First and Last Name: Katarina Radočaj

Labs 8-11
Class:2L Group: B
Date: Grade:

LAB.8 TESTING RICHMANN'S LAW 

EQUIPMENT: calorimeter, measuring jug, thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod, glass jug, clamp, stand,
metal rod, boss head 
OBJECTIVE: Test Richmann's law using two different quantities of water at different temperatures 
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND PROCEDURE:
To begin, we determined the mass of water (m1) at room temperature using a measuring jug. Subsequently,
we transferred the water to the calorimeter and recorded its initial temperature (t1). Concurrently, in a glass
beaker, we heated another portion of water (m2) on a Bunsen burner until it reached approximately 50 °C.
The hot water was then carefully transferred to the calorimeter, ensuring isolation from the surrounding
environment. Following this, we mixed the contents and observed the temperature variations. Upon reaching
the maximum temperature, we recorded it as the final temperature (t) and documented it in a table. Lastly,
we utilized the collected measurements in the equation to calculate the heat received by the colder body,
denoted as Q1, and the heat released by the hotter water, referred to as Q2. This process was repeated twice,
and we conducted an analysis of errors.

SKETCH:

RESULTS:
Table 1. Results
V1/m3  m1/ t1/° T1/K  V2/ m2/ t2/°C  T2/ t/°C  T/K  Q1/kJ  Q2/kJ 
kg  C  m3  kg  K 

6×10-5  0.06  22.6  295.6  7×10-5  0.07  100 373 55.6 328.6  8.296 7.843
 

6×10-5  0.06  23.6  296.6  7×10-5  0.07 100 373  54.8 327.8 17.82 18.14
  8 9

CALCULATIONS:
c1 = c2 = c = 4190 JK-1kg-1  
ρ = 1000 kgm-3, 1 mL = 10-3 dm3 = 10-6 m3 ñ => ρ=m / v => m = ρ V  
ρ (H2O, 22.6°C) = 0.997632 g/cm3 ρ (H2O, 100°C) = 0.95835 g/cm3 
m1 = 0.95835 × 100 = 95.835 g 
Δt 1 = T – t1 =55.6 – 22.6 = 33 K 
Q1 = m 1 cΔT 1 = 0.06 × 4190 × 33 = 8.296 kJ 
Q2 = m 2 cΔT 2 = 0.095835 × 4190 × 44.4 = 17.828 kJ 
Error1 = Q2-Q1 / Q1 × 100% = 0.0578 = 5.78%
Error2= Q2-Q1 / Q1 × 100% = 0.0177 = 1.77%
CONCLUSION:
The goal of this experiment was to observe Richmann’s law which describes the final temperature when two
bodies with different initial temperatures are brought into thermal contact. It’s usually applied onto mixtures of
the same state of and it’s closely related to the 0th law of thermodynamics which states that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. By looking at our
results, we can notice that Q1 and Q2 aren’t equal (E = 5.78% and 1.77%) since the experiment wasn’t
performed in perfect conditions nor in a completely isolated system.

LAB. 9 ELECTRIC ENERGY TO THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFORMATION 

EQUIPMENT: electric cooker, aluminum pot, beaker or measuring jug, thermometer, stopwatch, scale, stand,
bosshead, metal rod 
OBJECTIVE: Explore transformation of electric to thermal energy 
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND PROCEDURE:
Firstly, we determined the mass of the water we would use (mw) and mass of the pot (mp) along with their
initial temperature. We plugged in the electric cooker, and when it heated up, we put the pot on it. From that
moment we started measuring the time (τ). After a while we read out the temperature of the water t2. The
experiment was conducted only once unlike some of the groups who managed to repeat it.

SKETCH:

RESULTS:

Table 2. Results
Vw/mL  mw/kg  t1/°C  t2/°C  ΔT/K  τ/s  W/J  Q/J  η /% 
500 0.5 24.1 80 55.9 446  446000  52441.6  11.76 

CALCULATIONS:
P = 1000 W 
ρ w= 1000 kgm-3  
mp = 0,09 kg  
cw = 4190 Jkg-1K -1  
cAl = 900 Jkg-1K -1 
W = P × τ = 1000 W × 446 s = 446000 J 
Q = Qp + Qw 
Q = mpcAlΔT + mwcvΔT = (0.09 × 900 × 24.1) + (0.5 × 4190 × 24.1) = 52441.6 J 
η = Q / W = 52441.6 / 446000 = 0.1176
ANSWERS:
Why aren't the results for electric energy and heat the same?
-Because the experiment was not performed in a perfect system (not completely isolated), some energy was lost.

Which energy was given, and which received?

-Electric energy is given, heat energy is received.

Where did a part of energy ''go''?

-It “went” into the surroundings.

How much energy was transferred to the surroundings?

-88.24%

How do we define open and closed systems?

-An open system can exchange both matter and energy with its surroundings, while a closed system does not
allow transfer of matter and energy in or out of the system (isolated).
In this experiment we had an open system.

CONCLUSION:
The objective of this experiment was to investigate the conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy. We
achieved this by transferring electric energy from an electric cooker into the form of heat energy in water. It is
important to note that this experiment was conducted in an open system, allowing for the exchange of both
energy and matter with the surrounding environment. Due to this openness, some energy was inevitably lost,
resulting in the received heat being different from the initial amount of work performed.

LAB. 10 DETERMINING THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF ICE 

EQUIPMENT: calorimeter, thermometer, measuring jug, ice, water 
OBJECTIVE: 1. Determine the specific latent heat of ice.  
      2.Determine the deviation from table value (3,3 · 105 J/kg) 
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND PROCEDURE:
We used Richmann's law to determine Lt ( or λ). We put water in the calorimeter, closed it, and measured the
initial temperature t1 . Then, we put ice (t2 = 0°C), of mass m2 in the water, measured the temperature, and
when the temperature stabilized (after all the ice had melted) the mixture had temperature t. To make sure the
ice is at temperature 0°C before putting in in the water, we put it in a cloth and crushed it to small pieces. We
needed to mix the mixture and wait until all the ice had melted, and the temperature had stabilized.

SKETCH:

RESULTS:
Table 3. Results
t1/°C  t2/° tf/ ΔT/ mw/kg  mall/kg  mice/kg  Q/J  Lt/Jkg- Er/% 
C  °C  K 
1
 

22 0  13  9 0.1  0.126 0.011 3771  3.4 × 3.03 

105 
CALCULATIONS:

cw = 4190 Jkg-1K -1 

m(pot)=26 g
m(pot+water)=126 g
m(pot+water+ice)=137 g
mice = 11 g 
Q = m × cp × ΔT = 0.1 × 4190 × 9 = 3771 J  
Lt = Q/m = 3771/ 0.011 = 3.4 × 105 J/kg 
Lttheor = 3.3 × 105 J/kg 
Er = ILtexp – LttheorI / Lttheor × 100% = I 3.4 × 105 - 3.3 × 105 I × 100% = 3.03% 

CONCLUSION:

The purpose of this experiment was to calculate the specific latent heat of ice. Specific latent heat refers to the
amount of heat released or absorbed per unit mass during a phase change, specifically in our case, the melting
of ice. Our experimental result closely approximated the theoretical value, with a measurement error of only
3.03%. This accuracy can be attributed to the utilization of a calorimeter, which served as a closed and isolated
system. However, it is important to acknowledge that achieving a completely error-free experiment in closed
systems is not possible in practice.

LAB. 11 TRANSFORMATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY TO THERMAL

ENERGY 
EQUIPMENT: 1 m long plastic tube, 2 corks, buckshot (sačma) 1kg, measuring tape, scale, thermometer 
OBJECTIVE: Explore transformation of mechanical energy to thermal energy 
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND PROCEDURE:  
We conducted an experiment to observe the transformation of mechanical energy into heat. The equipment used
was simple, as shown in the sketch. Initially, we placed approximately 1 kg of buckshot into a pot and measured
its temperature. After covering the pot with a lid, we left a thermometer inside for a few minutes and then
recorded the temperature. Next, we transferred the buckshot into a plastic tube, ensuring one end was closed
tightly. Holding the tube vertically with both hands, we rapidly rotated it 180 degrees (up and down) and
repeated this motion 100 times. We made certain that the buckshot fell downwards during this process. Once we
completed 100 rotations, we returned the buckshot to the pot and measured its temperature again. After sealing
the pot with the lid, we left the thermometer inside for a minute. Finally, we determined the mass of the
buckshot by measurement.

SKETCH:
RESULTS:
Table 4. Results
Ep / J  Δt / K  Q / J 
891.13 3.5 310.77

specific heat capacity of lead: c = 130 Jkg-1K -1

Mass of lead buckshot: m = 0.683 kg
Initial temperature: t1 = 23.6 °C
Final temperature: t2 = 27.1 °C
Length of the tube: h = 1,33 m
Number of turns: N = 100

CALCULATIONS:
Ep = N·mgh = 100 × 0.683 × 9.81 × 1.33 = 891.13 J
Q = mcΔt = 0.683 × 130 × 3.5 = 310.77 J
Δt = t2 – t1 = 27.6 - 24.9 = 2.7 K
ERROR: Ep-Q/Ep × 100% = 65.13 %

ANSWERS:

Why is it important that the buckshot freely falls down?

-If the buckshot doesn’t freely fall down, then there is a possibility that other factors will influence our results
(buckshot rolls down the sides - friction).

Which energy does the buckshot have while falling down?

-Kinetic energy.

Which changes occur during the change of energy while the buckshot is falling down?
-Potential energy of buckshot at a certain height is transferred to kinetic energy while falling down. Upon hitting
the bottom, all the energy is transferred to kinetic.

Are the values for energy and heat the same? Elaborate your answer!
-They are not since some energy is lost during the experiment because the experiment is conducted in imperfect
conditions and the system isn’t perfectly isolated.

Determine the work being done while turning the tube up and down. Compare the results obtained for Q and W.
Did you expect the heat Q to be equal to work W? Explain and elaborate your answer.
-In perfect conditions, the change of internal energy is equal to the work and the heat (also equal).

Why was it necessary to turn the tube 100 times? Could you measure the change in temperature after just one
turn?
-Of course we could, but our equipment wasn’t precise enough and the change in temperature would be
extremely small, almost unoticeable. By turning it 100 times, we made sure that the temperature would rise
enough, therefore, our calculations would be more precise and our error would be smaller.

In this experiment you would get better results if you cooled down the buckshot before the experiment? How
would you explain that?
-In that case we would get a greater temperature change and a more accurate mass because the heat from the
object causes convection currents which affect the mass.
If you were to let a steel ball freefall from the 5th foor to asphalt it would heat up at the moment it touched the
asphalt. So each atom in the ball increased its kinetic energy. But, just before the touchdown the ball had big
kinetic energy, which means that every atom had big kinetic energy. Why didn't the ball heat up before touching
the floor, not after?
-Because when the ball hits the ground, its movement is physically stopped and since the body doesn’t have
kinetic energy anymore, and energy can’t just disappear, some of it converts to heat.

Take a ping pong ball and let it free fall from about 1 m height. At touchdown the ball jumps up, but at which
height? Why didn't it jump up to initial height? Where did energy „go“? What do we call energy that
„disappeared“? What should happen so the ball would jump up to higher height than inital height from which it
was released?
- In the real world, energy loss is unavoidable, thus the height will never be the same as it would be if no energy
were lost. This is due to the law of conservation of energy and the conversion of some of the kinetic energy into
thermal energy just prior to touchdown. For the ball to jump higher we need to give it an initial velocity.

CONCLUSION:
The goal of this experiment was to observe the transformation of mechanical energy into heat. The mechanical
energy was in this case the sum of all the potential energies the buckshot had. We can see that the experimental
heat is visibly smaller than the sum of potential energies and this happened due to our imprecise measurements
and imperfect conditions. This is also the reason why our error is so large (65.13%).