DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
CO-202

SUBMITTED TO : SUBMITTED BY :

Ms. Pooja Sapra Mridul Anand

2K20/ME/161

INDEX
S NO. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT SIGNATURE

1 Introduction to SQL, DATABASE and DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

2 Introduction to various software of Database

Management System and Database Language.

3 Introduction to ER Diagram, Symbol table.

4 Introduction to different types of constraint in SQL

5 Case Study: University Management System

6 Constructing Entity Relationship Diagram, Creating

Entity Tables and Relationship Tables.

7 Implementing DDL and DML Statement

8 Implementation of simple queries

9 Implementation of JOINS

10 Implementation aggregate functions, date and time

functions.

11 Implementation views, triggers, grant + revoke

command.

EXPERIMENT-1

AIM : Introduction to SQL, DATABASE and DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

THEORY :
1. SQL
 ● What is SQL ?
Structured Query Language (SQL) is an acronym for Structured Query Language. In a
relational data management system, it is used to store and manage data (RDBMS). It is
the Related databases' standard language. Creates, reads, updates, and deletes
information and tables for the user. SQL is the standard language for all RDBMS,
including MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access, and SQL Server. SQL allows users to
query data in a variety of methods, including utilizing English statements.
 SOME SQL COMMANDS:

 UPDATE: It's used to keep data in a database up to date.

 SELECT: It selects and extracts data.
 INSERT INTO: Used to insert new data into a Database.
 DELETE: Data is deleted from a database.
 CREATE DATABASE: Establishing a new database.
 DROP TABLE: Used to remove a table.
 DROP INDEX: To delete an index.
 ALTER DATABASE: To make changes to a database.
 CREATE TABLE: A new table is being built.
 ALTER TABLE: Make changes to a table.
 AVG: Yields the average of a numeric column values.
 COUNT: Returns the number of rows that satisfy the provided condition.
 SUM: A numeric column's total sum.
 2. DATABASE

 What is DATABASE ?
A database is a collection of interconnected data that organizes data into tables, views,
schemas, and reports and enables for efficient data retrieval, insertion, and deletion
from a database.

 Types of DATABASES are:

 Relational Database
 Distributed Database
 Cloud Database

 Applications Of DATABASE :

 The police maintain a database with information on all known criminals, such as
crimes they've committed.

 A hospital will keep track of all of its patients' information in a database, such as
their medical history.
  Schools employ a database to keep track of information about their students,
such as how many days they've missed due to illness.

 The government keeps track of people's income tax payments in a database.

 A database is used to keep track of all the drivers in central London who have (or
haven't) paid the Congestion Charge.

3. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

● What is DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ?
A database management system is a system of software that manages databases
(DBMS). MySQL, Oracle, and other commercial DBMSs are examples of well-known
commercial DBMSs used in a wide range of applications.
 Users can do the following operations with the help of a database
management system (DBMS):
 DATA DEFINITION : It facilitates the development, editing, and deletion of
definitions that define the database's data structure.

 DATA UPDATION : It assists with the actual data input, alteration, and deletion
from the database.

 DATA RETRIEVAL : It makes data retrieval from a database easier for apps to
employ for a variety of purposes.

 USER ADMINISTRATION : It aids in user registration and monitoring, data

security enforcement, performance monitoring, data integrity maintenance,
concurrency management, and the recovery of information tainted by unexpected
failure.
 Features of a Database Management System ;

 A database system's self-descriptive nature.

 Secures data and eliminates redundancy.
 Support for numerous data views.
 Abstraction of data and shielding between programs.
 Multi User transaction processing and data sharing.
 Tables can be created using a database management system (DBMS).

 Advantages of Database Management System :

 A database management system (DBMS) serves as a good host for balancing the
needs of multiple applications that use the same data.

 A database management system (DBMS) can store and retrieve data in a variety
of ways.

 To efficiently store and retrieve data, DBMS employs a range of powerful

functionalities.
  Because of the consistent administration procedures, data application
programmers are never exposed to the nuances of data representation and
storage.

 Barriers to integrity are referred to as DBMSs in order to obtain the best level of
protection from restricted data access.

 Ensures the integrity and security of data.

 Reduced Application Development Time.

 A database management system (DBMS) organizes simultaneous data access so

that only one user can view the same data at the same time.
Disadvantages of Database Management System :
 SIZE : To run, it demands a large amount of disk space and RAM.

 COST OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE : You'll need a fast data processor and a
lot of memory to run DBMS software.

 THE CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE ARE MORE SEVERE : Because most

organizations store all data in a single location database, failure has a substantial
influence on the database, and if the database is destroyed as a consequence of a
power outage or if the database is corrupted, the data may be lost permanently.

 COMPLEXITY : The database system adds to the complexity requirements.

EXPERIMENT-2

AIM : Introduction to various softwares of Database Management System and

Database Language.

THEORY :

DBMS Software : A database management system, often known as a DBMS, is a

computer programme that stores, manipulates, and manages data in a database. A
database management system (DBMS) is a software programme that links a user to a
database and allows them to interact with it. The database management system
(DBMS) can be used to create, read, update, and delete data.
LIST OF SOME DBMS SOFTWARES :
 MySql
 Oracle
 AmazonRDS
 MongoDB
 Microsoft SQL server
 ADABAS
 MariaDB
 SQLite

1. MySQL
  MySQL is an Oracle-developed relational database management system
(RDBMS) based on structured query language (SQL).

 MySQL is used to construct and maintain everything from customer-facing web

applications to complex, data-driven B2B services in many of the most prominent
software stacks.

Some Features Of MySQL :

 MySQL databases are relational.
 MySQL is highly compatible.
 MySQL is open-source.
 MySQL is easy to use.

2. ORACLE
A relational database management system such as Oracle is a relational database
management system. OracleDB, or just Oracle, is another name for it.
SOME FEATURES OF ORACLE :

 Always available and provides high availability of databases.

 Oracle has a mechanism for controlling and accessing the database to prevent
unauthorized access .

 Oracle provides features like RAC(Real Application cluster) and portability.

 Oracle provides performance optimization tools such as Oracle Advanced

Compression, Oracle Database In-Memory, Oracle Real Application Testing, and
Oracle TimesTen Application-Tier Database Cache

3. MongoDB

 MongoDB is an open source, non relational database management system

(DBMS) that uses flexible documents instead of tables and rows to process and
store various forms of data.

 Because MongoDB does not require a relational database management system

(RDBMS), it offers an elastic data storage paradigm that allows users to easily
store and query multiple data types. This not only makes database management
easier for developers, but it also makes cross-platform applications and services
more scalable.
SOME FEATURES OF MONGODB :
 Load balancing.

 Ad hoc database queries.

 Multi Language support.

 4. Amazon RDS

 Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS) is an Amazon Web Services managed

SQL database service (AWS). To store and manage data, Amazon RDS offers a
variety of database engines. Data transfer, backup, recovery, and patching are just
a few of the relational database management chores it may aid with.

SOME FEATURES OF AMAZON RDS :

 RDS uses the replication feature to create read replicas.

 Amazon RDS provides SSD , IOPS and magnetic storage

 The Amazon Cloudwatch service enables managed monitoring.

 RDS provides managed instance backups with transaction logs to enable point-in-
time recovery.
 5. Microsoft SQL Server

 Microsoft SQL Server is a relational database management system that Microsoft

has created. It is a database server, which is a software product whose principal
role is to store and retrieve data as required by other software applications, which
may run on the same computer or on a networked computer (including the
Internet).
 Microsoft SQL Server is available in at least a dozen different editions, each
geared at a different audience and suited to varied workloads ranging from
modest single-machine applications to huge Internet-facing systems with many
concurrent users.

Some features of Microsoft SQL Servers :

 Provides machine learning services.

 Provides replication of data.

 Provides integration service for data report, data integration and data
warehousing.

Database Languages : Insertion, deletion, updating, and alteration are all examples
of data manipulation after it has been saved or filled. For these purposes, the database
management system provides a set of languages (DBMS). Database languages are used
to read, update, and store data in databases.

List of some database languages :

 DDL(Data Definition Language)

 DML(Data Manipulation Language)

 DCL(Data Control Language)

 TCL(Transaction Control Language)

 DQL(Data Query Language)

 SCL(Structured Controlled Language)

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

 The database schema is specified using DDL. It's used to build database tables,
schemas, indexes, and constraints, among other things.

Operations that can be performed on database using DDL :

  Create : To create the database instance.

 Alter : To alter the structure of database.

 Truncate : To delete tables in a database instance.

 Drop : To drop database instances.

 Rename : To rename database instances.

2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

● DML is a programming language for accessing and altering data in databases.

Operations that can be performed on database using DML :

 Select : To read records from table(s).

 Update : Update the data in table(s).

 Insert : To insert record(s) into the table(s).

 Delete : Delete all the records from the table.

3. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE

 DCL is a programming language that is used to grant and revoke database user
access.
 In practice, a data definition language, a data manipulation language, and a data
control language are all components of a single database language, such as SQL.

Operations that can be performed on database using DCL :

 Grant : To grant access to user.

 Revoke : To revoke access from user.

4. Transaction Controlled Language

● TCL is used to perform or rollback the modifications we made to the database

using DML commands.

Operations that can be performed on database using TCL :

★ Commit : To persist the changes made by DML commands in database

★ Rollback : To rollback the changes made to the database

5. Data Query Language

● DQL statements are used to query the data contained in schema objects. The DQL
Command's goal is to obtain a schema relation based on the query supplied to it.

Operations that can be performed on database using TCL :

★ Select : It is used to retrieve data from a database.

LEARNING :

We've studied about the various database management systems (DBMS) that are now in
use. We also taught about database languages and the operations that go along with
them.

CONCLUSION :

Oracle is a well-known and extensively used database management system that

supports all four types of database languages, therefore we'll be using it to conduct our
experiment.
 EXPERIMENT-3

AIM : Introduction to ER Diagram, Symbol table.

THEORY :
ER Diagram: ENTITY RELATIONAL (ER) MODEL is a high-level conceptual data
model diagram. ER modeling helps you to analyze data requirements systematically to
produce a well-designed database. The Entity-Relation model represents real- world
entities and the relationship between them. It is considered a best practice to complete ER
modeling before implementing your database. ER modeling helps you to analyze data
requirements systematically to produce a well-designed database. So It is considered a best
practice to complete ER modeling before implementing your database. It displays the
relationships of entity sets stored in a database. In other words, we can say that ER
diagrams help you to exp. the logical structure of databases. At first look an ER diagram
looks very similar to the flowchart. However ER Diagram includes many specialized
symbols, and its meanings make this model unique.
ER DIAGRAM
ADVANTAGES OF ER DIAGRAM :

Here. are prime reasons for using the ER Diagram.

 Helps you to define terms mist. to entity relationship modeling ➢ Provide a preview
of how all your tables should connect , what fields are going to be on each table.
 Helps to describe entities attributes Relationships.
 ER diagrams are translatable into relation tables which allows you can build
databases quickly.
 ER diagrams can be used by database designers as a blueprint for implementing data
in specific software applications.
 The database designer gains a better understanding of the ERD is allowed you to
communicate with the logical structure of the database to users.

USES OF ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAMS :

1. Database Design:
ER diagrams are used to model and design relational databases, in terms of logic and
business rules (in a logical data model) and in terms of the specific technology to be
implemented (in a physical data model.) In software engineering, an ER diagram is often
an initial step in determining requirements for an information systems project. It’s also
later used to model a particular database or databases. A relational database has an
equivalent relational table and can potentially be expressed that way as needed.

2. Database Troubleshooting:
ER diagrams are used to analyze existing databases to find and resolve problems in logic
or deployment. Drawing the diagram should reveal where it’s going wrong.

3. Business Information System:

The diagrams are used to design or analyze relational databases used in business
processes. Any business process that uses fielded data involving entities, actions and
interplay can potentially benefit from a relational database. It can streamline processes,
uncover information more easily and improve results.

4. Business Process re-engineering (BPR):

ER diagrams help in analyzing databases used in business process re-engineering and in
modeling a new database.
5. Education:
Databases are today’s method of storing relational information for educational purposes
and later retrieval, so ER Diagrams can be valuable in planning those data structures.

6. Research:
Since so much research focuses on structured data, ER Diagram can play a key role in
setting up a useful database to analyze the data.

The Components and Features of an ER Diagram:

ER Diagrams are composed of entities, relationships and attributes. They also depict
cardinality, which defines relationships in terms of numbers. Entity A definable thing—
such as a person, object, concept or event—that can have data stored about it. Think of
entities as nouns. Examples: a customer, student, car or product. Typically shown as a
rectangle.

Entity type:
A group of definable things, such as students or athletes, whereas the entity would be the
specific student or athlete. Other examples: customers, cars or products.
Entity set: Same as an entity type, but defined at a particular point in time, such as
students enrolled in a class on the first day. Other examples: Customers who purchased
last month, cars currently registered in Germany. A related term is instance, in which the
specific person or car would be an instance of the entity set.

Entity categories:
Entities are categorized as strong, weak or associative. A strong entity can be defined
solely by its own attributes, while a weak entity cannot. An associative entity associates
entities (or elements) within an entity set.

Entity keys:
Refers to an attribute that uniquely defines an entity in an entity set. Entity keys can be
super, candidate or primary. Super key: A set of attributes (one or more) that together
define an entity in an entity set. Candidate key: A minimal super key, meaning it has the
least possible number of attributes to still be a super key. An entity set may have more
than one candidate key. Primary key: A candidate key chosen by the database designer to
uniquely identify the entity set. Foreign key: Identifies the relationship between entities.

Relationship:
How entities act upon each other or are associated with each other. Think of relationships
as verbs. For example, the named student might register for a course. The two entities
would be the student and the course, and the relationship depicted is the act of enrolling,
connecting the two entities in that way. Relationships are typically shown as diamonds or
labels directly on the connecting lines.

Recursive relationship:
The same entity participates more than once in the relationship.

Cardinality views:
Cardinality can be shown as look-across or same-side, depending on where the symbols
are shown.

Cardinality constraints:
The minimum or maximum numbers that apply to a relationship.

SYMBOL TABLE:

It is an important data structure created and maintained by the compiler in order to keep
track of semantics of variables i.e. it stores information about scope and binding
information about names, information about instances of various entities such as variable
and function names, classes, objects, etc.
● It is built in lexical and syntax analysis phases.

● The information is collected by the analysis phases of the compiler and is used by
synthesis phases of the compiler to generate code.

● It is used by compilers to achieve compile time efficiency.

● It is used by various phases of the compiler as follows :-

I. Lexical Analysis: Creates new table entries in the table, examples like entries about
tokens.

II. Syntax Analysis: Adds information regarding attribute type, scope, dimension, line
of reference, use, etc in the table.

III. Semantic Analysis: Uses available information in the tab to check for semantics i.e.
to verify that expressions and assignments are semantically correct(type checking)
and update it accordingly.

IV. Intermediate Code generation: Refers symbol table for knowing how much and
what type of run-time is allocated and the table helps in adding temporary variable
information.

V. Code Optimization: Uses information present in the symbol table for machine
dependent optimization.

VI. Target Code generation: Generates code by using address information of the
identifier present in the table.
Operations of Symbol table –

The basic operations defined on a symbol table include:

LEARNING :

We've studied about the Entity-Relationship diagram . We also learnt about the uses of
entity-relationship diagrams along with its advantages.Also learnt about the components
and features of entity-relationship diagrams.

CONCLUSION :

Entity-Relationship Diagram is a great tool to represent the relational model and

schema.ER diagram helps us to find the relation between various entities and at the same
time define various attributes for each entity.
 EXPERIMENT-4

AIM: Introduction to different types of constraint in SQL.

THEORY :
Constraints are the rules that we can apply on the type of data in a table. That is, we can
specify the limit on the type of data that can be stored in a particular column in a table
using constraints. The available constraints in SQL are:

● NOT NULL:
★ This constraint tells us that we cannot store a null value in a column. That is, if a
column is specified as NOT NULL then we will not be able to store null in this
particular column any more.
★
● UNIQUE:
★ This constraint when specified with a column, tells that all the values in the column
must be unique. That is, the values in any row of a column must not be repeated.

● PRIMARY KEY:
★ A primary key is a field which can uniquely identify each row in a table. And this
constraint is used to specify a field in a table as the primary key.

● FOREIGN KEY:
★ A Foreign key is a field which can uniquely identify each row in another table. And
this constraint is used to specify a field as Foreign key.

● CHECK:
★ This constraint helps to validate the values of a column to meet a particular
condition. That is, it helps to ensure that the value stored in a column meets a
specific condition.

● DEFAULT:
★ This constraint specifies a default value for the column when a: value is specified by
the user.

NOT NULL:
Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value. By default, a column can hold NULL
values. If we don't enter any value in a particular column, it will store NULL if the default
value has not been specified. The NULL value is omitted in various operations in a
database. To ensure that a column does not contain a NULL value, NOT NULL constraint
is used. NOT NULL constraint makes sure that a column does not hold NULL value.
When we don't provide a value for a particular column while inserting a record into a
table, it takes a NULL value by default. By specifying NULL constraint, we can be sure
that a particular column(s) cannot have NULL values.

UNIQUE :
Ensures that all values in a column are different. UNIQUE constraint ensures that all the
values stored in a column are different from each other. The UNIQUE Constraint prevents
two records from having identical values in a column, i.e., the values must not be repeated.
UNIQUE Constraint enforces a column or set of columns to have unique values. If a has a
unique constraint, it means that particular column cannot have a duplicate value table.
DEFAULT :
Provides a default value for a column when none is specified. DEFAULT constraint is
used to provide a default value for the fields of a table. The DEFAULT Constraint is used
to fill a column with a default and fixed value. The value will be added to all new records
when no other value is provided.

CHECK :
The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.If
you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for this
column.If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain
columns based on values in other columns in the row.
PRIMARY KEY :
Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table. A primary key constraint uniquely
identifies each row/record in a database table. Primary keys must contain unique values. A
primary key column cannot have NULL values. A table can have only one primary key,
which may consist of single or multiple fields. When multiple fields are used as a primary
key, they are called a composite key.

The field with a PRIMARY KEY constraint can be used to uniquely identify each record
of a table in various database operations.

This query will create a table Employees(Emp_Id, Emp_Name and Salary) with Emp_Id
field as PRIMARY KEY constraint.

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the “EMP_ID” column when Employees

table already exists, use the following SQL syntax:

To drop PRIMARY KEY Constraints from a table :

FOREIGN KEY:
Uniquely identifies a row/record in any of the given database tables. Foreign Key
Constraint is used to link two tables. It is used to establish a relationship between the data
in two tables. A Foreign Key is a column or a combination of columns whose values
match a Primary Key in a different table. The table containing the FOREIGN KEY is
called the child table, and the table containing the candidate key is called the parent table.
FOREIGN KEY is used to enforce referential integrity. It is used to prevent actions that
would destroy links between tables. It also prevents invalid data from being inserted into
the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it
points to.

This query creates a table Employees(Emp_Id, Emp_Name and Dept_Id) with Dept_Id as
FOREIGN KEY which links the Employees table to the Department table.

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the “Dept_Id” column when Employees

table already exists, use the following SQL syntax:
To drop FOREIGN KEY Constraints from a table :

KEY CONSTRAINTS :
❖ DOMAIN CONSTRAINTS: A set of rows and columns that contain data Columns
in the tables have a unique name, often referred to as attributes in DBMS. A domain
is a unique set of values permitted for an attribute in a table. Domain constraints are
user defined data type and we can define them like this:

Domain Constraint = data type + Constraints (NOT NULL / UNIQUE / PRIMARY

KEY / FOREIGN KEY / CHECK / DEFAULT)

Example:
For example I want to create a table “student_info” with “stu_id” field having value
greater than 100, I can create a domain and table like this:

INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT :
Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and consistency of the data in a relational
database. Data integrity is handled in a relational database through the concept of
referential integrity. There are many types of integrity constraints that play a role in
Referential Integrity (RI). These constraints include Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique
Constraints and other constraints which are mentioned above.
LEARNING :

Learnt about different types of constraints in SQL with examples of commands for each
constraint.

CONCLUSION :

Constraints are the rules enforced on the data columns of a table. These are used to limit
the type of data that can go into a table.
The purpose of constraints is to maintain the data integrity during an update/delete/insert
into a table.
 EXPERIMENT-5

AIM :-

CASE STUDY 1: University Management System.

THEORY :

A good University management system will help to keep account of immense data related
to a university, its students, departments, courses offered, subjects and faculty.

The database will have following tables :

 COLLEGE TABLE
It will contain address , contact_no , college_name.

 DEPARTMENT TABLE
It will contain dept_id , contact_no , dept_name , hod_no, hod_name.

 STUDENT TABLE
It will contain student_id , student_name , year , admission date, graduation_year.

 COURSE TABLE
It will contain course_id , course_title , year,course_duration.

 FACULTY TABLE
It will contain fac_name , contact_no , qualification ,
Fac_id.

 PROGRESS_REPORT TABLE
It will contain grade , report_id , rank,progress_quotient.

 SUBJECT TABLE
It will contain subject_code , subject_name ,subject_credits.

ASSUMPTIONS :

 A college has many departments but a department has one college.

  A Faculty can teach many courses and a single course can be taught
by many faculty members.

 A Department can have more than one faculty member but a faculty
member can only work in one department only.

 Many students study in a single department.

 A Department can have more than one than one course included but a
course can only be taught by one department only.

 A department has many courses but a course has only one department.

 Universities need to pay many staff but staff needs to be paid by

only one department.

 A student owns more than one progress report for different courses.

LEARNING :

Learned about tables used to implement university management systems using ER-
diagrams and assumptions for the relations between different entities.

CONCLUSION :

The University Management system can be implemented efficiently using the ER-diagram
with appropriate entities.
 EXPERIMENT-6

AIM : Constructing Entity Relationship Diagram, Creating Entity Tables and

Relationship Tables.

ER DIAGRAM :

ENTITIES WITH THEIR ATTRIBUTES :

 College Table
address , contact_no , college_name.
  Course Table
course_id , course_title , year,course_duration.

 Department Table
dept_id , contact_no , dept_name , hod_no, hod_name.

 Student Table
student_id , student_name , year , admission date, graduation_year

 Faculty Table
fac_name , contact_no , qualification,fac_id.

 Progress Report Table

grade , report_id , rank,progress_quotient.

 Subject Table
subject_code , subject_name ,subject_credits.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT ENTITIES :

A. Student:Subjects(1:N)

B. Student:Progress_Report(1:N)

C. Course:Subject(M:N)

D. Faculty:Courses(M:N)

E. College:Departments(1:N)

F. Department:Faculty(1:N)

G. Department:Course(1:N)

H. Department:Student(1:N)

LEARNING :
Learned to implement the university management system using ER diagram. Also learnt
how to allocate attributes to each entity and how to define relationships between different
entities.

CONCLUSION :
We successfully implemented the university management system using ER-diagram and
defined relations between different entities along with relation types.
 EXPERIMENT-7

AIM : Implementing DDL and DML commands.

THEORY :

DDL COMMANDS
● In SQL, DDL means Data Definition Language. The Sql Server DDL commands
are used to create and modify the structure of a database and database objects.

CREATE :
Create an object. I mean, create a database, table, triggers, index, functions, stored
procedures, etc.

DROP :
This SQL DDL command helps to delete objects. For example, delete tables, delete a
database, etc.

ALTER :
Used to alter the existing database or its object structures.
RENAME :
Renaming the database objects.

TRUNCATE :
This SQL DDL command removes records from tables.

DML COMMANDS
● DML means Data Manipulation Language in Sql Server. As its name suggests,
these Sql Server DML commands will perform data manipulation manipulate data
presented in the server).

SELECT :
This SQL DML command selects records or data from a table.

INSERT :
Insert data into a database table.
UPDATE :
This SQL DML command will update existing records within a table

DELETE :
Delete unwanted records from a table.

LEARNING :
Learned about DDL (data definition language) and DML(Data manipulation language) .
Also implemented the commands like create, select, insert, rename, update etc. with the
help of MYSQL.

CONCLUSION :
To implement the tables and manage the data in MYSQL , DDL and DML commands are
very important . DDL commands help to define the data and create tables, DML
commands help to manipulate the data and update it according to convenience of the user.
Hence, we can conclude that these commands are essential in DBMS.
 EXPERIMENT-8

AIM : Implementation of simple Queries.

THEORY :
Simple Queries in SQL involves :
1. SQL Queries using logical operators and operations.
2. SQL Query using group by functions.
3. SQL Query for group by functions.

● SQL Queries using logical operators and operations.

An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement
WHERE clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic
operations. These Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and
to serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.

➔ Arithmetic operators
➔ Comparison operators
➔ Logical operators
➔ Operators used to negate conditions

Pre-requisite data :

DEPARTMENT TABLE
 Queries

1.Name of the hod of the department whose dept_id is between

2 and 5 .

2.Name of the department whose hod_name is like “Pr%”.

3.Department details using IN and BETWEEN operator where
Dept_id can be 1 , 3 and 1,2 and 3 respectively .
Use of BETWEEN operator

Use of IN operator

● SQL Query using group by functions.

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX,
MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.
 Group BY syntax :

DEPARTMENT TABLE used for implementing query

QUERY

● SQL Query for group by functions.

An SQL group function or aggregate functions performs an operation on a group of
rows and returns a single result. You may want to retrieve a group of item-prices
and return the total price. This type of scenario is where you would use a group
 function. The following table is a summary of some SQL group function & query
examples.

Pre-requisite Data :

PROGRESS_REPORT TABLE
 Queries

1.Total Marks obtained by the class out of 500.

2.Average marks of scored by the class out of 100.

3.Maximum Marks scored by a student in the class.

4.Minimum Marks scored by a student in the class.

LEARNING :
Learned about different types of simple queries like using logical operators , group by and
aggregate functions and used oracle tables and commands to implement these queries
taking examples of tables from the university management system analyzed earlier.

CONCLUSION :
Implementation of simple queries with the help of operators , group by and aggregate
functions is very necessary to completely understand and get grasp on basic concepts
before moving to complex queries and joins.
 EXPERIMENT-9

AIM : Implementation of JOINS.

THEORY :
A JOIN clause is used to join rows from two or more tables together based on a related
column. To merge records from two or more tables in a database, use the SQL Joins
clause. A JOIN is a method of joining fields from two tables by using values that are
shared by both.
A SQL join clause combines columns from one or more tables in a relational database. It
creates a set that can be saved as a table or used as it is. A JOIN is a means for combining
columns from one (self-table) or more tables by using values common to each. ANSI-
standard SQL specifies five types of JOIN: INNER, LEFT OUTER, RIGHT OUTER,
FULL OUTER and CROSS. As a special case, a table (base table, view, or joined table)
can JOIN to itself in a self-join.
A programmer declares a JOIN statement to identify rows for joining. If the evaluated
predicate is true, the combined row is then produced in the expected format, a row set or a
temporary table.
1.INNER JOIN
INNER JOIN returns records that have matching values in both
Tables.

Syntax :
 Table :

Final Table after implemention of INNER JOIN :

2.LEFT JOIN
LEFT(OUTER) JOIN returns all records from the left table, and
the matched records from the right table.
Syntax :

Table :

Final Table after implementation of LEFT JOIN :

3. RIGHT JOIN
RIGHT JOIN returns all records from the right table, and the matched
Records.

Syntax :

Table :
Final Table after implementation of RIGHT JOIN :

4. FULL JOIN
FULL JOIN returns all records when there is a match in either the left or the right table.
A FULL JOIN returns all the rows from the joined tables, whether they are matched or
not i.e. you can say a full join combines the functions of a LEFT JOIN and a RIGHT
JOIN. Full join is a type of outer join that's why it is also referred to as full outer join.

Syntax :

Table :
Final Table After implementation of FULL JOIN :

LEARNING :
Learned about working of various types of joins namely-inner join , left join , right join
and full join . Also learned about their syntax and implementation.
CONCLUSION :
Implementation of joins is very important because joins are used to stitch the database
back together to make it easy to read and use. Also joins helps to reduce duplicate records
in combinational result.
 EXPERIMENT-10

AIM : Implementation of Aggregate functions.

THEORY :
An SQL group function or aggregate functions performs an operation on a group of
rows and returns a single result. You may want to retrieve a group of item-prices
and return the total price. This type of scenario is where you would use a group
function. The following table is a summary of some SQL group function & query
examples.

Pre-requisite Data :
Count Command-Query

Pre-requisite Data :

PROGRESS_REPORT TABLE
 Queries

1.Total Marks obtained by the class out of 500.

2.Average marks of scored by the class out of 100.

3.Maximum Marks scored by a student in the class.

4.Minimum Marks scored by a student in the class.

● Date and Time Queries

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a
date/time value in the database:
● String Queries
Table used

➔ Substring query ( SUBSTR() )

 Output :

➔ Lower string query ( LOWER() )

Output :

➔ Length of string query ( LENGTH() )

Output :

LEARNING : Learned about aggregate function , date and time Queries and
string queries with proper implementation.

CONCLUSION : Aggregate function,Date and time queries and String queries

are important and simple queries. These can be easily implemented using sql
database.
 EXPERIMENT-11

AIM : Implementation of Grant and revoke statements, views, and triggers.

THEORY :
 GRANT AND REVOKE
Data Control Language (DCL) is used to manage database rights. A user
must have rights to do any activity in the database, such as creating tables,
sequences, or views. GRANT and REVOKE commands are used to manage
these privileges. Only the database administrator has the authority to grant or
revoke these rights.
 GRANT
GRANT is used to grant users access such as Select, All, and Execute on
database objects such as Tables, Views, Databases, and other objects in a
SQL Server.
 REVOKE

REVOKE is used to revoke a user's permissions or privileges on database

objects that were set by the Grant command.
  VIEW
In SQL, views are referred to as virtual tables. Rows and columns are also
part of a view. To build the view, we may choose fields from one or more
tables in the database. A view can contain either particular rows depending
on criteria or all of the rows in a table.
The Construct VIEW command may be used to create views.

1. CREATE A VIEW

2. SELECT VIEW

Output Table :

 TRIGGER
A trigger is a piece of procedural code, similar to a stored procedure, that is
only performed when a specific event occurs. A trigger can be triggered by a
variety of actions, such as adding, removing, or modifying a record.
To create a new trigger, use the CREATE TRIGGER command.
Triggers are classified into two types: before triggers, which execute the
triggers before the action is completed, and after triggers, which run the triggers
after the action is completed.
To create triggers

To insert values in triggers

LEARNING : Learned about grant and view command , view command and
triggers.

CONCLUSION : We learnt about the grant and revoke functions and how they
work as a result of this project. We also built views, learned how the trigger works,
and successfully implemented it in our University management system.