing, or need replacing.
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• Should a technology become obsolete, costs skyrocket for parts and

expertise.
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 Assessing Technical Issues: Security
• Major concern for business and IT managers.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

• Must protect key data and process elements of the IT infrastructure.

• Extends outside the boundaries of the company (e.g., customer data).

• Innovations encrypt or disguise sensitive information, financial

information, and business information.

• Securing assets in a highly centralized, mainframe architecture means

building protection around the centralized core.

•
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Decentralized, server-based architecture is more difficult to secure due to

the dispersion of servers.

• Web-based SOA that utilizes SaaS and capacity on demand raises a

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 Assessing Technical Issues: Security
(Cont.)
• The security of networks continues to improve through:
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

o innovations such as authentication, passwords, digital

signatures, encryption, secure servers, and firewalls.
o new schemes for security such as securing specific assets instead of
just securing the perimeter of a system.

• Managing security is often a matter of managing risk.

o Assessing the likelihood of a breach and the cost of that breach in

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terms of loss and recovery.

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 Assessing Financial Issues
• IT infrastructure components should be evaluated based on their expected
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

financial value (Figure 6.8).

• Payback from IT investments is difficult to quantify.

o Takes the form of increased productivity, increased interoperability with
business partners, improved service for customers, etc.
o Focus on how IT investments enable business objectives rather than on their
quantitative returns.
o Quantify returns on infrastructure investments by:
1. Quantifying costs.
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2. Determining the anticipated life cycles of system components.

3. Quantifying benefits.
4. Quantifying risks.
5. Considering ongoing dollar costs and benefits. 6-41
 Figure 6.8 TennisUp’s managerial considerations.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter
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 Chapter 6 - Key Terms
Architecture (p. 169) - provides a blueprint for translating business
strategy into a plan for IS.
Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

Bring-your-own-device (BYOD) (p. 177) - employees bring

their own devices and connect to enterprise systems.
Capacity-on-demand (p. 177) - the availability of additional processing
capability for a fee.
Centralized architecture (p. 173) - everything is purchased,
supported, and managed centrally via a data center to eliminate
the difficulties that come with managing a distributed infrastructure.
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Client (p. 175) - a device or software program that requests data and
sometimes instructions from another software program, usually running on
a separate computer.
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 Chapter 6 - Key Terms (Cont.)

Cloud computing (p. 183) - an architecture based on services

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

provided over the Internet.

Consumerization of IT (p. 177) - the drive to port applications to
personal devices and the ensuing issues to make them work.
Decentralized architecture (p. 174) - The hardware, software,
networking, and data arranged in a way that distributes the processing
and functionality between multiple small computers, servers, and
devices, relying heavily on a network to connect them together.
6

Enterprise architecture (p. 180) - the “blueprint” for all IS and its
interrelationships in the firm.
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 Chapter 6 - Key Terms (Cont.)

Infrastructure (p. 169) - everything that supports the flow and

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

processing of information in an organization, including hardware,

software, data, and network components.
Peer-to-peer (p. 176) - allows networked computers to share
resources without a central server playing a dominant role.
Platform (p. 172) - an infrastructure or an underlying computer
system.
Reuse (p. 174) - relatively small chunks of functionality available for
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many applications.

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 Chapter 6 - Key Terms (Cont.)

Scalable (p. 188) - how well an infrastructure component can adapt to

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

increased, or in some cases decreased, demands.

Server-based architecture (p. 174) - a decentralized architecture
that uses numerous servers often located in different physical locations.
Service-oriented architecture (SOA) (p. 174) - applications
delivered over the Internet.
Standards (p. 188) - rules or principles.
TOGAF (p. 182) (The Open Group Architecture Framework) - a
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methodology and set of resources for developing an enterprise

architecture.
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 Chapter 6 - Key Terms (Cont.)

Utility computing (p. 184) - computing infrastructure available when

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

needed in as much quantity as needed.

Virtualization (p. 183) - a virtual infrastructure where software
replaces hardware in a way that a “virtual machine” or a virtual desktop
system” was accessible to provide computing power.
Web-based architectures (p. 176) - architectures in which
significant
hardware, software, and possibly even data elements reside on the
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Internet.
Web services (p. 175) - services delivered over the Internet.
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 Chapter 6 - Key Terms (Cont.)

Wireless (Mobile) Infrastructure (p. 176) - allow communication

Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

from remote locations using a variety of wireless technologies (e.g.,

fixed microwave links, wireless LANs, data over cellular networks)
Zachman Framework (p. 182) - determines architectural
requirements by providing a broad view that helps guide the analysis of
the detailed view.
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 Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Pearlson and Saunders – 5th Ed. – Chapter

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