A COMPREHENSIVE HANDOUT ON CENTRAL

COMPOSITE DESIGN (CCD)

COMPILE BY: OLAWOYE, Babatunde
FOR MORE ON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN,
CALL: +2347068110907
EMAIL: btolawoye@gmail.com
Response surface methodology, or RSM, is a collection of mathematical and statistical

techniques useful for the modeling and analysis of problems in which a response of interest is

influenced by several variables and the objective is to optimize this response. For example,

suppose that a chemical engineer wishes to find the levels of temperature (x1) and pressure (x2)

that maximize the yield (y) of a process.

This optimize response can either be maximum, minimum or targeted values. Maximum is the

case of maximum enzyme yield when the factors such as temperature, pH and time of fermentation

are being optimized. It can also be minimum in the case of microbial contamination and can be

targeted when increase or decrease in the parameter will be regarded as defects such as the strength

of material.

Response surface methodology can basically be categorized into two groups namely:

(1) Box-Behnken Design

(2) Central Composite Design

In Box-Behnken Design the minimum number of factors (continuous or numerical factors) it can

accommodate is 3 and it has 3 level of factors namely

Upper level

Lower level

Centre point

For the purpose of this lesson I will be dwelling much on Central Composite Design.
Central Composite design is a response surface design which apart from the 3 level factors has

axial or star point. The axial or star point usually denoted as (α) increases the number of levels to

5 levels thereby giving the experimental design flexibility.

Its advantages over Box-Behnken is that it allows the experimental designer to know what effect

the factors had on response is the experimental designer goes beyond or below the chosen levels

of factors.

However, in Central Composite Design the minimum numbers of factors it can accommodate is

two (i.e. numerical or continuous factors)

The number of experimental obtained at each number of factors is given by the formula

N = 2n + 2×n + nc

Where N is the number of runs

N is the number of factors

nc is the number of centre points the designer desire

For example, if we have 2 factors then;

N = 22 + 2×2 + nc (which can be set between 2 to 6)

Therefore, N = 4 + 4 +2 (if the number of centre point is assumed to be 2)

N = 10 runs

So in a n experiment where the experimenter wants to look at the effect of temperature and pressure

on methanol yield. The Central Composite Design will be like this:

 Factors -α (1.1414) -1 (lower 0 (centre +1 (upper +α (1.414)

(axial point) level) point) level) (axial point)

X1 (Temperature) 53.79 60 75 90 96.21

X2 (Pressure) 3.965 5 7.5 10 11.035

To get value for the axial point we need to first get the value for α

Alpha (α) = 2k/4 where K is the number of factor

For the example above where the number of factors is two

Therefore, α = 22/4 = 21/2 = √2 which is equal to 1.414

To get value for the axial point, we apply this equation.

Axial point = mean of both the upper or lower level ± α (range between the upper and lower level

divided by 2)

Axial point = X ± α (Range/2)

For the above example

Axial point for temperature = 75 ± 1.414 ((90-60)/2)

= 75 ± 1.414 (30/2)

= 75 ± 1.414 (15)

= 75 ± 21.21

For the upper axial point (i.e. + α) = 75+21.21 = 96.21

For the lower axial point (i.e. – α) = 75-21.21 = 53.79

Applying the same formula for the calculation of axial points for pressure we have

Axial point = 7.5 ± 1.414 (5/2)

Upper axial point = 7.5 + 1.414 (2.5) = 11.035

Lower axial point = 7.5 – 1.414 (2.5) = 3.965

The combination of the experimental run for the coded value will be:

*
Note that the number of experimental run for the discussed example is 10 runs

Therefore, the experimental runs are shown in table 2

Table 2 showing the experimental design for both the coded and actual value.

Experiment Runs X1 (Temperature ˚C) X2 (Pressure bar) Yield

1 -1 (70) -1 (5)

2 1 (90) -1 (5)

3 -1 (70) 1 (10)

4 1 (90) 1 (10)

5 - α (96.21) 0 (7.5)

6 α (53.79) 0 (7.5)

7 0 (75) - α (11.035)

8 0 (75) α (3.965)

9 0 (75) 0 (7.5)

10 0 (75) 0 (7.5)
*
Note: Runs 1 to 4 is known as factorial runs, runs 5 to 8 is kwon as axial runs while runs 9 and

10 is known as centre point.

The meaning of the table above is that when carrying out the experiment for example for runs 1,

you set the temperature and pressure of the equipment you are using to 70 ˚C and 5 bar respectively

and you find your response which is percentage methanol yield.

Application using Design Expert 8.1

Now we would practice the above example using Design expert 7 or 8.1. For the purpose of this

lesson we would be using Design Expert 7.0 trial.

Don’t forget the example we are considering is that a chemical engineer which to know the effect

of temperature and pressure on the yield of methanol from sesame seed with the view of optimizing

the processing condition for maximum methanol yield.

This example will be treated on Design Expert step by step.

Step 1

Click on design expert icon on your desktop.

Depending on the version you are using something like this will pop-up.
Fig 1
Step 2: Click on file and select new. Something like this will display.

Fig 2.

A careful look at figure 2 you will see response surface circled. This mean that after the new file

is display, click on Response Surface and this will lead us to step 3

Step 3: Click on Response Surface and Select Central Composite

Fig. 3

A careful look at Fig 3, four points are highlighted and labelled accordingly. Each of the point will

be discuss

Point 1:

Point 1 show numerical factor. This is also known as continuous factors; this are factors that can

be assigned numerical values. i.e. they can be assign number. This number of numerical factors

that Central Composite can accommodate ranges from 2 to 30 factors. It is at this point you choose

the number of factor you want to vary for your experimental design

*
Note the number of factors you choose will determine the number of experimental runs you will

have at the end of the experiment.

Below the numerical factors is Categorical factors in which the number that can be accommodated

by Central Composite Design ranges from 0 to 10.

Categorical factors are factors that cannot be assigned numerical value to. They can only be assign

attribute which can either be for example good or bad, fast or slow, hard or soft. It can also be type

of equipment or solvent (water, ethanol, methanol, hexane, acetyl acetate), likewise it can be type

of enzymes (protease, pancratin, papain, acalyaze. novozyme etc).

*
Note: having a categorical factor definitely increase the number of runs.
Point 2.

In point 2 the key words there are numbers of centre point which is denoted as 5, α which is

1.41421, how to calculate α has already been discussed in our previous discussion. For clarification

stroll up to page 4. Finally, the number of runs which is 13 Runs.

Note that in our previous discussion (table 2) the number of centre points is 2. This I said the

choose of the number of centre points depends on individual experimenter which will lead us to

point 3.

Point 3.

In this point you will see that what was circled there is Option, a click on this point will allow the

experimenter to modify or change the number of centre points, alpha type to either rotatable or

spherical. This is shown in fig 4.

Fig 4.

A change of the centre points from 5 to 2 will reduce the experimental runs to 10
Point 4.

Fig 5.

In point 4, you can modify all the component to your desire value or name. let us now discuss each

component one by one

Component 1 (Name): this denote the name of the numerical factors which is “Temperature and

Pressure” as in the case of the example we are treating. A click on the name “A or B” will allow

you to type your desire name of the factor you are varying.

Component 2 (Units): this denote the units of the variables or factor you are using. For example,

for temperature the unit can either be degree Celsius or Kelvin while that of pressure can either be

in “bar” mmHg or psi.

Component 3 and 4 (-1 and +1 level): This denote the range of level to be considered in the

experimental design. Levels indicate the values of the factor or variable to be used in the design.

+1 indicate upper levels while -1 indicate lower level. For example, the levels we would be

considering for the example we are treating is 70 ˚C as the lower level (-1) for temperature and 90

˚C as the upper level (+1) also for temperature. For pressure the upper and the lower level are 5

and 10 bar respectively.

Component 5 and 6 (-α and +α): This denote the values of both the upper axial point (+α) and

lower axial point (-α) as was shown in fig 5 as ± 1.41421.

*
Note when both the upper and lower level are inputted, the values of the axial point will

automatically change as can be seen in fig 6.

Fig 6.

It should however be noted that the categorical factor is left unchanged, assuming the categorical

factor is assumed to be 1. This will automatically affect the number of runs, this can be seen in fig

7.

Fig 7.

*
Note that categorical factors are factors or variables that cannot be assigned numerical value to.

Therefore, to assign values for categorical factors u click continue as can be seen in step 4
Step 4

Click on continue as circled in the fig below.

Fig 8.
After clicking on the continue button, fig 9 will pop up

Fig 9.

Just like fig 3, there are also four points in fig 9.

Point 1 indicate the factor name, here you can modify the name to the name you want to give the

categorical factor.
Point 2 indicate the number of rows or runs the experimental will eventually get if he or she have

a categorical factor.

Point 3 indicate the number of level the categorical factors can ranged from. Unlike like the

numerical factor which only have 5 levels namely the upper level (+1), lower level (-1) centre

points (0), upper axial point (+α) and the lower axial point (-α), categorical factors level ranges

from 2 to 999.

It should be noted however that as the level of the categorical factors increases the experimental

runs also increases.

Point 4 indicate the level to which the factor is to be consider. This levels can only be alphabetical

value or attribute and not numerical value. Example of alphabetical values or attribute are like eg

for whether condition (hot or cold), for solvent type (water, hexane, acetone, methanol or ethanol).

After modifying the date in each component, click on continue button below at the right hand side.

Step 5

After clicking on the continue button, fig 9 will appear. Here you have the number responses, name

and units
Fig 10.

First the response number is the number of response the experimenter wants to look the effects of

variables on. This response is the outcome or result; what you are measuring (cycle time to produce

one bottle, yield of methanol or biodiesel).

The second is the response name which is the name in which the outcome or the result will be (this

can be % yield) while the last is the unit in which the outcome or results is measured.

After modifying the data in this figure, click on the continue button below.
Here comes the full experimental design

Fig 11. Experimental design with categorical factor.

However, if there is no categorical factor the experimental design will be like that shown in fig 12
Fig 12

For the purpose of this lesson we would be considering the one with no categorical factor
A critical look at the response or yield column, we would discover that the column is empty. This

is the column where the result obtained from the experimental design will be input.

Lets’ take Run 1 for example, to obtain result for runs 1, the experimenter will set the experimental

condition to the temperature of 70 ˚C and a pressure of 5bar. The result of the experiment obtained

will be supply in the yield column. This will be done for all the runs until the yield column is fixed

up as shown in fig 13.

Fig 13.

As shown in fig 13, the circled column contained the result or outcome of the experimentation.

After inputting the result of the experimentation, we will now analyze the result to known which

of the parameters are significant or not and to also detect maybe the model of the experiment is

significant or not. If the model of the experiment is significant, it shows that the experimental

result obtained during the experimentation are correct for the analysis. However, if the model of
the result is not significant, it shows that the result of the experimentation is not accurate and the

experiment needs to be repeated again until the model is significant.

Now let us proceed to the analysis of the experimentation results. This will lead us to Step 6

Step 6: Result analysis

Before the analysis of the result, let us first discuss the features of the component which are circled

on the left side of the experimental design in fig 14.

Component 1.

This component is named Design (Actual). This is the component which contained the actual

experimental design. It contained 6 columns with the variable name and response name as well as

the number of experiment run.

Column 1 (Standard order)

Fig 14. Standard order being circled

The standard order column contains the arrangement of experimental runs in a standard order.

That’s arrangement of the experimental design in the order of factorial run, followed by axial run

and finally centre point run. A look at the standard order in fig 14, we will note that the numbering

is not in order (i.e. they did not follow each other). This means that the experimental design is not

in standard order but in runs order.

To arrange the experimental design in standard order, click on view on the menu bar at the top end

of the software interface and click on standard order. This will arrange the experimental runs in

standard runs as shown in fig 15.

Fig 15.

It can be seen in fig 15 that the standard order bar had been activated with the checked sign. Now

let us look at how the experimental runs will look like when being arrange in standard order. This

will be seen in fig 16

Fig 16 (a) fig 16 (b)

It can be seen that the experimental runs in standard order are now being numbered in ascending

order. This numbering can be categorized into factorial runs, axial runs and centre point run. This

arrangement is only pertaining to Central Composite Design. Other experimental design has their

own way of arrangement.

Fig 16 a&b are the same only that fig 16a represent experimental design in actual design while fig

16b represent the experimental design in coded value. This had been dealt with in our previous

discussion. To change the experimental design from actual value to coded value, click on Display

Options on the menu bar at the top corner of the software interface. Then click on process factor

on the drop down list and select coded.

Now let us discuss little about fig 16b. as can be seen, the experimental design is being divided

into three categories numbered 1 – 3.

Number 1 represent the factorial runs

Number 2 represent the axial runs

Number 3 represent the centre point runs as discussed earlier in this handout

Don’t forget we are still discussing some component in the experimental design interface, now

let’s move to component number 2

Component 2 (Summary):

This component shows the summary of the experimental design. This summary includes

(1) the study or type of design which is Response surface (*Note experimental design can be

classified into (1) Factorial design which is used for screening of experimental variables or factors,

(2) Response surface, which is used for optimization of variables or factors in order to obtained
either minimum, maximum or targeted response (outcome or result), and finally (3) Mixture

design, this is used where combination of component summed up to 100 or 1. In each of this

experimental design embedded different types of designs)

Fig 17.
(2). Initial design: this is the experimental design in which the experimental is currently being used

for the analysis. This is embedded within the Response Surface Design.

(3). The experimental model which is quadratic model.

The summary also contains the factor name, units, and types. All this had been dealt with in our

previous discussion. It also has the summary of the value low actual (lower level), high actual

(upper level), mean (centre point), low coded and high coded.

The summary also shows the response name, unit and number of observation as well as the

minimum and the maximum response value.

Component 3 (Graph columns): This shows the graphical representation of various factors against

the response (experimental results or outcome). The experimental factors are plotted at the X-axis

of the graph while the response is plotted at the Y-axis of the experimental graph. Each factor and

their responses are located at different points on the graph.

Component 4 (evaluation): This is also the same thing as the summary. This however shows the

summary of the analysis of the experimental design. In the evaluation interface, there are three

different interface namely (1) model, (2) results and (3) graphs

(1) The model: this contain the order of the model which can either be linear, mean, 2F1,

quadratic and cubic. The linear order contains only the linear terms which are the factors

alone. The linear terms for the experimental design we are considering in the handbook are

the temperature and pressure. The 2F1 order contains both the linear terms and the

interaction terms. The interaction term is the interaction between experimental variables or

factors. For this experimental design, the interaction term is the multiplication of the

temperature and pressure i.e. AB. The quadratic order contains the linear terms
 (temperature and pressure (A and B)), the interaction terms (AB) and the quadratic terms.

This quadratic term is the interaction between individual variables or factors or the square

of individual factors. i.e. A2 or B2

(2) Model. The model dialogue box contains both polynomial and factorial model. The

polynomial model is always used for response surface design while the factorial model is

used for factorial design

(2). Results

The result interface shows the summary of the results. This contains the degree of freedom for

evaluation for the model, residual, lack of fit, pure error and correlation total

(3). Graphs. This summarize the graphical representation of the experimental results in contour

and 3-D surface. It helps to show the combine effects of two factors or variable on the response

(results or outcome). If the experimental variables or factors are more than two, the graph will

show the combine of only two factors on the response while holding the third or fourth factors at

constant level. To view the graph either in contour or 3-D surface, just click on view on the menu

bar and click on either contour or 3-D surface graph. Both graph are shown in the figure below.
Graph in contour
Graph in 3-D surface

Component 5 (Analysis)

This component is where the result of the experimental design is being analyze. This component

will be discussed in full later in this handbook.

Component 6 (optimization)

This is the place where the variables or factors are being modify to obtained either maximum,

minimum or targeted response, result or outcome.

Finally let’s now analyze the result of our experimental design. I need you to pay maximum

attention to this aspect as this is the most critical aspect of the experimental design and I won’t like

you to be confuse at this point.

To analyze the results of the experimental design, we click on the name of the response under

analysis. Note that if you have more than one response, the name of individual response will appear

under analysis. To analyze each response, you click on the name of response you want to analyze.

Now to analyze our result we click on the name YEILD under analysis which will lead us to the

interface shown below.

Each task menu on the analysis interface is being circled and will be discuss one after the other.

1. Y^ transform.

This is where data, result or outcome of the experimental design is being transformed if they do

not conform to the assumption of analysis of variance (ANOVA). This data or results needs to be

transformed in other for it to conform to the assumption of analysis of variance. Data and results

that doesn’t conform to the analysis of variance include count data (i.e. data or results obtained as

a result of counting for example microbial count, insect count or population of either animal or

human). Other data that violate the assumption of ANOVA are data obtained as ratio, for example

ratio of boys and girls. These data need to be transformed before it can be analyze. Data than

conformed to the assumption of ANOVA are measurable data, for example weight, height volume,

time, distance of an object etc. these data can be used or analyze directly without being

transformed. Transformation to be carried out data or results that violated the assumption of
ANOVA depends on the type of data. To know data that violate the assumption of ANOVA it is

advisable to study “Handbook of introduction to Analysis of variance”.

2. Fit summary.

This is the second task bar in the analysis interface. This give the summary of the analysis of the

experimental data. This include the summary of the analysis of variance. Clicking on the Fit

Summary button starts the regression calculations to fit all of the polynomial models to the selected

response. The program calculates the effects for all model terms. It produces statistics such as p-

values, lack of fit, and R-squared values for comparing the models. If a statistically significant

model is detected, the program will underline and note the "Suggested" model. This becomes the

default model on the Model screen. This can be seen in the fig below.
 3. f (x) model

This is one of the most important of the task bar in the analysis interface. This is where the process

order is selected, the process order had already been discussed in our earlier discussion.

Automatically, quadratic order is selected by the software.

Model Editing: In the Model button, a pick list of model terms is displayed. Initially, all terms in

the selected model are turned on. A check mark appears before each selected term. De-select terms

from the model by left clicking on those terms and then right click and choose Clear from the drop

down menu (or hit the spacebar key.) Choose Select from the drop down menu to add terms. Also,

double clicking on a term will toggle Select/De-select.

You may create your own terms to add to the model (such as quartic terms). Simply type the

desired term into the box to the right of the Add Term button and then click on the Add button.

Added terms are allowed up to the fifth order and the powers must be positive integers. Inverse

terms are not allowed.

Model Reduction: Model reduction consists of eliminating those terms that are not desired. It can

be done manually or automatically.

There are three basic types of automatic model regression:

1. Step-Wise: A term is added, eliminated or exchanged at each step.

2. Backward elimination: A term is eliminated at each step. (Preferred method)

3. Forward selection: A term is added at each step.

For well-designed experiments (minimal collinearity problems) all three methods should yield the

same reduced model.

After selecting a model, you click on the ANOVA button. The analysis of variance, model

statistics, model coefficients, and prediction equations will be displayed on screen.

4. Anova.

After selecting the model for the analysis, then you move to the Anova task bar. This is where

the result of the experimental design is being shown. This contains Analysis of variance table,

which contain the source of variance, sum of square, degree of freedom (df), mean square F

value and P value. To understand the result better, I recommend that you have basic study of

analysis of variance. Let’s start discussion on the source of variance. Source of variance is the

source through which variation occur in the experimental results or outcome. And the sources

of variance are the Model, the factors (Temperature and Pressure), the interaction between the
variables or factor (AB), the quadratic terms (A2 and B2), residual, lack of fit, pure error and

correction total. Other parameter in the analysis of variance statistical calculation. The most

important parameter of the anova table is the P value, this value depends on the level of

significant chosen for the analysis. The level of significant usually in scientific experiment is

0.05 or 95%. This level of significant also known as confidence interval determine how

significant is the sources of variation is or not. If the p value of any of the sources of variance

is greater than the level of significance, then the sources of variance is not significant. Take for

example if the p-value for the model is greater than 0.05, then the model is not significant and

the implication of this is that the results obtained from the experimental design are not correct.

It is important that the model most always be significant. A non-significant model means that

the experimental analysis should be repeated. However, if other sources of variance are not

significant, it means they are not important for the experimental design. For example, in the

anova table the p-value for the temperature is 0.8741, this value is greater than the level of

significance and hence, the temperature is not significant in this experimental design. The

meaning is that the temperature does not have significant effect on the Yield of methanol.

Subjecting the experiment to high or low will not have effect on the yield of the methanol.

However, looking at the p-value of pressure, it would be observed that the value (0.0146) is

less than 0.05. hence, the pressure is significant factor to be consider in the yield of methanol.

Increasing or reducing the pressure will have significant effect on the yield of methanol. So

understanding the level of significance and p-value will help a lot to determine how significant

a source of variance is.

Fig showing the Anova table

Another important parameter in the Anova interface is the R-squared values which comprises of

R-squared, Adj R-Squared and Pred R-squared. Look at the adjusted and predicted R-squared

values in the fig. below. If this is a response surface design you want to use for modeling the design

space, then the R-squared values should be rather high (perhaps above 0.60, but this is not a "set

in stone" rule). However, if this is a factorial design you are using to simply identify the significant

factors, then it really doesn't matter what the value is. The significant factors are still significant,

even if the polynomial isn't perfect.

Fig showing the R-squared value.

Another important parameter is what I termed the coefficient of estimate table. This table is where

the modelling equation is being derived from. A look at the modelling equation for the coded

factor wish show that this equation is derived from the coefficient of estimate table as shown in

the figure below.

After viewing your result analysis of variance, the next step is for you to click on the diagnosis

interface where you test the validity of your result.

Diagnosis

This is the interface where you test the validity of your result. It contains arrays of graph to validate

the analysis. This graph or plot include; Normal plot, e1 vs. pred, ei vs Run, pred. vs Actual, Box

Cox and ei vs Factor. Let’s start discussing the graph or plot one after the other.

Normal plot: The normal probability plot indicates whether the “residuals” follow a normal

distribution, in which case the points will follow a straight line. Expect some moderate scatter even
with normal data. Look only for definite patterns like an "S-shaped" curve, which indicates that a

transformation of the response may provide a better analysis.

The word residual in quotation may sound strange because we have not discussed it before, now

let’s me shed more light on it. The word residual is the difference between the predicted value and

actual value. The actual value is the actual result or response you obtained in the course of

experimentation. Predicted value is value predicted by software. The word residual is denoted by

the sign “ei”. This can be seen in the figure below.

Figure showing normal plot.

ei vs pred.: This is also known as Residual versus predicted plot. This is a plot of the residuals

versus the ascending predicted response values. It tests the assumption of constant variance. The

plot should be a random scatter (constant range of residuals across the graph.) Expanding variance

(megaphone pattern) in this plot indicates the need for a transformation. This can be seen in the

figure below.

Figure showing the plot of residual against predicted value.

ei vs Run: This is a plot of the residuals versus the experimental run order. It allows you to check

for lurking variables that may have influenced the response during the experiment. The plot should

show a random scatter. Trends indicate a time-related variable lurking in the background. This is

shown in the figure below.

Figure showing the plot of residual against experimental run.

Predicted value vs Actual value graph: This is the most important plot in the diagnosis tool. It

helps you detect a value, or group of values, that are not easily predicted by the model. The data

points should be split evenly by the 45-degree line or it should form a straight line graph. If they

are not, you may try a transformation to improve the fit. This is shown in the figure below.

The value predicted from the model, generated by using the prediction equation. Includes block

and center point corrections, if present.

The predicted model is given by Y = Xβ

Figure showing the plot of predicted value against actual value.

One of the most important characteristics of the diagnosis tool is that it helps to show the

predicted response or value by this software. This predicted value can be seen by clicking on

“influence” in the diagnosis tool and clicking on report. This is illustrated in the figure below.

As shown in the figure below, the report contains the predicted value for the response (outcome

or result), the actual value or response, residual (difference between the actual value and

predicted value) e.t.c.

Figure showing report in diagnosis tool.

Finally, in the analysis interface we have the model graph.

Model graph are graph that show the combine effect of the factors on the responses. This graph

can with be in 2-D contour graph or 3-D surface plot. To switch between each graph, you first
click on the model graph in the analysis interphase and then go to view on the menu bar, a drop

down list will appear then click on either contour or 3-D surface.

Figure showing contour plot.

Figure shown 3-D surface plot.

However, if the factors are more than two factors, the combine effect of only two factors on the

response can only be plotted. The third factor is held at constant value. To choose the factors in

which their combine effect on the response is to be plotted as graph, you click on the factor tools

that will appear when you click on the model graph and you click on term dialogue box, a drop

down list will appear just click on the factor interaction you want their combine effect. This can

be seen in the figure below.

Component 6

Optimization: The is the process through with the factors or variables are optimized to either

maximum value, minimum value or targeted value.

There are three optimization choices, they are;

1. Numerical optimization:

Numerical optimization will search the design space, using the models you created in the

analysis, to find factor settings that meet the goals you define. First you must have decent

models (garbage in equals garbage out). Then you define the goals for each response.

Finally, the software will generate a list of potential factor settings that provide responses

that meet the criteria you defined.

Start by clicking on each response and selecting a Goal for it. Set the Lower and Upper

Limits for each goal. (The software uses the defaults of the response range as the lower and

upper limits, but those may not meet your true needs.). Here you set goals for each response

then click on solutions to generate optimum conditions as shown in the figure below.

To carry out numerical optimization, first click on the response you want to optimized

Then set you target goal (either maximum, minimum or targeted value).
Then click on solution for the optimum condition. The one selected base on desirability is

the optimum condition as shown in the figure below.

Figure showing numerical optimization.

This brings us to the end of the lecture. Thanks