The Fundamental Unit of Life To Improvement in Food Resources Chapters

4 Year Course for
Class 9 B iology
CONTENT
1 The Fundamental Unit of Life 1-18
2 Tissues 19-34
3 Diversity in Living Organisms 35-54
4 Why Do We Fall Ill 55-68
5 Natural Resources 69-81
6 Improvement in Food Resources 82-100
- Answers to Practice Exercises 100-101
Vidyamandir Classes
Gurukul for IITJEE & Medical Preparation
Biology
1
The Fundamental Unit of Life
Introduction
 Cytology : The cell and its structures are studied under a branch of biology called cytology. Father of
cytology – Robert Hooke
 Cell Biology : Study of structures and Function – Father - Swanson
 Cell : The structural & functional unit of a living being is called cell. A unit of biological activity, delimited
by a differentially permeable membrane and capable of self reproduction.
Cell is called structural & functional unit of life because :

(i) All the living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(ii) All the cells have similar basic structure.
(iii) Similar cell organelles of different cell perform similar functions.
Discovery of cell :
1. Robert Hooke (1665) : The word cell is derived form the Latin word ‘Cellula’ which means ‘a little
room’. Robert Hooke (1635-1703), in 1665 discovered and named the cells, while examining a thin slice
of cork under a primitive microscope made by him. He found porous structure of cork to resemble Honey
comb called the units, the cells.
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) : a Dutch microscopist, made an improved microscope and by
observing under this microscope he discovered in 1674 the living free cells in the form of bacteria,
protozoa, red blood cells, sperm etc.
3. N. Grew (1682) : First to study inner structure and function of plants also proposed cell concept which
states that cell is unit of structure of organisms.
4. Knoll & Ruska (1932) : Designed the electron microscope which was employed to study the ultra
structure of cell and various cell organelles.
Cell theory : (It was published in 1838-1839)

Proposed by M.J. Schleiden & Theodore Schwann {two german biologists}.It was later expanded by Rudolf
Virchow
Cell theory comprises the following postulates :
(i) All living beings, plants, animals and microorganisms, are made up of cells.
(ii) All metabolic reactions take place in cells. Thus, cells are structural and functional units of life.
(iii) New cells are formed because of division of old cells. In latin omnis cellula - e - cellula, which actually
mean cells arise from pre-existing cell. This was given by Rudolf Virchow
(A) Size of cell – Normal size in human 20  m to 30  m in diameter.
(i) Largest cell – In animal - Ostrich egg (15 cm in diameter) In plants - Acetabularia (6-10 cm)
(ii) Longest cell - In animal - Nerve cell (upto 1mt) In plants - Hemp fibre.
(iii) Smallest cell - PPLO - Pleuro pneumonia like organism (Mycoplasma - 0.1  m to 0.5  m)
4 Year Course 1 Class IX

Biology
(B) Shape of cell : Shape of cell mainly depends upon the specific function it performs.
(i) Elongated - Nerve cell (ii) Discoidal/ saucer- RBC
(iii) Spindal - Muscle cell (iv) Oval - Eggs.
(v) Branched - Pigment cell of the skin (vi) Slipper shaped - Paramaecium
(vii) Cuboidal - Germ cell of gonads (viii) Polygonal - Liver cells.
(C) Number of cells : On the basis of number of cells the organisms can be categorized as -
(i) Unicellular - Single celled - eg- Amoeba, Paramaecium, Euglena, Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)
Chlamydomonas,
(ii) Multicellular - Numerous cells eg- higher plants & Animals.
Differences between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells:

Biology
Difference between plant cell & animal cell :

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(A) Cell Boundaries :

It is the outer most covering of cells
1. Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane

(i) Cell membrane is the outer covering of each cell, forming a boundary of the cytoplasm. It consists of
lipids and proteins.
(ii) The cell membrane encloses the nucleus and cytoplasm of the cell.
(iii) In plant cells, the plasma membrane is present between the cytoplasm and cell wall, whereas in animal cells it
forms the boundary of the cytoplasm.
(iv) It is a living delicate semi-permeable (also called selectively permeable) membrane, regulating the
movement of molecules inside and outside the cell. It allows the entry and exit of some molecules in and out
of the cell.
Structure of Plasma Membrane

The most acceptable structure of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. They named it as
fluid mosaic model of cell membrane. According to this model, lipids are arranged in two layers called lipid bilayer
and proteins are arranged in a mosaic fashion. They have described this model as “Protein icebergs in a sea of
lipids”. This model thus explains the dynamic and functional properties of the membrane.
Transport Across the Membrane

(A) Passive transport (without the utilization of energy) ;
(i) Diffusion (ii) Osmosis
(i) Diffusion : Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to one
of lower concentration leading finally to uniform concentration.
Significance of Diffusion
 Gaseous exchange between the leaves and air takes place on the principle of diffusion.
 Transport of food through phloem is also based on this principle.
 Loss of water from the plants (transpiration) is on the basis of the principle of diffusion.
 Movement of ions and solutes from one cell to another cell also involves this principle.
(ii) Osmosis : Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration. Osmosis is a pure mechanical diffusion
process by which cells absorb water without spending any amount of energy.
Significance of Osmosis
 Water from the soil is absorbed by the roots and root hairs by the process of osmosis.
 Water moves from one cell to another cell on the principle based on osmosis.
It is of two types :
(a) Endosmosis : Movement of solvent or water into the cell is called endosmosis.
(b) Exosmosis : Movement of solvent or water outside the cell is called exosmosis.

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Differences between Diffusion and Osmosis :
S. No. Diffusion Osmosis
1. Diffusion can occur in any medium. It occurs only in liquid medium.
2. The diffusing molecules may be solids, It involves movement of solvent molecules only.
liquids or gases.
3 Semipermeable membrane is not required. Semipermeable membrane is required.
Type of solutions on the basis of concentration

(a) Isotonic solution : When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is equal to the concentration of
solution inside the cell is called isotonic solution. [No effect on size of cell.]
(b) Hypertonic solution : When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is more than that of inside the
cell is called hypertonic solution. [Cell become plasmolysed.]
(c) Hypotonic solution : When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is less than that of inside the
cell is called hypotonic solution. [Cell swelled up]
(B) Active transport (with the utilization of energy)

(i) Endocytosis (ii) Exocytosis
(i) Endocytosis: Endocytosis is another mechanism by which susbtance enter the cell.
Endocytosis occurs by invagination of the cell membrane which forms small vesicles or food vacuoles.
These get detached in the cytoplasm.
When the materials engulfed are solid, the process is called phagocytosis (meaning cell eating). When the
materials taken in are liquid, the process is called pinocytosis (cell drinking).
(ii) Exocytosis : Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis. It is the discharge of materials present in vesicles
inside the cell, by the fusion of these vesicles with the cell membrane.
Functions :
1. It acts as a mechanical barrier between the external and internal environment of the cell, and protects the inner
cell contents.
2. It regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
Certain gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion,
while others like water molecules move across by the process of osmosis.
2. Cell Wall :
Discoverd by Robert Hooke
Cell wall is a rigid, non-living boundary wall outside the cell membrane in plant cells. Animal cells lack a cell wall.
It is mainly made of a substance called cellulose. It is permeable to water, solutes and gases. In most fungi,
cell wall is made up of chitin.
Cell wall in case of bacteria and blue green algae is characteristics in having a complex compound, muramic acid
complexed with proteinaceous chains (peptidoglycan).

Biology
Functions :
1. Cell wall provides rigidity, structural strength and definite shape to the cell.
2. It helps in transport of various substances across it.
 Protoplasm (Essence of life):
The entire matter found inner to the cell membrane is called as protoplasm. All the living components of
a cell lie in the protoplasm and perform their functions.
1. Protoplasm - termed by Purkinje (1839)
2. Physical basis of life - Huxley
It can be divided into 2 parts:
(A) Nucleus (B) Cytoplasm
(B) Nucleus :
It is a darkly stained structure generally present in the centre of the cell. It was discovered by Robert Brown
in 1833.
Structure :
It is made up of following four contents:
(a) Nuclear membrane / Nuclear envelope / Karyotheca
(b) Nuclear sap / Nucleoplasm / Karyolymph.
(c) Nucleolus.
(d) Chromatin threads.
(a) Nuclear Envelope: Nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, that separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm. The outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear membrane has
minute pores. These are called nucleo-pores.
(b) Nucleoplasm : The part of protopalsm which is enclosed by nuclear membrane. It contains chromatin
threads and nucleolus.
(c) Nucleolus:
 It is spherical or oval body present within the nucleus.
 It is generally bigger in size in those cells which are actively concerned with protein synthesis.

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 It is more prominent in non-dividing cells.

 It contains large amount of RNA and proteins and also a small amount of DNA.
 Nucleolus is a site where ribosomes are formed.
(d) Chromatin Threads:

 It is entangled mass of thread like structures.
 During cell division, the chromatin material gets organized into chromosomes. These are rod-shaped
structures, Chromosomes are made up of DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid) and proteins.
 DNA is the master molecule and it controls all the activities of the cell. Functional segments of DNA
are called genes. Genes control the characters.
 On one chromosomes, many genes are present. Chromosomes are considered as “heredity vehicle”.
Heredity means the transfer of characters from parents to the next generation.
 DNA (Deoxy ribose nucleic acid) has a double helix structure given by watson and crick. It is
mainly made of double strands formed by nitrogenous bases, (Adenine, Cytosin, Guanine and
Thyamin). Strands are joined by Hydrogen bonds between A & T, G & C. (Ribose nucleic acid) RNA
has single strand, it has same nitrogenous bases except, thyamin, RNA has Uracil.
Functions of Nucleus :
(i) It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell and regulates the cell cycle.
(ii) It helps in transmission of hereditary characters from parent to offspring.
(iii) Nucleus plays a central role in the cellular reproduction (division of single cell to form two cells).
(iv) Along with environment, nucleus also directs the chemical activities of the cell. This determines
the development and future form of the cell.
(C) Cytoplasm (Cytosol) :

 It is a large region of each cell enclosed by the cell membrane.
 It is a transparent, semi-solid ground substance in which various cell organelles are present.
 Water is the main component of cytoplasm which contains fats, proteins, carbohydrates and various
organic substances.
Functions :
 It helps in exchange of materials between cell organelles.
 It acts as a site of chemical reactions like glycolysis.
1. Cell Inclusions :
Cell inclusions are dead stored substances of the cells such as oil drops, starch grains, yolk, glycogen, etc.
2. Cell Organelles / Cytoplasmic organs:

Cell organelles are the living part of cell having definite shape, structure and function. They are playing an
important role in cell activities and embedded into cytosol. Cell organelles are often called as “small organs” and
also bounded by a plasma membrane like fluid-mosaic membrane.

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A. Living Part of a Cell B. Non Living part of a cell
1. Plasma Membrane 1. Cell wall (Plant cell only)

2. Cytoplasm 2. Vacuoles
3. Endoplasmic 3. Granules (Inclusions)
reticulum
4. Mitochondria
5. Golgi apparatus
6. Ribosomes
7. Lysosomes
8. Peroxisomes
9. Centrioles
(animal cells only)
10. Plastids
(Plant cells only)
(i) Mitochondria: It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except
mammalian RBC’s. It is absent in Prokaryotes.It is power house of cell or ATP- mill in cell, it is second
largest organelle of the cell. Mitochondria term given by Benda(1897).
Structure :
 It is double membrane bound cell organelle.
 The outer membrane is smooth and straight. The inner membrane is infolded into the cavity. These
finger-like infoldings are called as cristae.
 Mitochondrial matrix have enzyme for kreb’s cycle for respiration. Beside these enzymes matrix
have a complete protein synthesis apparatus (Ribosome- 70-s, DNA & RNA, enzymes) so
mitochondria called as semi autonomous cell organelle.

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Function:
 Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, where energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) is formed and they are called as the powerhouses of the cell.
(i) Mitochondrial matrix- Site of Krebs cycle.
(ii) Peri- mitochondrial space- Site of link reaction.
(iii) Oxysomes - Site of ETS.
 Since mitochondria have their own ribosomes and DNA, they can synthesize their own proteins,
and they are self-duplicating units.
 Mitochondria may store and release calcium when required.
(ii) Plastids :
Plastids are found only in plant cells. Plastid term used by Haeckel, Chloroplast term given by Schimper.
Plastids are of three types: (i) chloroplast, (ii) chromoplast and (iii) leucoplast
Structure of Chloroplast :
It is double membrane bound cell organelle and is the largest organelle of the cell.
Chloroplast have following 2 parts :
(a) Grana : It constitues of the lamellar system.

 These are found in layer on top of each other, these stacks are called as grana.
 Each lamella is made up of unit membrane.
 Each granum of chloroplast is formed by superimposed, closed compartments called thylakoid.
 Different grana are connected with the help of tubular connection, called stroma lamellae or fret
channels or intergranum.
Function: Site of light reaction.
(b) Stroma: It is a granular transparent substance filled in cavity of chloroplast. It is also called as matrix.
Grana are embedded in it.
 It contains enzymes of calvin cycle or dark reaction. Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme on the
earth. It made 16% protein of the chloroplast.
Function:- Site of dark reaction.

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Functions:
1. Chloroplasts, the green plastids, help in photosynthesis and thus, help in the synthesis of food.
These are called kitchen rooms of the cell.
2. Chromoplasts are coloured plastids (other than green coloured plastid) which provide colour to the
flowers and the fruits.
3. Leucoplasts help in the storage of food.
(iii)Golgi Complex:
Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) in nerve cells of owl.
Golgi Appartus :
(i) First described by Camillo Golgi and also known as Golgi body or Golgi complex, it consists of smooth,
flattened, membrane bound (double walled), sac-like structures called cisternae.
(ii) The cisternae are usually placed one above the other (stacked together) in parallel rows.
(iii) The Golgi apparatus is frequently surrounded by vesicles, which are discharged from the cisternae.
(iv) When present in plants in the form of subunits. Golgi apparatus is called dictyosome.
Functions :
1. It is a secretory organelle of the cell.
2. It packages materials, synthesized in the cell and transports these out of the cell.
3. It is involved in the formation of lysosomes.
4. In some cases, complex sugars are made from simple sugars in this organelle.
(iv) Endoplasmic Reticulum

First observed by Garnier (1897)- Termed as Ergastoplasm.
E.R. name proposed by K.R. Porter. (Credit for discovery of ER goes to Porter, claude and fullam)
Components of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

(i) Cisternae: Flat and unbranched (ii) Vesicles: Ovate structure
(iii) Tubules: Net like structure
It is also known as “System of Membranes”.
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

(a) Rough E.R./Granular E.R.
 Ribosomes present
 Concerned with protein synthesis

Biology
(b) Smooth E.R./Agranular E.R.

 Ribosomes absent
 Concerned with glycogen and lipid metabolism
 It helps in detoxification of drugs and poisons
Functions : u
1. Rough ER is the site of protein synthesis.
2. Smooth ER takes part in secretion of lipids.
3. ER provides increased surface area for metabolic reactions to take place.
4. ER, being a membranous network, provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
5. Proteins and lipids are synthesized in ER and are used for formation of cell membrane which is
called membrane biogenesis. Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
6. SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.
(v) Lysosome
First observed and the term coined by Christian De Duve (1955). Lysosomes are spherical bag like
structures (0.1– 0.8  m) which is covered by single unit membrane. Lysosomes are filled about 50
different types of digestive enzymes termed as acid hydrolases. Lysosomes are highly polymorphic cell
organelles. Because, during functioning, lysosomes have different morphological and physiological
states. Mostly found in animal cells and in some plant cells e.g. neurospora, cauliflower and bean.
Types of Lysosomes
 Primary lysosomes or storage granules
 Digestive vacuoles or Heterophagosomes
 Residual bodies
 Autophagic lysosomes or cytolysosomes or autophagosomes
Function:
 It involves in digestion of foreign materials received in cell by phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
 Digestion of old or dead cell organelles. Autophagy also takes place during starvation of cell.
 Sometimes all lysosomes of a cell burst to dissolve the cell completely.
That’s why lysosomes are also known as suicidal bags.

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(vi) Ribosome (Engine of cell)

Claude (1941) first observed them and called microsome.
Plade (1955) coined the term Ribosome.
 Except mammalian RBC all living cells have Ribosomes. (Both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes)
 These are the smallest and membraneless cell organelles. ‘S’ stands for sedimentation coefficient
or Svedberg unit.
Ribosomes
(On the basis of their sedimentation coefficient)
Prokaryotic ribosomes Eukaryotic ribosomes
70s 80s
Larger subunit Smaller subunit Larger subunit Smaller subunit

50s 30s 60s 40s
Function:
Site of protein synthesis, so these are also called protein factories.
At the time of protein synthesis, several ribosomes become attached to m-RNA with the help of
smalller subunits. This structure is called polyribosome or polysome.
(vii)Peroxisomes / Uricosomes
 Discovered by Rhodin & Tolbert.
 Peroxisome term was first used by De Duve.
 Catalase enzyme protects cell organelle from damage by peroxides.
Function:
(i) Detoxification (ii) Helps in digesting fatty acids
(iii) In animal cells peroxisomesconcerned with peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) metabolism
Note : Glyoxisomes are specialised peroxisomes found in plants (particularly in the fat storage tissues of
germinating seeds).
(viii) Vacuoles:
Vacuoles of animal cells arise from Golgi-complex. It is surrounded by tonoplast. In animals the
vacuoles are smaller in size and larger in number while in plants it is larger in size and fewer in number.
Vacuoles are storage sacs for liquid or solid contents.
Function :
(i) These serve for storage. of food (food vacuole)
(ii) Transport of dissolved, secretory or excretory substances by contractile vacuole.
(iii) Vacuoles help the plant cells to remain turgid. (Sap vacuole)
(iv) They play an important role in growth by helping in the elongation of cells.
(v) They provide an aqueous environment for the accumulation and storage of water-soluble
compounds (sugars, minerals, pigments, etc.).
(vi) In protozoans like Amoeba and Paramaecium, vacuoles help in digestion and excretion.

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(ix) Centrosome : Discovered by Benden

Boveri named as centrosome.
Centrosome is generally found in animal cells. Only few types of plant cells show its presence.
It is situated near the nucleus of the cell and shaped like star. Each centrosome has two centrioles.
The two centrioles are placed perpendicular to each other. Centriole consist of 9 triple fibres of tubulin.
(9 + 0 arragnement). They are not bounded by cell membrane.
Function :
(i) In animal cells centrioles play important role in initiation of cell division by arranging spindle
fibres between two poles of cell.
(ii) The location of centrioles during cell division decides the plane of division.
(iii) It form the basal granule of cilia and flagella in micro-organisms, zoo-spores& motile gametes.
(iv) Form tail of sperm.
Cell Division Explaination

The process of cell division and all other activities are controled by chromosome.
Chromosome
These are thread like structures that contains all the characters of organism. every cell of an organism has fixed
number of chromosome like each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosome
DNA in chromosomes coils to form chromation network with help of histone protein, that further coils to form
chromosomes
It consists of two chromotids (sister) joins to form chromosome at a point called centromere.
Process by which a cell divides into new daughter cell is called cell division
It is divided into :
1. Karyokinesis 2. Cytokinesis
1. Karyokinesis is karyo means nuclear and kinesis means division so Koryokinesis mean nuclear division.
It is of two types
(a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis
(a) Mitosis It has following steps:

Interphase preparatory phase, where DNA content double, and chromosomal number remains same.
Prophase: Centrosome divides into centriols that moves towards opposite pole, nuclear membrane starts
disappearing.
Metaphase: Nuclear membrane disappears, spindle apparatus formed, chromosomes aligned at equator
bound from centromete through spindle fibre.
Anaphase: Spindle shortens and separates chromosomes and moves towards pole.
Telophase: Spindle apparates disappear nuclear membrane reappears and two daughter nuclei are fomed
Since number of chromosomes remain same in daughter nuclei, therefore, it is also called equational
division and is carried out in somatic (body) cells for growth, and for repair and maintainence

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(b) Meiosis
This type of nuclear division is found in reproductive cells. Number of chromosomes in this reduces to
half, therefore it is called reductional division. If is divided into two stages, Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II
meiosis I has four substages
(1) Prophase I, (2) Metaphase I, (3) Anaphase I (4) Telophase I
Meiosis II is divided into (1) Prophase II, (2) Metaphase II, (3) Anaphase II, and (4) Telophase II
They are similar as in mitosis the difference being that in prophase I of meosis I, a small amount of
genetic transfer takes place at a point on each set of homologous chromosomes celled chiasmata.
This transfer of genetic meterial is called crossing over and is responsible for variation.
Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis. In animals, cytokinesis starts from constriction from outside
towards inside and in plants a plate develops in the center, which moves are and divides the cell into
two.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. Who proposed the cell theory ?

(A) Schleiden and Schwann (B) Watson and Crick
(C) Darwin and Wallace (D) Mendel and Morgan
2. Centrosome is found in :
(A) Cytoplasm (B) Nucleus (C) Chromosomes (D) Nucleolus
3. Within a cell the site of respiration (oxidation) is :
(A) Ribosome (B) Golgi apparatus (C) Mitochondria (D) Endoplasmic reticulum
4. Organisms lacking nucleus and membrane bound organelles are :
(A) Diploids (B) Prokaryotes (C) Haploids (D) Eukaryotes
5. The membrane surrounding the vacuole of a plant cell is called :
(A) Tonoplast (B) Plasma membrane
(C) Nuclear membrane (D) Cell wall
6. Which of the following organelles does not have membrane ?
(A) Ribosome (B) Nucleus (C) Chloroplast (D) Mitochondria
7. The history of the cell began in 1665 with the publication of Micrographia in London by :
(A) Robert Hooke (B) Robert Brown (C) Strasburger (D) Dujardin
8. Ordinarily the size of typical animal / plant cell varies from :
(A) 10 - 100 mm (B) 100 - 1000 mm (C) 1 mm - 10 mm (D) 10 mm -100 mm
9. Cell was discovered by :
(A) Robert Brown (B) Robert Hooke (C) Purkinje (D) Darwin
10. The limiting membrane found in an animal cell is :
(A) nuclear membrane (B) plasma membrane
(C) tonoplast (D) cell wall
11. The barrier between the cell contents and the external environment is formed by :
(A) plasma membrane (B) tonoplast
(C) endoplasmic reticulum (D) cell wall
12. Plasmolysis occurs due to :
(A) Absorption (B) Endomosis (C) Osmosis (D) Exosmosis
13. Organisms in which nuclear material is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane are called :
(A) eukaryotes (B) diploids (C) haploids (D) prokaryotes
14. Which one of the following belongs to prokaryotic category ?
(A) Amoeba (B) Euglena (C) Bacteria (D) Chlamydomonas
15. Which one of the following cell organelles is commonly called ‘cell kitchen’ ?
(A) Mitochondria (B) Chloroplasts (C) Ribosomes (D) Endoplasmic reticulum
16. Protein is synthesized by
(A) Ribosomes (B) Golgi apparatus (C) Plastids (D) Mitochondria

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17. The cell organelle known as the “Power house of the cell” is :
(A) Ribosome (B) Lysosome (C) Mitochondria (D) Golgi body
18. Which of the cell organelles is termed as “Sucide bag of the cell” ?
(A) Lysosome (B) Ribosome (C) Centrosome (D) Chromosome
19. Centriole in the cell is associated with

(A) Spindle formation (B) DNA synthesis
(C) Protein formation (D) Cell respiration
20. Cell secretion is done by

(A) Golgi apparatus (B) Nucleolus (C) Mitochondria (D) Endoplasmic reticulum
21. Network of endoplasmic reticulum is found in :

(A) Nucleus (B) Cytoplasm (C) Chromosomes (D) Nucleolus
22. Inside the cells, the hydrolytic enzymes are contained in

(A) Ribosomes (B) Lysosomes (C) Chromosomes (D) Golgi apparatus
23. A plant cell differs from an animal cell in the absence of :

(A) endoplasmic reticulum (B) centrioles
(C) ribosomes (D) mitochondria
24. Genes are located on the :

(A) nuclear membrane (B) cell membrane
(C) chromosomes (D) mitochondria
25. The largest cell in human body is :

(A) liver cell (B) nerve cell (C) muscle cell (D) kidney cell
26. Ribosome get synthesized in :

(A) chromosomes (B) mitochondria (C) nucleolus (D) Golgi apparatus
27. Which of the following cell organelle work as a garbage disposal system ?
(A) Nucleolus (B) Mitochondria
(C) Endoplasmic reticulum (D) Lysosomes
28. Lysosomes are formed in :

(A) Golgi apparatus (B) Plastids (C) Nucleolus (D) Mitochondria
29. Shrinkage of protoplasm when cell is kept in hypertonic solution is known as :

(A) Osmosis (B) Electrolysis (C) Plasmolysis (D) Endosmosis
30. A cell placed in hypotonic solution will :

(A) Swell up (B) Shrink (C) Not undergo any change (D) Show plasmolysis
31. A cell will swell up if :

(A) The concentration of water molecules in the cell is higher than the concentration of water molecules in surrounding
medium.
(B) The concentration of water molecules in surrounding medium is higher than water molecules concentration in the
cell.

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(C) The concentration of water molecules is same in the cell and in the surrounding medium.
(D) Concentration of water molecules does not matter.
32. Following are a few definitions of osmosis : Read carefully and select the correct definition.
(A) Movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane.
(B) Movement of solvent molecules from its higher concentration to lower concentration.
(C) Movement of solvent molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration of solution through a permeable
membrane.
(D) Movement of solute molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution through a semi-
permeable membrane.
33. Plasmolysis in a plant cell is defined as :
(A) break down (lysis) of plasma membrane in hypotonic medium
(B) shrinkage of cytoplasm in hypertonic medium
(C) shrinkage of nucleoplasm
(D) none of them
34. Amoeba acquires its food through a process, termed :
(A) exocytosis (B) endocytosis (C) plasmolysis
(D) exocytosis and endocytosis both
35. Select the odd one out :
(A) The movement of water across a semi-pemeable membrane is affected by the amount of substances dissolved in it.
(B) Membranes are made of organic molecule like proteins and lipids.
(C) Molecules soluble in organic solvents can easily pass through the membrane.
(D) Plasma membrane contain chitin sugar in plants.
SUBJECTIVE TYPE
1. What is cell?
2. Who discovered cell?
3. Who discovered nucleus?
4. Who gave the term protoplasm?
5. Who gave the statement, cells arise from pre-existing cells?
6. Why safranin or methylene blue is used for temporary mount of slide of onion peel or cheek cell?
7. Who coined the term protoplasm?
8. Why invention of microscope helped in better understanding of living organisms?
9. Why onion peel is kept in glycerine and covered by cover slip?
10. How staining helps in getting a better cell profile?
11. What happens when grape is kept in hypertonic solution?
12. What are cytoplasmic projections in amoeba also known as?
13. Name two structures that help in movement of some unicellular organisms.
14. Define osmosis?

Biology
15. What is osmotic pressure?

16. Which human cell performs endocytosis?
17. Name two semi-autonomous organelle.
18. Name protein factories of cell.
19. Which organelle is called kitchen of the cell?
20. Write down the site of membrane biogenesis in cell?
21. How does cristae in mitochondria help in oxidation of food to give energy?
22. Name site of membrane biogenesis.
23. Define plasmolysis.
24. Who controls the activities in cell or where is the command centre of cell?
25. How does pickling helps in preservation of food?
26. What are the consequences of the following condition;
(a) A cell having higher water concentration than surrounding.
(b) A cell having lower water concentration than surrounding.
(c) A cell having equal water concentration to its surrounding.
27. Which part of cell helps in packaging?
28. Why lysosome is also called suicide bags of cell or cellular house keepers.
29. What will happen, if boiled potato is kept in concentrated sugar solution or salt solution and why?
30. Give difference between plant and animal cell.
31. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
32. Draw a neat labelled diagram of plant cell.
33. Draw a neat labelled diagram of animal cell?

Biology
2
Tissues
Introduction:
 A group of similar cells having same origin and performs a particular function is called a tissue.
 Term tissue was coined by Bichat.
 Branch of biology deals with the study of tissue is called Histology.
Tissues can be divided into two types - plant tissues and animal tissues.
Differences between plant and animal tissues:

Plant tissues Animal tissues
1. Dead, supportive tissues are more abundant to 1. Living tissues are more common.
provide mechanical strength.
2. There is differentiation of meristematic and 2. Such Different- tiation is absent.

permanent tissues.
3. Tissues organization pattern is of stationary type. 3. Tissue Organization pattern is towards active
locomotion.
4. Plants need less maintenance energy. 4. Animals need more maintenance energy.
5. Tissues organization is simple. 5. Tissue organization is complex.
Plant Tissues
Mainly they are of two types:
1. Meristematic
2. Permanent

Biology
Meristematic Tissue: These are simple living tissues having thin walled compactly arranged immature cells which
are capable of division and formation of new cells.
(i) Main features of meristematic tissues are:

 Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic).
 Intercellular spaces are absent (Compact tissue).
 Generally vacuoles are absent, dense cytoplasm & prominent nuclei are present.
 Large number of cell organelles are present.
 Active metabolic state, stored food is absent.
 Actively dividing cells are present in growing regions of plants, e.g. root & shoot tips.
(ii) Classification on the basis of origin:

(A) Primary (Promeristem): Derived directly from the meristems of embryo.
(B) Secondary: Formed by primary permanent tissues.
(iii) Classification on the basis of location:

(A) Apical meristem : It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots. Cell division in this tissue
leads to the elongation of stem & root thus it is involved in primary growth of the plant.
(B) Intercalary meristem : It is the part of apical meristem which is left behind during growth period.
These are present at the base of leaf & internode region. These lead to the increase in the length
of leaf (Primary growth) e.g. in grass stem, bamboo stem, mint stem etc.
(C) Lateral meristem:- It is also called as secondary meristem. e.g cambium.
Permanent Tissue:
 The permanent tissues are composed of those cells which have lost their capability to divide.
 The division & differentiation of the cells of meristematic tissues give rise to permanent tissues.
 The permanent tissues are classified into two types:
(i) Simple permanent tissues : These tissues are made up of same type of cells which are similar
structurally and functionally. They include two types of tissues:
(A) Protective Tissues: These tissues are primarily protective in function. They consist of :
1. Epidermis: Epidermis forms unicellular thick outermost layer of various body organs of
plants such as leaves, flowers, stems and roots. Epidermis is covered outside by cuticle.
Cuticle is a water proof layer of waxy substance called as cutin.
Culticle is very thick in xerophytes.
Cells of epidermis of leaves are not continuous at some places due to the presence of small
pores called as stomata. Each stomata is guarded by a pair of bean shaped cells called as
guard cells.

Biology
Function:
 The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection.
 Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of transpiration and evaporation of water and prevents wilting.
 Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous exchange to occur during photosynthesis and respiration.
 Stomata also helps in transpiration. Cork is made up of dead cells with thick walls and do not have
any intercellular spaces. The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance called as suberin.
(B) Supporting tissue: These are supportive in function and are of three types:
Parenchyma: It is the fundamental tissue, parenchymatous cells have thin cell wall and are living
tissues having different shapes.
 Cell wall mainly composed of cellulose & pectin.
 Large central vacuole for food & water storage.
 Primary function is food storage.
 Specialised parenchyma: They are of two types 1. Chlorenchyma 2. Aerenchyma
 Chloroplast containing parenchyma tissues are chlorenchyma which perform photosynthesis. e.g.
mesophyll of leaves.
 In hydrophytic plants aerenchyma (A type of parenchyma containing air spaces) provides buoyancy.
Collenchyma: It is the living mechanical tissue.
 Elongated cells with thick corners.
 Localized cellulose & pectin thickening.
 Provides flexibility to plant parts & easy bending of various parts of plant.
 It gives mechanical strength & elasticity to the growing stems.
Sclerenchyma: (Scleras-hard)
 Strengthening tissue.
 Composed of extremely thick walled cells little or no protoplasm.
 Cells are dead & posses very thick lignified walls.
 Lignin is water proof material.
 Intercellular spaces are absent.
Cells of sclerenchyma are of two types:

1. Sclereids (Stone cells) : Small stone cell or grit cell, having small lumen and thick cell wall.
2. Fibres : They are very long, narrow, thick, lignified cells.
Sclerenchyma fibres are used in the manufacture of ropes, mats & certain textile fibres.
Jute & coir are obtained from the thick bundles of fibres.

Biology
Comparative study of three different types of simple permanent tissues:

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
1. It consists of living cells. 1. It consists of living cells. 1. It consists of dead cells.
2. Intercellular spaces are present. 2. Intercellular spaces may or may 2. Intercellular spaces are absent.
not be present.
3. Cell wall is thin without 3. Cell wall is thick due to 3. Cell wall is thick as it has lignin
having secondary deposition. secondary deposition. deposition.
4. Its cells contain cytoplasm. 4. Its cells contain cytoplasm. 4. Its cells are devoid of cytoplasm.
5. Cell wall does not have pits. 5. Cell wall does not have pits. 5. Cell wall bears simple pits.
6. They have vital functions like 6. They have both vital as 6. It is chiefly a mechanical tissue.
synthesis and storage of food. well as mechanical functions,
providing support and elasticity to
plant body.
(ii) Complex permanent tissue : It consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit.
It helps in transportation of organic materials, water & minerals.
It is also known as conducting or vascular tissue.
Xylem & phloem together form vascular bundles.
(A) Xylem : Also known as wood and is a vascular and mechanical tissue. Thick walled cells are found
in the form of tubular passages for upward conduction of water and minerals.
Xylem consists of four types of cells called as elements:

 Tracheids: They are elongated angular dead cells (primary elements) mainly involved in
conduction of water & minerals in gymnosperms.
 Vessels: They are advance elements (generally found in angiosperms). Vessels are cylindrical
tube like structures placed one above the other end to end which form a continuous channel
for efficient conduction of water.
 Xylem parenchyma: They are small & thick walled parenchymatous cells subjected for
storage of starch (food).
 Xylem sclerenchyma: They are non living fibres with thick walls & narrow cavities. Provide
mechanical support.
Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem elements are dead.
(B) Phloem : Living tissues for translocation of organic food.
Phloem consists of four types of elements:

 Sieve tubes: Sieve tubes are slender tube like structures made up of elongated, thin walled
cells placed end to end. Nucleus of sieve cell is absent at maturity.
 Companion cells: Companion cells have dense cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.
 Phloem fibre: They give mechanical support to sieve tubes.
 Phloem parenchyma: They store food & help in radial conduction of food.
In phloem except phloem sclerenchyma all elements are living.

Biology
Xylem Phloem
1. It contains mainly dead elements. Xylem 1. It contains mainly living cells, namely sieve tube
parenchyma cells are the only living cells. cells, companion cells and phloem parenchyma cells.
2. It conducts water and minerals from roots to stem 2. It transfers prepared food like sucrose from leaves
and leaves. to storage organs and growing points of plant body.
3. Two types of conducting elements, tracheids and 3. Only one type of conducting element, namely
vessels are found. sieve tubes are present.
Animal Tissue :
Outline classification of Animal tissue
Epithelial Tissue :
Word epithelium is composed of two words Epi-upon, Thelio-groups.
Means- A tissue which grows upon another tissue is called epithelium.
Nature :
It is the simplest tissue forming the outermost covering or inner most lining of the body or organ.
It is the protective tissue of the animal body (as epidermis of plants)
It always rest upon underlying connective tissue. Epithelium cells are closely packed with each other so there
is very little inter-cellular space.
Epithelial tissue may be simple (composed of a single layer of cell) or stratified (made up of several layers of
cells).

Biology
The epithelial tissues is composed of one or more layers of cells and is the simplest among all types of tissues. It forms
outer covering of the body and the lining of the internal organs, and hence, also called covering tissue or epithelium.
The term epithelium (epi = upon, thelio = grow) was given by 18th century Dutch anatomist, Ruysch, referring to the
fact that these tissues grow upon other tissues.
General Functions of Epithelial Tissue:

 Protection: Epithelia protects the underlying cells from mechanical and chemical injuries and bacterial or viral
infection.
 Acts as Barriers: It acts as selective barriers.
 Absorption: Helps in absorption of water products.
 Elimination: Help in elimination of waste products.
 Secretion: Some epithelial tissues secrete secretion, such as sweat, saliva, mucus, enzymes, etc.
 Exoskeleton: It produces exoskeleton structures, such as scales, feathers, hair, nails, claws, horns and hoofs.
 Regeneration: This tissue facilitates rapid healing of wounds by its regeneration power.
Types of Epithelium Tissue:

(i) Squamous Epithelium:
Nature: It is made up of thin, flat, irregular-shaped cells which fit together like floor tiles to form a compact
tissue.
Function: It protects the underlying parts of body from mechanical injury, entry of germs, chemicals and
drying. It also forms a selectively permable surface through which filteration occurs.
(ii) Cuboidal Epithelium:

Nature: It consists of cube-like (cubical) cells which are square in section but the free surface appear
hexagonal.
Functions: It helps in absorption, excretion and secretion. It also provides mechanical support.
(iii) Columnar Epithelium:

Nature: It consists of cells which are taller than broad (i.e., pillar-like). The nuclei are towards the base and
sometimes the free ends of cells has a brush border containing microvilli.
Function: Its main functions include absorption (e.g., stomach, intestine) and secretion (e.g., mucus by
goblet cells or mucous membrane).
(iv) Ciliated Epithelium:

Nature: Certain cuboidal or colulmnar cells have a free border which bear thread-like cytoplasmic outgrowths,
called cilia. Such cells form the ciliated epithelium.
Function: The rhythmic, concerted beating of the cilia moves solid particles (e.g. mucus) in one direction
through the ducts.

Biology
Connective Tissue:
As the name suggest, this tissue serves to ‘connect’ or bind the cells of other tissues in the body, and gives them
rigidity and support. It is composed of cells and numerous, thick structures called fibres. The cells are living and are
embedded in a non-living, intercellular matrix. Based on the nature of matrix, the connective tissue is divided into three
general types :
A. Connective tissue proper – where the matrix is relatively less rigid.
B. Supportive connective tissue (skeletal tissue) – where the matrix is rigid.
C. Fluid connective tissue – where the intercellular matrix is a fluid called plasma.
A. Connective Tissue Proper :

(i) Loose Connective Tissue:
(a) Areolar Connective Tissue : It is the most widely distributed connective tissue in the body having in the
matrix, irregular shaped cells and two kinds of fibres – White fibres (made of collagen) and yellow fibres
(made of elastin). These fibres are found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels, nerves
and bone marrow.
Function :
This tissue (i) binds the skin with underlying parts, (ii) repair of tissues.
(b) Adipose Connective Tissue : It occurs below the skin, around internal organs and yellow bone marrow.
Cells are modified to store fat ; each cell consists of a large vacuole filled with fat which is surrounded by
a small amount of cytoplasm containing a nucleous towards the periphery.
Functions :
It acts as a filling tissue ; stores fat and keeps the body warm (insulator)
(ii) Compact Connective Tissue (Dense connective tissue) :

(a) Tendon : Tendon is tough and non-elastic made up of white fibres and connect muscles to bones.
(b) Ligaments : Though strong, ligaments are elastic, consisting of yellow fibres. They connect one bone
to another bone.

Biology
B. Skeletal Tissue:
(i) Cartilage:
Nature: The cartilage is a specialized connective tissue which is compact and less vascular. It has widely
spaced cells. Its extensive matrix is composed of proteins and is slightly hardened by calcium salts. Matrix is
solid, cheese-like and firm but also some what elastic. This accounts for its flexible nature.
The matrix of cartilage have a delicate network of collagen fibres and living cells, chondrocytes. Blood
vessels are absent in matrix. Thus, cartilage is capable of continued and rapid growth.
Function:
It provides support and flexibility to the body parts. It smoothens surface at joints.
(ii) Bone:
Nature: Bone is a very strong and non-flexible tissue. Like cartilage, bone is a specialised connective tissue.
It is porous, highly vascular, mineralised, hard and rigid. Its matrix is made up of proteins. Matrix of bone is
heavily coated with salts of calcium and magnesium such as phosphates and carbonates of calcium and
magnesium. These minerals are responsible for the hardness of the bone. The matrix of bone is in the form of
thin concentric rings, called lamellae. Bone cells, called osteoblasts or osteocytes, are present between the
lamellae in fluid-filled spaces called lacunae.
Function:
Bone forms endoskeleton of human beings and other vertebrates except the sharks. It serves the
following functions:
1. It provides shape to the body.
2. It provides skeletal support to the body.
3. It protects vital body organs such as brain, lungs, etc.
4. It serves as storage site of calcium and phosphate.
5. It anchors the muscles.
C. Fluid Connective Tissue:

(i) Lymph (Tissue Fluid):
Its composition is same as blood plasma except it has less protein. It flows through another circulatory
system called Lymphatic system
Functions of Lymph:
 Lymph absorbs some of the fluid from the digestive tract. It passes proteins from circulation to tissues.
It also carries the digested fat.
 The lymph drains excess fluid from extracellular spaces back into the blood.
 It carries carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste materials from tissues to the blood.
 It protects the body by killing the germs.

Biology
(ii) Blood :
Blood is an important fluid conducting tissue, which transport the materials to different parts of body
by conduction.
1. Study of blood – Haematology
2. Process of blood
formation – Haemopoiesis
3. Colour – Red
4. By weight – 7 to 8% of body weight
5. By volume – 5-6 litres in male and 4-5 litres in female
Composition of Blood :
Liquid part – matrix – plasma 55%
Solid part – Blood corpuscles – 45% (RBC, WBC and Platelets)
Functions of Blood :
 Blood plasma helps in the transport of nutrients, hormones, waste materials and vitamins to every
part of the body.
 RBC helps in the transport of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) from lungs to tissues
and back.
 WBC help to fight disease by engulfing and destroying foreign bodies by producing antibodies
and antitoxin.
 Blood platelets help in the clotting of blood at the site of injury.
 Blood helps in thermoregulation, water balance and maintenance of pH of body.
Muscular Tissue :
Movements are brought about in our body with the help of muscular tissues.
Types : It is of three types :

(i) Striated Muscles : They are also called as voluntary muscles because these are under the control of one’s
will. They are multinucleated, striated, unbranched.
(ii) Non-striated Muscles : They are involuntary muscles also called as smooth muscles. These muscles fibres
are uninucleated, spindle shaped and unstriated.
(iii) Cardiac Muscle Fibres : They are involuntary muscles. Only found in the walls of heart. They are
uninucleated. Branches are united by intercalated disc. In these muscles rhythmic contraction and relaxation
occurs throughout the life.
General Functions of Muscular Tissue:

 It supports the bones and other organs of the body.
 Muscles cause peristalsis of gut, heart beat, production of sound, etc.
 Muscles cause movements of body parts and locomotion of the animals.

Biology
 Facial expression also depends on muscles.

 Contraction of muscles causes delivery of a baby.
Differences between unstriated, striated and cardiac muscles:

Unstriated muscles Striated muscles Cardiac muscles
1. Present in the wall of 1. Present in limbs, tongue, They are present in the wall
alimentary canal, blood vessels, body wall and pharynx. (myocardium) of heart.
respiratory tract, urinogenital
tract, urinary bladder, in hair
muscles and ducts of glands.
2. Muscle fibres are spindle- 2. Muscle fibres are 2. Muscle fibres are
shaped. cylindrical. cylindrical.
3. Fibres are unbranched. 3. Fibres are unbranched. 3. Fibres are branched.
4. Muscle cells are uninucleate. 4. Muscle cells are 4. Muscle cells are
multinucleate. uninucleate.
5. Nerve supply from 5. Nerve supply from 5. Nerve supply from both
autonomous nervous system. central nervous system. autonomous and central
nervous system.
6. Cross striations absent or non- 6. Dark and light bands 6. Cross striations and
striated. (cross striations) present. intercalated discs present.
7. Exhibit slow contraction. 7. Exhibit rapid 7. Exhibit rapid contraction.
contraction.
8. Involuntary. 8. Voluntary. 8. Involuntary.
9. Do not get fatigued. 9. Get fatigued. 9. Do not get fatigued.
10. Cause contraction and 10. Cause movement of 10. Cause hearbeat.
mobility in visceral organs and limbs and locomotion.
involuntary muscles.
Nervous Tissue :
They are highly specialized tissue due to which the animals are able to perceive and respond to the stimuli.
Their functional unit is called as nerve cell or Neuron.
Cell body is cyton covered by plasma membrane. Short, hair like extensions arising from cyton are dendron
which are further subdivided into dendrites. Axon is long, tail like cylindrical process with fine branches at the
end. Axon is covered by a sheath.
Neuron is made up of :
(i) Cell body (ii) Cell process (axon and dendron)
(i) Cell body : or Cyton or Soma or Perikaryon
 It is broad, rounded, pyriform or stellate part of the neuron that contains a central nucleus, abundant cytoplasm
and various cell organelles except centrioles.
 Because of the absence of centriole, neurons cannot divide. Injured neurons are either replaced or repaired.
 Cytoplasm of cell body is also called neuroplasm. Nucleus is large with a prominent nucleolus.
 Special structures present in cell body of a neuron are small ribosome containing Nissl granules and fine
fibrils called neurofibrils.
 Cell body maintains the neuron through its metabolic activity and growth.

Biology
(ii) Cell Process:

(a) Axon:
 It is a long fibre-like cytoplasmic process that carries impulses away from the cell body.
 Axon is branched terminally.
 Axon terminals may end in muscle fibres, glands, other structures or form synapses with dendrites of
other neurons.
 Axon terminals are often knob-like (synaptic knobs or boutons).
 Axon is covered by one or two sheaths. The sheathed axon is called nerve fibre.
 A number of nerve fibres are joined to form a nerve.
 The part of cyton from where the axon arises is called as “axon hillock”.
 The cell membrane covering the axon is called axolemma.
 Cytoplasm of axon is termed as axoplasm. It lacks Nissl granules. Neurofibrils are present.
 The single sheath present over the axon is made of Schwann cells. It is called neurolemma or
neurilemma. If two, a layer of insulating myelin or fat occurs between neurolemma and axon.
 The two types of nerve fibres are respectively called nonmyelinated and myelinated.
 Myelinated fibres are more efficient in transmission of impulses than nonmyelinated fibres. At intervals
they bear unmyelinated areas called nodes of Ranvier.
(b) Dendron:
 They are fine short and branched protoplasmic processes of the cell body that pick up sensations
(physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical) and transmit the same to the cell body.
 Dendrites contain Nissl granules and neurofibrils.
Function:
(i) They control all the body activities
(ii) They co-ordinate between various body parts during any body function.
Spinal cord & brain are made up of nervous tissue.
Neuron (nerve cell) is the longest of human body (up to 100 cm)

Biology
Comparison of Epithelial, Connective, Muscular and Nervous tissues
S. No. Properties Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Muscular Tissue Nervous Tissue
1. Types of Same type of cells in Different type of Same type of Same type of cells
cells a particular sub-type cells in a sub-type cells e.g., e.g., neurons
e.g., squamous, e.g., histocytes, mast sacromere.
cuboidal or columnar cells, adipose cells
etc. etc.
2. Arrangement Compactly arranged Loosely arranged Compactly Moderately compact

of cells arranged
3. Secretion of Secretion of cells Secretion of cells Secretion of cells Secretion of cells form
cells never form the part form the part of does not form the the part of the tissue
of the tissue tissue in the form of part of the tissue
matrix
4. Intercellular No intercellular Conspicuous No intercellular Moderate intercellular

spaces intercellular spaces space space
5. Basement Present Absent Absent Absent

membrane
6. Functions (i) Covering Interconnections of Contractile and so Irritability and so

(ii) Protection various tissues and help in conducts messages
(iii) Secretion filling locomotion and from one part of the
(iv) Sensory movement of the body to others
body
7. Sub-types (A) Simple (A) Proper (A) Skeletal (A) Myelinated nerve
(B) Stratified connective tissue muscles fibres
(B) Supportive (B) Smooth (B) Non-myelinated
connective tissue muscles nerve fibres
(C) Fluid connective (C) Cardiac
tissue muscles

Biology
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. A group of cells alike in form, function and origin is called

(A) Tissue (B) Organ (C) Organelle (D) None of these
2. Plant length is increased by
(A) Apical meristems (B) Lateral meristems
(C) Periblem (D) Parenchyma
3. The cell division is restricted to
(A) Meristematic cells (B) Permanent cells
(C) Secretory cells (D) All the above
4. Active divisions take place in the cells of
(A) Xylem (B) Phloem (C) Sclerenchyma (D) Cambium
5. Grass stem elongates by the activity of
(A) Primary meristem (B) Secondary meristem
(C) Intercalary meristem (D) Apical meristem
6. Simple tissues are these
(A) Parenchyma, Xylem and collenchyma
(B) Parenchyma, collenchyma and Sclerenchyma
(C) Parenchyma, Xylem and Sclerechyma
(D) Parenchyma, Xylem and Phloem
7. Complex tissue consists of
(A) Different type of cells carrying out the same function
(B) Different types of cells carrying out different functions
(C) Same type of cells having the same origin and carry the same function
(D) Different types of cells having the same origin and carry the same function
8. The most common type of ground tissue is
(A) Epidermis (B) Collenchyma (C) Sclerenchyma (D) Parenchyma
9. Collenchyma differs from sclerenchyma in
(A) Retaining cytoplasm at maturity (B) Having thick walls
(C) Having a wide lumen (D) Being meristematic
10. Collenchyma mainly forms
(A) Hypodermis (B) Epidermis (C) Phloem (D) Inner cortex
11. Whose living cells provide tensile and mechanical strength
(A) Collenchyma (B) Sclerenchyma (C) Phloem (D) Sclereids
12. Lignified elongated dead cells are
(A) Parenchyma (B) Collenchyma (C) Sclerenchyma (D) None of the above
13. Which of the following tissues is composed of mainly dead cells ?
(A) Phloem (B) Epidermis (C) Xylem (D) Endodermis

Biology
14. Phloem in the plants perform the function of

(A) Conduction of food (B) Conduction of water
(C) Providing support (D) Photosynthesis
15. Simple epithelium is a tissue in which cells are
(A) Hardened and provide support to organs
(B) Continuously dividing to provide to form an organ
(C) Cemented directly to one another to form a single layer
(D) Loosely connected to one another to form an irregular layer
16. Pavement epithelium is the name of
(A) Squamous epithelium (B) Cuboidal epithelium
(C) Ciliated epithelium (D) Columnar epithelium
17. Brush bordered epithelium is found in
(A) Stomach (B) Small intestine (C) Fallopian tube (D) Trachea
18. Ciliated epithelium is found in
(A) Tongue (B) Oesophagus (C) Trachea (D) Uterus
19. Which type of tissue forms glands ?
(A) Epithelial (B) Connective (C) Nervous (D) Muscle
20. Areolar tissue is a
(A) Nervous tissue (B) Connective tissue
(C) Muscular tissue (D) Bony tissue
21. What are the functions of goblet cells ?
(A) Production of HCI (B) Production of mucus
(C) Production of enzymes (D) Production of hormones
22. The end of a long bone is connected to another bone by
(A) Ligament (B) Tendon (C) Cartilage (D) Muscle
23. Ligaments and tendons are formed of
(A) Epithelial tissue (B) Muscular tissue (C) Cartilage (D) Connective tissue
24. When boiled in water collagen changes into
(A) Gelatin (B) Reticulin (C) Elastin (D) Myosin
25. Process from osteoblasts are found in
(A) Lamelia (B) Canaliculi (C) Dendrites (D) Haversian canals
26. Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is
(A) Plasma (B) Lymph (C) Serum (D) Vaccine
27. Which are not true cells in the blood ?
(A) Platelets (B) Monocytes (C) Basophils (D) Neutrophils
28. Sprain is caused by excessive pulling of
(A) Nerves (B) Tendons (C) Muscles (D) Ligaments

Biology
29. Tendon is a structure which connects

(A) A bone with another bone (B) A muscle with a bone
(C) A nerve with a muscle (D) A muscle with a muscle
30. Smooth muscles occur in
(A) Uterus (B) Artery (C) Vein (D) All the above
31. Which of the following plant tissues do not possess living protoplasm at maturity ?
(A) Sclerenchyma (B) Collenchyma (C) Tracheids (D) Epidermis
32. White fibres of connective tissue are made up of
(A) Elastin (B) Reticular fibre (C) Collagen (D) Myosin
33. The hardness of the bone tissue is due to the phosphates and carbonates of
(A) Calcium and sodium (B) Calcium and magnesium
(C) Magnesium and sodium (D) Magnesium and potassium
34. The study of tissues and their functions is known as
(A) histology (B) physiology (C) anatomy (D) morphology
35. External ear (pinna) is made up of
(A) cartilage (B) bone (C) adipose tissue (D) ligament
36. Which one is a meristematic tissue ?
(A) xylem (B) parenchyma (C) apical tissues (D) phloem
37. Tracheids are components of
(A) xylem (B) phloem
(C) intercalary tissues (D) collenchyma
38. Areolar tissue is a
(A) ligament (B) connective tissue
(C) muscle (D) nervous tissue
39. Which tissue provides mechanical strength to plants ?
(A) parenchyma (B) chlorenchyma (C) collenchyma (D) sclerenchyma
40. Haversian canal occurs in
(A) cartilage (B) bone (C) internal ear (D) live
41. Ciliated epithelium is found in
(A) stomach (B) intestine (C) oesophagus (D) trachea
42. Cardiac muscle fibres are
(A) striated and voluntary (B) striated and involuntary
(C) non-striated and voluntary (D) non-striated and involuntary
43. Simple tissues are
(A) parenchyma, xylem and collenchyma (B) parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
(C) parenchyma, xylem and phloem (D) parenchyma, xylem and sclerenchyma

Biology
SUBJECTIVE TYPE
1. What do you understand by cell differentiation, how does it help multicellular organisms?
2. Why do animals need more energy as compared to plants?
3. Give difference between plant and animal tissues.
4. In cactus leaves are converted into spines, so where do we find stomata in such plants.
5. What are permanent tissues?
6. Write down any four characteristics of meristematic tissues.
7. Why epidermal tissues are made of flat cells, which are compactly arranged? Why epidermis is covered with cuticle?
8. How is cork formed and how does it protect woody plants from injury?
9. Name the type of muscular tissue found in hollow organs.
10. What are chondrocytes?
11. How does nerve cell send message to brain?
12. How does transpiration help in cooling the plant?
13. How growing tips of root are protected?
14. Write down the function of stomata.
15. Explain how does water hyacinth floats on the surface of water?
16. Write down the characteristics of cork and how is it formed?
17. Write down the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscles.
18. Write briefly about cardiac muscles.
19. What are areolar tissues and what function do they perform?
20. What are sieve tubes? How do they help in conduction of food and hormones in plants?
21. Why xylem and phloem are called complex permanent tissues and how are they different from each other?
22. What is a nervous tissue? Where is it located? What are its function and how does it perform its function?
23. Polar bears have thick layer of subcutaneous fats. Which tissue stores this fat and how does it help the polar bear?

Biology
3
Diversity In Living Organisms
Biodiversity :
The term “biodiversity” is a concise form of “Biological Diversity” and was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1986.
Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, aquatic
(fresh water and marine) and other ecosystems.
The system of grouping of living forms on the basis of similarities and differences is called classification. The branch
of biology concerned with classification is called taxonomy.
Father of Modern Taxonomy 
Carolus Linnnaeus
Term “Taxonomy” given by 
A.P. De Candolle
Hierarchy of Categories
Categories Features
1. Kingdom The largest group; for example. plants and animals
2. Phylum (or Division) Organisms constructed on a similar plan
3. Class A group of order within a phylum (or division)
4. Order A group of related families
5. Family A group of apparently related genera (plural of genus)
6. Genus A group of similar and closely related species
7. Species A group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile offspring
Classification and Evolution:

1. Charles Darwin first described the idea of evolution in 1856 in his book, “The Origin of Species”.
2. The ancestral forms simple and are called ‘primitive’. From the primitive organisms have evolved advanced
organisms which are more complex.
Nomenclature: (The naming of organisms)

Binomial Nomenclature:
Carolus Linnaeus: He proposed scientific name of plants in his book “Species Plantarum” (1753).
For animals scientific name- “Systema Naturae” (1758).
He provided two names to each organism.
1. The first name denoting the name of ‘genus’ and second name denoting ‘species’
2. First letter of generic name must be written in capital letter whereas species name is started with small letter.

Biology
3. Scientific name is generally derived from Greek or Latin words.

4. The binomial names are printed in italics and underlined separately when written.
Examples:
Potato- Solanum tuberosum
Tiger- Panthera tigris
Five-Kingdom System of Classification:

R.H. Whittaker (1969), an American ecologist, advocated a five-kingdom system of classification in which the whole
living world has been classified,
1. Kingdom Monera: Prokaryotic bacteria and blue-green algae.
2. Kingdom Protista: Unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
3. Kingdom Plantae: All multicellular green plants and advanced forms of algae.
4. Kingodom Fungi: Multicellular fungi
5. Kingdom Animalia: All multiceullar animals
Kingdom Monera :
Monera (Monos = single). These include prokaryotes.
Characteristics :
 They do not have well defined nucleus and cell organelles. Nuclear membrane is absent.
 They lack multicellular designs as they are typically unicellular.
 Some of them have cell walls while some do not.
 The mode of nutrition of organisms in this group can be either auto-trophic (synthesising their own food) or
heterotrophic getting from environment.

Biology
 Reproduction is predominantly asexual.

Examples of this group are: Bacteria, Blue Hreen Algae or Cyanobacteria and Mycoplasma.
Kingdom Protista : Protists are also primitive organisms.

Characteristics:
This group includes simple, unicellular or colonial organisms.
 They are eukaryotes i.e. have a well defined nucleus.
 Tissues are not formed.
 Some of the organisms have cilia or flagella which help them in their locomotion.
 The mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 Reproduction is both by asexual and sexual means.
Examples: Unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoa.
Kingdom Fungi: This include non-green organisms.

Characteristics:
 These are heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms.
 They obtain their nutrition from decaying organisms hence they are called saprophytes. They have the capacity
to dissolve the decaying matter and then absorb it.
 Most of them become multicellular at certain stages in their lives.
 A tough cell wall made of chitin.
 They normally show no locomotion.
 Some of them may be parasites.
 Reproduction is both by asexual and sexual means.
Examples: Penicillium, Aspergillus, Agaricus, Yeast, Mucor, Rhizopus etc.
Kingdom Plantae :
 This kingdom includes all organisms which are multicellular, eukaryotic and green autotrophs.
 The kingdom which consists of green plants is further divided first on the basis of the differentiation of the plant
body, whether well differentiated into different parts (like root, stem, leaf, etc.) or not.
Second level of classification is based on whether the differentiated plant body has vascular tissues or not.
Further classification is based on (i) whether seeds are present or not, and (ii) whether seeds are enclosed within
fruits or not.
 Kingdom Plantae, thus, consists of thallophyta, bryophyta, pteridophyta, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
(i) Thallphyta (Thallos = undifferentiated; phyta = plant) :

These are the simplest plants, exhibiting following characters:
(i) The plant body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaves, rather it is undifferentiated and present in the
form of an undivided thallus.

Biology
(ii) Vascular tissues are absent.

(iii) Sex organs are simple and single-celled.
Example : Algae (Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Ulva, Chara, Cladophora)
Note : Lichens are symbiotic association between fungus and algae, (symbiosis is interaction of two organisms where both
are benefitted). Lichens are also very good indicator of air pollution.
(ii) Bryophyta (Bryon = moss; Phyta = plant):

Bryophyta represent the simplest land plants. They are among the first plants to live on land and in water.
They are called the amphibians of the plant kingdom.
The plants show following characters :

 The plant body is either thallus-like (thalloid) or leaf- like (foliose).
 True leaves and roots are lacking; the plants are anchored to the soil by means of filamentous rhizoids.
 The vascular tissues are absent; plants, therefore, remain short in stature.
 The plant body is green and autotrophic.
 Sex organs are multicellular.
 Water is required for fertilization. Plants are, therefore, restricted to moist and shady places.
Examples: Liverworts (Riccia, Marchantia), hornworts (Anthoceros) and mosses (Funaria). Liverworts are more
primitive than mosses.
(iii) Pteridophyta (Gr. pteron = feather, phyton = plants):

The pteridophytes are the first land plants which have vascular tissues.
 These are green autotrophic plants.
 The plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Stem is underground and leaves are compound.
 Vascular tissues are present.
 Sex organs are multicellular.
Examples: Ferns (Dryopteris, Pteris), Club moss (Lycopodium), Horsetail (Equisetum), Water fern (Marsilea)
(iv) Gymnosperm (Naked Seeds):

 They do not produce flowers.
 Seeds are not enclosed by ovary wall.
 They are usually found in colder regions.
 They have needle like leaves.
 They have high medicinal values.
Examples: Pine, cycas.

Biology
(v) Angiosperms (Angion = enclosed, sperma = seed) :

 The angiosperms are the dominant group of land plants. These are the most common flowering plants.
 The angiosperms are seed- bearing plants and the seeds are enclosed inside the fruit formed from the ovary.
Angiosperms, on the basis of the number of cotyledons (present inside the seed), are divided into two classes:
1. Dicotyledonae
2. Monocotyledonae
Cotyledons are also called ‘seed leaves’, as in many cases they emerge and become green when the seed
germinates.
Dicotyledonae (or simply dicots) :

 Seeds contain two cotyledons in the embryo.
 Leaves are dorsiventral and show reticulate venation.
 Tap root is present.
 Bean shaped stomata.
Examples: Pea, bean, gram, mango, castor, mustard, sunflower, buttercup.
Monocotyledonae (or simply monocots):

 Seeds contain only one cotyledon in the embryo.
 Leaves are isobilateral, with parallel vention.
 Fibrous root system is present.
 Dumbbell shaped stomata.
Examples: Wheat, rice, maize, palm, onion, lily.
Special Point :
1. In Thallophytes the male sex organs are called as antheridia and female sex organs called oogonia.
2. Bryophytes are also known as amphibians of plant kingdom.
3. Study of Bryophytes is known as Bryology.
4. The thallophytes, bryophytes and pteridophytes have spores.
6. All of these have inconspicuous reproductive organs are called cryptogams or those with hidden sex organ.
7. Xylem lack vessels and phloem lack companion cells in Gymnosperm.

Biology
Important characteristics of five kingdoms :

Important Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
features
1. Cellularity Uni or multi Unicellular Uni or Uni or Multicellular

cellular multicellular multicellular
2. Nature of cell Prokaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote

3. Cell wall is made Peptidoglycan It is present, Chitinous Cellulosic Absent
up of can be diverse
in nature
4. Mode of Autotrophic or Autotrophic or Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Nutrition heterotrophic heterotrophic (saprophytic
and parasitic)
5. Asexual Amitosis Binary and Spores Vegetative Replaced by
reproduction multiple fission propagation regeneration
6. Sexual Conjugation Syngamy Syngamy Syngamy with Syngamy
reproduction alternation of
generation
7. Important Eubacteria Protozoans Bread mould Algae Non-chordates
members Cyanobacteria Slime moulds Yeast Bryophytes and chordates
Archaebacteria Mushrooms Pteridophytes
Gynmosperms
Angiosperms

Biology
Animal kingdom :
Term :
Body Shape and Symmetry :
Every living organism is characterised by a definite shape. The shape of body in terms of symmetry, is of
following two types :
1. Asymmetrical : The body of some animals like snails are built in such a way that it cannot be cut into equal halves
from any plane. Such animals are called asymmetrical. e.g. Sponges.
2. Symmetrical : When the parts of an animal body are arranged in such a way that it can be cut into two
similar halves by one or more planes, such animals are called symmetrical.
The symmetrical animals are of following three types :

(i) Bilateral : Body can be divided into two similar halves only by one plane that passes through the central or
median axis ; e.g., tortoise, humans
(ii) Radial : The animal body can be divided into equal halves by any plane passing through the middle from
top to bottom e.g., Hydra, Starfish.
Germ Layers :
Germ layers are the primary layers of cells which differentiate in the animal embryo. The germ layers gives rise to all
the tissues and organs in an individual. In Coelenterata, the embryos have two germ layers – the ectoderm and
endoderm. Such animals (having two germ layers) are called dipioblastic animals. The embryos of all other animals,
from phylum platyhelminthes onwards to phylum chordata, have three germ layers – the ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm. Such animals are called triploblastic.
Coelom :
Coelom or body cavity is a closed cavity which contains the various body organs in it in multicellular animals.
In some phyla like the Porifera, Coelenterata and Platyhelminthes, coelom is not present. Such animals which do
not have coelom are called acoelomate.

Biology
Other animals belonging to phyla Aschelminthes, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata,

Hemichordata and Chordata possess a body cavity and are therefore called coelomate. However, this body cavity,
depending on its origin, may be false (pseudocoel, false coelom) or true coelom. Pseudocoel is found in round
worms.True body cavity is present in Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Hemichordata and
Chordata. Protostomia – Blastopore forms mouth Deuterostomia – Blastopore forms anus
Phylum Porifera
Common name – “the sponges”
1. They live mostly in the sea (marine) but a few occur in fresh water.
2. They have cellular level organization with two germ layers i.e. diploblastic animals.
3. They are sessile (stalkless) or stationary. sedentary (attached to the substratum)
4. Most of sponges are asymmetrical, some are radially symmetrical.
5. Sponges have pores on body and these pores are called ostia. Ostia open into a canal system and canal opens to
outside a large opening ; named osculum present at top, cavity known as spongocoel.
6. Sponges may be vase like, rounded sac like branches.
7. Have organization at celluar colony level thus cells are loosely bound together and do not form tissue.
Example : Sycon (Scypha)
Bath sponge (Euspongia)
Boring sponge (Cliona)
Fresh water sponge (Spongilla)
Glass-rope sponge (Hyalona)
Horse sponge (Halichondria)
Venus flower basket (Euplectella)
Neptune’s goblet sponge (Porteria)
Phylum Cnidaria or Coelenterata :

1. Aquatic animals mostly marine, some of them live in colonies (corals) while others live solitary, a few such as
hydra is fresh water animal.
2. Body is radially symmetrical.
3. These are the first multicellular diploblastic animals having tissue level organization with disintct labour of
division.
4. Body has a central gastrovascular cavity coelentron which lacks anus but has mouth which is surrounded by
tentacles.
5. The body bears specialized cells cnidoblasts, bearing stinging cell organelles called ‘nematocysts’
6. Nematocysts serve the function paralysing the prey by injecting poison.
7. Nervous system is primitive, has only network of nerve cells (nerve net)

Biology
8. Coelenterates show two main forms, the polyp (asexual) and the medusae (sexual)
9. Exhibit the phenomenon of polymorphism (eg. Physalia)
Example : Freshwater polyp (Hydra)
Organ pipe coral (Tubipora)
Portuguese man of war (Physalia)
Jellyfish (Aurelia)
Sea pansy (Renilla)
Sea anemone (Metridium)
Red coral (Corallium)
Sea pen (Pennatula)
Mushroom coral (Fungia)
Sea fan (Gorgonia)
Soft coral (Alcyonium)
Phylum Platyhelminthes :
Common name : Flatworms
Characters :
1. Mostly parasitic animals, some are free living (e.g. Planaria) and aquatic.
2. They are triploblastic animals showing bilateral symmetry and tissue organ grade of body organization.
3. The organisms are unsegmented, dorsiventrally flattened, body thin, soft, leaf like or ribbon like.
4. Body cavity (coelom) is absent i.e., acoelomate.
5. Suckers and hooks are usually present.
6. Alimentrary canal has only one opening i.e., Anus is absent.
7. Excretory system consists of blind tubules called protonephridia ; having flame cells.
8. They are hermaphrodite i.e. male and female reproductive organs are present in same animal.
9. Circulatory, respiratory and skeleton system are absent.
Example :
Liverfluke (Fasiola hepatica) Bloodfluke (Schistosoma)
Pork tapeworm (Taenia solium)
Beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata)
Echinococcus
Planaria

Biology
Phylum Nematoda or Aschelminthes :

Common name : Thread worm or Round worm
Characters :
1. They are parasitic, most are free living (in fresh or marine water or terrestrial)
2. They have narrow, elongated and cylindrical bodies. Bodies covered by cuticle.
3. Triploblastic unsegmented animals with bilateral symmetry and organ system level of organization having tube
within tube body plan.
4. Pseudocoelom is present.
5. Alimentary canal straight and complete with mouth and anus.
6. Unisexual organisms.
Example : Ascaris : round worm Enterobius : pin worm
Wuchereria – filarial worm Ancyclostoma : Hook worm
Phylum - Annelida :
Common name : Segmented worms
Characters :
1. They occur in fresh water, sea water or moist soil. Some are free living, some are burrowing and a few are parasites.
2. Body is metamerically segmented i.e., body is divided externally by transverse grooves as well as internally by
septa, these segments are called metameres.
3. They are the first animals with true body cavity i.e., coelom.
4. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic animals.
5. Body is covered by thin cuticle.
6. Locomotion by Parapodia or Chitinous setae which are segmentally arranged lateral appendages.
7. Alimentary canal is complete.
8. Respiration is through the general body surface.
9. Excretion by nephridia.
10. Blood vascular system is closed. Blood is red due to the presence of the pigment “haemoglobin”.
11. Sexes may be united (hermaphrodite) or separate.
Example : Earthworm (Pheretima)
Ragworm or calmworm (Nereis)
Sea-mouse (Aphrodite)
Lug or lobeworm (Arenicola)
Bloodworm (Tubifex)
Paddleworm (Chaetopterus)
Indian cattel leech (Hirudinaria)

Biology
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (Largest Group) :

Common name : Jointed leg animals
Characters:
1. They are found everywhere on earth- on land, in soil, in water and as parasites on plants and other animals.
2. Triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and metamerically segmented animals.
3. The body is segmented into 2 regions- head and thorax together (cephalothorax) and abdomen or 3 regions- head,
thorax and abdomen.
4. Arthropods have compound eyes, having many lenses to make mosaic vision.
5. Exoskeleton is made of chitin.
6. The body cavity is filled with blood i.e. haemocoel. Open circulatory system is present. Blood may be colourless-
Haemolymph (e.g. insects) or with copper contain pigment - Haemocycanin (e.g. prawn)
7. Respiration occurs through general body surface, gills trachae or book lungs.
8. Excretion occurs by ‘Malpighian tubules’ or green glands or coxal glands.
9. Sexes are separate.
10. Each body segment usually bear paired lateral and joint legs or appendages.
Example : Prawn (Palaemon)
Scorpion (Palamnaeus)
Water flea (Daphnia)
Cockroach (Periphaneta)
Crab (Cancer)
Housefly (Musca)
Centipede (Scolopendra)
Honey bee (Apis)
Millepede (Julus)
Wasp (Polistis)
King crab (Limulus)
Silver fish (Lepisma)
Spider (Aranea)
Phylum-Mollusca :
Common name: The soft bodied animals second largest group.
Characters:
1. They are mostly aquatic, living in sea water, some of fresh water.
2. They are soft, unsegmented, triploblastic, coelomate animals with bilateral symmetry.
3. The body is divided into an anterior head, a ventral muscular foot and a dorsal visceral mass of hump. Over the
hump, a fold of thin skin called mantle or pallium is present, which secretes the shell.

Biology
4. The soft body is usually supported by a hard shell of calcium carbonate.

5. Locomotion is brought about by muscular foot.
6. Buccal cavity contain a rasping organ the ‘radula’ for feeding. Digestive organ called hepatopancreas.
7. Respiration occurs through gills called ctendia.
8. Open blood vasuclar system. Blood is usually blue due to a blue pigment called “haemocyanin”.
9. Excretion by a pair of kidneys or metanephridia, known as Kaber’s organ or Organ of Bojanus.
Example : Apple snail (Pila)
Grey slug (Limax)
Cuttlefish (Sepia)
Pearl oyster
Sea hare (Aplysia)
Fresh water mussel (Unio)
Sea lemon (Doris)
Sea squid (Loligo)
Tusk shell (Dentalium)
Phylum-Echinodermata :
Common Name: Spiny Animals
Character:
1. They are exclusively marine animals, gregarious (live in group) and free living.
2. Body surface covered all over by calcareous spines. Body is triploblastic, coelomate and without segmentation
with radial symmetry in adult and bilateral in larvae.
3. Body lacks head, but has oral and aboral surfaces. Oral surface of body has five radial areas called ambulacra.
4. Shape may be star like, spherical or elongate.
5. Body cavity is modified into water vascular system. Tube like extensions called tube feet. Tube feet help in
locomotion and food collection.
6. Digestive system is complete, mouth is on the lower surface and the anus is on the upper surface.
7. Respiration by gills.
8. Reproduction sexual, asexual or by regeneration . Sexes are separate.
Example : Starfish (Asterias)
Cake urchin (Clypeaster)
Sea lily (Isocrinus)
Brittle star (Ophiothrix)
Sea urchin (Echinus)
Sand dollar (Echinarachinus)
Feather star (Antedon)
Sea cucumber (Cucumaria)

Biology
Phylum Hemichordata :
Characters:
1. Exclusively all are marine.
2. These animals posses a combination of nonchordate and chordate characters.
3. Worm like, unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical
4. No notochord, nerve cord restricted to collar region
5. Gill slit similar to notochord
6. Body has 3 part proboscis, collar, trunk.
Example : Balanoglossus- Acorn worm.
Phylum Chordata :
All chordates posses the following features.
(i) They have a notochord (ii) They have a dorsal nerve cord.
(iii) They are triploblastic (iv) They have paried gill pouches
Subphylum-Urochrodata (Tunicata) :
1. Notochord is present only in the tail of free living tadepole like larva
2. Unsegment body covered by tunicin
3. Gill slit present, they show retrogressive metamorphosis.
Example : Sea squirt (Herdmania)
Tube sea squirt (Ciona)
Salpa Doliolum
Subphylum-Cephalochordata :
Characters
1. First complete chordate animals.
2. Notochord, Nerve cord and pharyngeal gill clefts remain throughout the life span.
3. Transparent fish like e.g. Branchiostoma or Amphioxus
Example : Amphioxus or Brachiostoma (Lancelet)
Subphylum Vertebrata :
Characters
1. Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical, tiploblastic, coelomic and segmented animals.
2. In vertebrates notochord is replaced by vertebral column.
3. Nerve cord remains enclosed within vertebral colulmn.
4. Nervous system includes brain encolsed in cranium.
Vertebrates are classifed into following five groups
1. Pisces 2. Amphibia 3. Reptilia 4. Aves 5. Mammalia

Biology
Pisces :
Characters
1. This class includes true fishes
2. They are exclusively water living animals.
3. Their body is streamlined and covered by scales.
4. They have paired fins for locomotion.
5. They respire through gills.
6. Heart is two chambered.
7. Their endoskeleton is made up of cartilage or bones.
8. They are unisexual and lay eggs.
9. They are cold blooded.
Fishes are of two types based on the nature of their endoskeleton.

1. Cartilaginous fishes [Chondrichthyes] e.g., Sharks, Electric ray, Sting ray
2. Bony fishes [Osteichthyes] e.g., Rohu, Catla, Pomfret, Salmon.
Amphibia :
Characters
1. These are the first vertebrate which come out of water but these are not able to live on land permanently.
These depend on water for their reproduction.Amphibians are vertebrates leading two lives.
2. Their skin is smooth or rough, moist, slimy, glandular and without scales.
3. Head and trunk distinct, tail may be present.
4. Two pairs of pentadactyl (five digits) limbs are present.Digits without claws.
5. Three chambered heart, has two auricles and one ventricle.
6. Respiration by gills, lungs, skin and buccal lining.
7. Excrete either ammonia (by tadepole) or urea (by adults)
8. They are cold- blooded animals.
9. Animals are unisexual; fertilization external, mostly lay eggs.
Example : Salamander (Salamandra)
Frog (Rana)
Tree frog (Hyla)
Toad (Bufo)
Flying frog (Rhacophorus)
Midwife toad (Alytes)
Mud eel (Siren)
Mud puppy (Necturus)
Newt (Triton)
Salamander (Triturus)
Caecilians- limbless amphibian (Ichthyophis)

Biology
Reptilia :
Characters
1. First successful terrestrial animals but some are aquatic.
2. Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail.
3. Skin is dry, cornified, rough, nonglandular.
4. Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs with incurved nails or claws (limbs are absent in snake and some lizards)
5. Exoskeleton is made up of horny epidermal scales or dermal scute or bony plates.
6. Heart is three chambered i.e. two auricles and an incompletely divided ventricle. Only crocodiles have four
chambered heart.
7. One pair of metanephric kidneys, animals are uricotelic
8. Fertilization is internal.
9. These are mostly oviparous, eggs are cleidoic i.e. eggs are covered by a shell made up of calcium carbonate.
10. These are cold blooded animals.
11. Teeth are present in all reptiles except in tortoise and turtles.
Example : Wall lizard (Hemidactylus)
Flying lizard (Draco)
Garden lizard (Chameleon)
Monitor lizard (Varanus)
Tuatara (Sphenodon)
Magur (Crocodilus)
Gharial (Gavialis)
Tortoise (Testudo)
Note : All types of snakes (cobra, krait, python, viper, pit viper, sea snake, freshwater snake, etc.) are reptiles.
Aves :
Characters
1. All types of birds are included in this class.
2. Body is boat shaped and covered by soft feathers, called “plumage”.
3. Fore limbs modified into wings for flight. Kiwis have vestigial wings.
4. Hind- limbs bear four clawed digits and are adapted for walking and perching.
5. Teeth are absent, jaws form a horny beak.
6. Endoskeleton is made up of hollow, air-filled bones, known as pneumatic bone.
7. Four chambered heart with two auricles and two ventricles is present.
8. They excrete uric acid.
9. Sound producing organ at the junction of trachea and bronchi of birds is called syrinx.
10. Parental care is present.
11. Fertilization internal. They are oviparous and lay large eggs having hard shell.

Biology
12. They are warm- blooded animals.

13. Size range from smallest humming bird to largest ostrich.
Archaeopteryx- Connecting link between reptiles and birds.
Example : House sparrow (Passer)
Pigeon (Columba)
Chicken (Gallus)
Parrot (Psittacula)
Crow (Corvus)
Peacock (Pavo)
Kiwi (Apteryx)
Vulture (Gypus)
Myna (Acridotheres)
Ostrich (Struthio)
Mammalia :
Characters
1. Members are cosmopolitan and most evolved animals of animal kingdom
2. Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail with movable eyelids
3. Mammary glands are found in females for baby feeding.
4. The body is covered by a coat of hairs (made of keratin). Cutaneous glands such as sweat glands and oil glands.
Hairs and subcutaneous fat form an insulating layer.
5. They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
6. Fleshy external ear (pinnae) present.
7. Respiration is by one pair of lungs.
8. A horizontal diaphragm present in between thorax and abdomen.
9. Heart is four chambered. Non nucleated red blood corpuscles.
10. They excrete urea i.e. ureotelic.
11. Mammals are warm- blooded animals.
12. Sexes are separate, internal fertilization present, mostly viviparous but a few are oviparous and lay eggs
(e.g. Platypus & Echidna), and some like Kangaroos give birth to very poorly developed young ones
13. 7 Cervical vertebrae (except Whale & Dolphin)
Example :
Asian elephant (Elephas), Dolphin (Delphinus), Monkey (Macaca),Squirrel (Funambulus), Ass (Equus asinus), Horse
(Equus equus), Spiny anteater (Echidna), Tiger (Panthera tigris) Cat (Felis domesticus), African elephant (Loxodonta),
Pig (Sus), Bat (Pteropus) Camel (Camelus), Dog (Canis), Gorilla (Gorilla), Lion (Panthera leo), Man (Homo sapiens),
Blue whale (Balaenoptera)

Biology
Special Points :
1. Hemichordata- Connecting link between non- chordata and chordata
2. Archaeopteryx- Connecting link between reptiles and aves
3. Ornithorhynchus and Tachyglossus- Connecting link between reptiles and mammals
4. Neopilina- Connecting link between annelida and mollusca
5. Peripatus- Connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda.
6. Phlebotomy- To suck impure blood by leech.
Leech have an anticlotting agent ‘hirudin’.
7. Ichthyology- Study of fishes
8. Mammology- Study of mammals
9. Ornithology- Study of birds (Note : Dr. Salim Ali- Birdman of India)
10. Pterylosis- Arrangement of wings on the body of birds
11. Nidology- Study of birds nest
12. Ophiology or Serpantology- Study of snakes
13. Herpetology- The branch of biology which deals with the study of reptiles.
Features Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia
Habitat Aquatic Terrestrial and Terrestrial Arboreal Terrestrial
aquatic aquatic and
arboreal
Body Cold-blooded Cold-blooded Cold- Warm-blooded Warm-
temperature blooded blooded
Exoskeletion Slimy scales Absent Dry and Features, claws Hairs, nails
scaly etc
Respiratory Gills Gills, lungs Lungs Lungs Lungs
organ and skin
Locomotary Fins Limbs Limbs Wings and legs Limbs
organ
Heart 2-chambered 3-chambered Incomplete 4-chambered 4-chambered
4-chambered
Reproduction Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Viviparous

Biology
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. Who is known as the father of taxonomy? 10. Pteridophyta do not have

(A) Linnaeus (B) Darwin (A) root (B) stem
(C) Mendel (D) Watson (C) flowers (D) leaves
2. The lowest category of classification is 11. Organisms without nucleus and cell organelles
(A) Phylum (B) Genus belong to
(C) Species (D) Family (i) fungi (ii) protista
3. The mode of nutrition in most fungi is (iii) cyanobacteria (iv) archaebacteria
(A) Autotrophic (B) Saprophytic (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (iii) and (iv)
(C) Holozoic (D) Symbiotic (C) (i) and (iv) (D) (ii) and (iii)
4. In Whittaker’s system of classification, unicellular 12. Which of the following is not a criterion for
organisms are kept under classification of living organisms ?
(A) Monera (B) Fungi (A) Body design of the organism
(C) Protista (D) Protozoa (B) Ability to produce one’s own food
(C) Membrane bound nucleus and cell
5. Amphibians of the plant kingdom are
organelles
(A) Algae (B) Pteridophytes
(D) Height to the plant
(C) Bryophytes (D) Fungi
13. The book Systema Nature was written by
6. Pinus is a ___________ plant.
(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel
(A) Bryophytic (B) Gymnospermous
(C) Whittaker (D) Robert Brown
(C) Pteridophytic (D) Angiospermous
14. Karl von Linne was involved with which branch of
7. Find out incorrect sentence
science ?
(A) Protista includes unicelluar eukaryotic
(A) Morphology (B) Taxonomy
organisms.
(C) Physiology (D) Medicine
(B) Whittaker considered cell sturcture, mode
and source of nutrition for classifying the 15. In taxonomic hierarchy family comes between
organisms in five kingdoms. (A) Class and Order
(C) Both Monera and Protista may be (B) Order and genus
autotrophic and heterotrophic. (C) Genus and Species
(D) Division and Class
(D) Monerans have well defined nucleus.
16. 5-kingdom classification was given by
8. Which among the following has specialized tissue
(A) Morgan (B) R. Whittaker
for conduction of water ?
(C) Linnaeus (D) Haeckel
(i) Thallophyta (ii) Bryophyta
(iii) Pteridophyta (iv) Gymnosperms 17. Well defined nucleus is absent in
(A) (i) and (ii) (B) (ii) and (iii) (A) blue green algae (B) diatoms
(C) (iii) and (iv) (D) (i) and (iv) (C) algae (D) yeast
9. Which among the following produce seeds ? 18. The ‘Origin of Species’ is written by
(A) Thallophyta (B) Bryophyta (A) Linnaeus (B) Darwin
(C) Pteridophyta (D) Gymnosperms (C) Haeckel (D) Whittaker

Biology
19. The most simple and primitive plants are Column I Column II
(A) bacteria (B) algae (Cells) (Examples)
(C) protista (D) fungi
(i) Flame cells (p) Sponges
20. Bacteria are placed under kingdom (ii) Collar cells (q) Hydra
(A) Protista (B) Fungi
(iii) Stinging cells (r) Planaria
(C) Monera (D) Plantae
(s) Ascaris
21. Which of the following organism lacks chlorophyll? (A) i = r. ii = p, iii = q
(A) Rhizopus (B) Cycas (B) i = r, ii = p, iii = s
(C) Spirogyra (D) Wheat (C) i = r, ii = s, iii = p
22. Prokaryotic organisms are found in kingdom (D) i = r, ii = p, iii = s
(A) Protista (B) Fungi 32. Metameric segmentation first appeared in :
(C) Monera (D) Plantae
(A) Platyhelminthes (B) Annelida
23. To which group of animals, the nematocysts are (C) Cockroach (D) Arthropoda
unique:
33. The following vertebrate respires by skin:
(A) Cnidaria (B) Porifera
(A) Fish (B) Frog
(C) Platyhelminthes (D) Annelida
(C) Crocodile (D) Whale
24. Tube- within -tube plain is shown by:
34. True coelom is lined with:
(A) Coelenterates (B) Flatworms
(A) Ectoderm (B) Endoderm
(C) Round worms (D) Sponges
(C) Mesoderm
25. Haemocoel is found in: (D) Ectoderm and endoderm
(A) Arthropods (B) Molluscs
35. Study of lizards is called:
(C) Both of these (D) None of these
(A) Herpatology (B) Saurology
26. Excretory organs of annelids are: (C) Ophiology (D) Serology
(A) Protonephridia (B) Nephridia
36. Excretory cells of platyhelminthes are :
(C) Green glands (D) Kidneys
(A) Flame cells (B) Nephridia
27. Study of molluscs is called: (C) Solenocytes (D) Both (A) and (C)
(A) Malacology (B) Conchology
(C) Mycology (D) Phycology 37. Green glands present in some arthropods help in :
(A) Respiration (B) Digestion
28. Aristotle’s lantern is found in:
(C) Excretion (D) None of these
(A) Star fish (B) Brittle star
(C) Sea urchin (D) Sea cucumber 38. Which of the following classes has largest
number of animals?
29. Link between animal kingdom and plant kingdom is:
(A) Pisces (B) Reptilia
(A) Euglena (B) Amoeba
(C) Mammalia (D) Insecta
(C) Trypansoma (D) Paramecium
39. An open circulatory system occurs in the :
30. Which one is not diploblastic:
(A) Reptiles (B) Birds
(A) Sponge (B) Cnidaria
(C) Insects (D) Annelids
(C) Nematoda (D) Ctenophora
40. The pigment haemocyanin is found in:
31. Match the type of cells given under column I with
(A) Mollusca (B) Annelida
the examples given under column II; choose the
(C) Echinodermata (D) Chordata
answer which give the correct combination of the
alphabets:

Biology
41. 4-chambered heart is present in: 10. What is symbiosis, explain with the help of an example?
(A) Mammals (B) Fishes 11. Which contains more number of organisms class or
(C) Reptiles (D) Amphibians kingdom?
42. Peripatus is a connecting link between: 12. Name the category of plant kingdom which has
(A) Protozoa and Porifera undifferentiated plant body.
(B) Annelida and Mollusca 13. What is alternation of generation in plants?
(C) Annelida and Arthropoda
14. What is alternation of generation in animals?
(D) Mollusca and Echinodermata
15. What is the contribution of Carl Woese in
SUBJECTIVE TYPE classification?
1. Define taxonomy. 16. What are biodiversity hotspots?
2. Write down the importance of classification. 17. What is open vascular system? Give an example.
3. How is evolution and classification related? 18. Define the following terms;
4. Can mode of nutrition be considered a characteristic (a) Coelom.
for classification, if yes, then give reason. (b) Radial symmetry
5. Why is it necessary to have scientific names? (c) Triploblastic.
6. Why do we use Latin names for giving scientific name 19. List four common features in cats, bats and rats.
to the organisms? 20. Explain two basic characteristics that we use to classify
7. Under which category, species or genus does the organisms?
organism has greater number of common 21. Write down basic features of animals belonging to
characteristics. vertebrata. Write down the five classes belonging to
8. Write down the difference between kingdom Monera this group.
and kingdom Protista.
9. Give difference between amoeba and mushrooms?

Biology
4
Why Do We Fall Ill
Health
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity.
Personal health Community health
Personal health is a state of complete Community health comprises of improving, maintaining
physical, mental and social well-being. and protecting the health of the whole community.
An individual can maintain his/her health by Community health can be maintained by
* taking proper nutrition. * providing health education.
* drinking clean water. * maintaining proper hygienic and sanitary conditions
* observing domestic and personal by proper disposal of sewage.
hygiene. * providing healthcare services.
* adopting good habits and a healthy * providing safe drinking water
lifestyle.
* exercising regularly and relaxing.
The various factors that help in maintaining community health are:

1. Maintaining proper hygienic and sanitary conditions of the environment: Establishment of conditions
favourable to health, especially the systems that supply water and deal with human waste. Improper sanitation of
the environment is a major cause of diseases.
2. Providing good socio-economic conditions : The socio-economic condition of a nation is considered to be

an indication of the health of its people. People of higher socio-economic level can have a balanced diet and live
in better hygienic conditions which prevent the appearance of several diseases. On the other hand, people of
lower socio-economic level in poor hygienic and sanitary conditions. Therefore, they have a greater chance of
acquiring diseases.
3. Providing healthcare services: Healthcare services include immunization, vaccination, provision of safe drinking
water, care of children and pregnant women, treatment of diseases, etc. Healthcare services provided by the
government agencies or by social and voluntary organizations play an important role in improving the health of
the people. Many serious diseases like polio, hepatitis, tetanus, etc. can be prevented through effective
immunization.
4. Imparting health education and promoting public awareness: Information about health and diseases must
be imparted to masses.
5. Providing proper facilities for preventing diseases: Many disease-causing germs ands organisms can be
killed by using disinfectants. Disinfection is the killing of various pathogenic (diseases-causing) microbes which
may otherwise enter the body and cause diseases. The commonly used disinfectants are DDT, BHC, phenol,
cresol, 40% formalin, etc. (Use of DDT has now been banned).
Disease :
The word is actually self explanatory-‘Disease’ : Disturbed ease. Disease is an illness of the body in humans,
animals or plants.

Biology
When a disease spreads among people who live in a particular locality or in a confined group, it is called endemic
disease. When a disease spreads throughout several adjacent localities, or throughout a city, or even throughout
a country, it is called an epidemic diseases. If it spreads further, until it becomes world wide, it is called a pandemic
diseases.
Factors affecting health :

1. Intrinsic factors- Disease causing factors which exist within human body.
(i) Malfunctioning or improper functioning of body parts (Liver, Pancreas)
(ii) Genetic disorder (Down syndrome)
(iii) Hormonal imbalances (Thyroid)
2. Extrinsic factors - Factors which enter the human body from outside.
(i) Unbalanced diet (Gum bleeding, Bone fracture)
(ii) Disease causing pathogens (Typhoid, TB)
(iii) Environmental pollutants (Lung disease)
(iv) Tobacco, alcohol and narcotic drugs (Cancer)
Classification of Diseases:
Acute Disease:
A disease that occurs suddenly and lasts for a short period of time is called an acute disease e.g. common cold,
Malaria disease.
Chronic Disease:
A disease that lasts for a long time is called chronic disease e.g. tuberculosis.
Differences between acute and chronic diseases:

Features Acute disease Chronic disease
Duration Lasts for less duration Lasts for longer duration
Intensity of symptoms Severe intensity Less severe intensity
Effect on health Less due to the shorter duration, e.g., Very high due to longer duration, e.g.,
– No loss of weight – Loss of weight will occur
– No tiresome effect – Feel tired all the time
– Very short-term effects – Drastic long-term effects
Example Cough and cold come to an end within a Tuberculosis of the lungs being over the
week or so without any permanent bad years cause bad effects on our health like
effect on our health. fatigue and loss of weight.
Example Cough and cold come to an end within a Tuberculosis of the lungs being over the
week or so without any permanent bad years cause bad effects on our health like
effect on our health. fatigue and loss of weight.
 Congenital diseases: These are inborn diseases which are present since birth. They are caused either due to
genetic and chromosomal abnormalities or due to metabolic disorders or malfunctioning of organs. These diseases
are generally not easily curable and may be inheritable. For example, colour blindness and
thalassemia.

Biology
Acquired Diseases :
These diseases are acquired during one’s lifetime, i.e., after birth. Generally, such diseases are caused by pathogens
and are non-inheritable. Acquired diseases are of two types:
1. Communicable diseases (infectious diseases): Diseases which can be transmitted from one individual to
another directly or indirectly are called communicable, infectious or contagious diseases. These diseases
are caused by viruses, bacteria, protozoans, helminthes and fungi. Diseases like tuberculosis, influenza, cholera,
etc.
2. Non-communicable diseases (non-infectious diseases): Diseases which are not transmitted from one
individual to another, either directly or indirectly are called non-communicable diseases. These diseases
may be of the following types:
 Deficiency diseases: These diseases are caused due to lack or deficiency of certain nutrients, like
proteins, vitamins, minerals and hormones. For example, scurvy, rickets, kwashiorkor, marasmus, etc.
 Degenerative diseases: These diseases are caused due to the degenerative process leading to
malfunctioning of body parts. Generally, such degenerative changes occur in the old age, e.g., retinal
atrophy, joint pain, cataract.
 Allergic diseases: These diseases are caused due to hypersensitivity of the body against foreign
substances, such as asthma.
 Cancer: This is caused due to the occurrence of abnormal cell division and uncontrolled growth of certain
tissues in the body.
Causes of Disease :
Disease (disturbed ease) is a condition that impairs the proper functioning of the body or one of its parts.
A disease can be defined as: Any deviation from normal functioning or state of complete physical or mental
well-being.
Bacteria : Bacteria are very small organisms. They can grow and reproduce even when they are not inside a living
cell.
Virus : Virus may be defined as an ultramicroscopic disease-producing particle that can multiply only within living
organisms.
Parasites : Parasites are those living organisms which live temporarily or permanently in or on other living
organisms. Such organisms are called hosts. The parasites derive benefits from the hosts and harm then in the
process. Some parasites live inside the body of the host (endoparasites), while others live on the surface of the host
(ectoparasites).
Conditions required for the spread of the diseases:

These diseases spread through: Air, water, contaminated food, direct contact with the patient, crowded places,
fairs, insanitary conditions, absence of personal and public hygiene. Hence these are the major causes responsible
for the spread of diseases.

Biology
Air : When a person suffering form Tuberculosis, Flu and Pneumonia, sneezes, or coughs, little droplets of saliva or
fluid are thrown in the air. Another person standing close by while breathing inhales these droplets containing the
microbes which get a chance to infect the new person.
Contaminated food : When flies sit on stools or excreta of a person, the microbes get attached to them. The flies
carrying the microbes sit on food, they pass the germs to the food. If such a food is eaten, the germs get introduced
in the healthy person and cause the disease. Cholera, typhoid, amoebic dysentry, viral hepatitis are the diseases
which spread through water, and contaminated food.
Sexual Contact : Diseases like syphillis (a bacterial disease) and AIDS (viral disease) are transmitted through
sexual act.
Animal : Many diseases are transmitted through animals which carry infecting agents from a sick patient to a
potential host. Mosquitoes are responsible for spreading many diseases.
Organ-specific and Tissue-specific Manifestations of Disease:

The disease -causing microbes entering the body through air, water, food and sexual contact reach thr target organ
or tissue through a specific route. The selection of the organ or tissue seems to depend on the plant of entry
into the body of a person.
The infected tissue/organ will show the symptom and signs of the disease caused by the harmful microbe.
For example, if the lungs are infected, the symptoms are dry cough, sore throat, breathless-ness and so on. If liver
is infected, it will cause jaundice. Liver shows inflammation and the person suffers from fever, loss of appetite
and so on. If the brain is the target organ for infection, the symptoms can be fever, headache, fits or
unconsciousness, vomiting and so on. Thus, by knowing the target organ that gets infected and the functions
carried out by the infected organ, the symptoms and signs of the disease can be ascertained accurately.
Antibiotics: Antibiotics are chemicals that kill or stop the growth of certain kinds of microbes. They help our body
to fight disease.
The name “antibiotics” comes from two Greek words meaning “aganist life”. Examples - penicillin, streptomycin,
tetracycline.
The development of antibiotics began the discovery of penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928.
Anitibiotics should be taken only under the supervision of the medical practitioner.
Immune System :
This is because our bodies have an immune system which helps to protect us from the microbes. The body’s power
to resist and overcome infection is called immunity. Artifical immunity can be provided to children particularly by
injecting specific vaccine in the body for protection against the diseases. This is the basis of vaccination
Vaccination :
Jenner took some pus with a sterile needle from the cowpox rash of an infected girl and injected it into scratches
made in the skin of an uninfected boy, who soon got cowpox. After he recovered, Jenner injected the boy’s arm
with pus from the spots of a person suffering from smallpox. Luckily, the boy did not get smallpox and Jenner’s
experiment was successful. The modern term ‘vaccination’ comes from the Latin words vacca which means cow
and ‘vaccinia’ which means cow pox. It tells us how Jenner made the first vaccine aganist smallpox using the
microbes of cowpox, a similar but less severe disease.

Biology
Pulse Polio Programme :

The pulse polio programme is an immunization drive against polio. Polio is a disease of the muscles and nerves
which can cause paralysis. To prevent polio, oral vaccine are given periodically to all children under 5 years of
age in our country. This is an effort to eradicate polio, so no child will be infected by the polio virus.
Smallpox Vaccine :
An immunization programme was carried out earlier to eradicate smallpox. Earlier, in smallpox epidemics people were
afraid of going near someone suffering from it. Smallpox was controlled and eradicated with the help of a vaccine.
Diseases Caused by Bacteria:

1. Tuberculosis (TB) :
Cause :
Tuberculosis, is a very serious infectious diseases caused by the bacteria Mycobacteria tuberculosis.
The bacteria may attack bones, joints, kidneys, adrenal glands, etc., but in 90 percent of the cases,
the affected organ is the lung.
Transmission :
This disease spreads by contact with the infected persons and through the bacteria they throw out while
coughing, sneezing, spitting, talking etc. It is an airbrone disease which spreads by droplet infection. Persons,
who are victims of poor nutrition, overwork, insufficient rest, and living in overcrowded, poorly ventilated,
and insanitary conditions are most susceptible to the disease. The diseases may take a long time to develop
after the first infection is caused, but this depends on a number of factors such as the age of the person,
his health and general living conditions.
Lungs are the favourite site of infection where small tubercles are formed. They release a toxin called
tuberculin. The disease spreads mostly by the throat and nose discharges from a person suffering from an
active stage of the disease.
Symptoms :
The symptoms of lung tuberculosis are tiredness (which is not relieved by rest), unexplained loss of weight
and appetite, persistent cough and afternoon fever, followed later by spitting of blood-coloured sputum. These
are some of the danger signals and need prompt medical attention.
Preventive measures :
This disease can be effectively treated by drugs such as Streptomycin, Isoniazed and para-amino salicylic acid
(PAS). Also, complete rest, especially in the early stages, is essential. Vaccination against TB with Bacillus
Calmette Guerin (BCG) vaccine is effective in building up an immunity against the disease.
 DOTS - Directly observed treatment short course
2. Typhoid:
Cause :
It is an acute infection of the intestines. Specific bacteria, namely, the typhoid bacillus (Salmonella typhi)
cause typhoid.

Biology
Transmission :
The bacteria are present in the faeces and urine (and sometimes in the saliva and perpiration) of a patient.
The disease spreads mainly by consuming contaminated food, ice, water, milk, and also by direct contact with
the sick. Houseflies act as carriers of the bacteria from the infected wastes to the human food.
Symptoms :
Typhoid is a serious illness characterised by high fever, acute headache, and rose-red blotches on the skin.
The disease can be effectively cured by antibiotics such as Chloramphenicol.
Protection against typhoid is provided by anti-typhoid inoculation which should be taken every year.
It is treated by antibiotics provided by medical practitioner.
Disease Caused by Viruses:

1. Poliomyelitis:
Cause : It is caused by the smallest known RNA-virus called Polio-virus.
Transmission :
By Contaminated food and water.
The virus multiplies in the intestinal cells. The viruses reach the central nervous system through blood,
where their toxins damage the brain and dorsal horns of the spinal cord. Incubation period is about
7-14 days.
Symptoms :
Early symptoms are headache and fever followed by loss of head support, stiffness of neck and convulsions.
Later, as the viruses damage the motor neurons of the central nervous system, legs become atrophied and
paralysed.
Preventive measures : Two vaccines that can help to prevent the disease are:
(i) Killed ‘Salk’ vaccine: It was discovered by Jones Salk. The body is given three doses of killed viruses
at intervals of 4-6 weeks in the age group of 3-12 months. It is followed by fish booster dose between
18-24 months of age and second booster dose between 5-6 years of age.
(ii) Oral ‘Live’ Sabin vaccine: It is given orally and is called oral polio vaccine (OPV). It consists of living,
but tamed polio virus.
2. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS):

AIDS is a fatal disease comprising serious clinical condition of various manifestations characterised by
underlying cellular immunodeficiency. AIDS is caused by a retrovirus, HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).
Structure of HIV :
The structural model of HIV shows that the virus is a sphere containing RNA as genetic material.

Biology
AIDS is a disorder which impairs the body’s T4 lymphocyte cell immune system in humans, in that virus
replicates within the T 4 or ‘helper’ cells. Thus these cells can no longer ‘help’ or induce other T cells, called
killers, to fight invaders. The body’s immune system breaks down, leaving the patient exposed to a variety
of diseases. Infection with the virus (HIV) does not necessarily result in AIDS. As with other diseases, some
people remain symptomless and are therefore termed ‘carriers’.
Transmission :
The HIV virus can only survive in body fluids and is transmitted by blood or semen. People can contact the
disease as follows:
1. Intimate sexual contact mainly in male homosexuals or by multiple intimate sexual contact between
heterosexual.
2. By blood transfusion or by hypodermic needles shared by drug addicts.
3. From infected mother to child before, during, or shortly after birth or through milk of breast feeding
mothers.
Symptoms :
Early symptoms of AIDS may be vague and ill-defined. They include weight loss, fever, diarrhoea, oral thrush,
and enlargement of the lymph glands. A number of individuals develop of a mild condition known as ARC
(AIDS -related complex). In severe condition, the patient may develop pneumonia, kaposi’s sarcoma (a skin
cancer) and lymphoma (cancer of lymph system). Although AIDS has a long incubation period (possibly five
years), once it does develop, there is rapid decline in health and death occurs.
Treatment and Prevention of AIDS: There is no effective treatment. Avoidance of drug abuse and promiscuous
homosexual contact are best preventive measures. Moreover, those at risk from AIDS should not be blood
donors. A recently introduced drug N-butyl deoxynojorimycin and AZT (azidothymidine) is used for the
treatment of AIDS. Other drugs in use are DDI (Dideoxyinosine), DDC (Dideoxycytidine) and DHT (Stavudine).
3. Rabies (Hydrophobia)
Cause : It is caused by a RNA-virus, Rabies virus or Rabdo virus.
Transmission :
The viruses are injected in the human blood by the bite of rabid animals like dogs, monkeys, cats, etc.
alongwith their saliva. Incubation period vaies from 10 days to 3 months. It depends upon the distance of
bite from central nervous system (CNS), depth of bite and number of germs injected.
Symptoms :
It is characterized by severe headache, high fever and painful contraction of muslces of throat and chest.
The patient feels restlessness, chocking and difficulty in taking even liquid food. The patient fears from sight
of water. Severe damage to motor neurones of CNS causes paralysis and painful death.
(i) Isolation and killing of rabid dogs.
(ii) Immunization of domestic cats and dogs.
(iii) Louis Pasteur Treatment – 14 vaccines are given, one on each day to the person who is bitten by rabid
dog.

Biology
Disease Caused by Protozoa : Plasmodium - The Malarial Parasite:

This parasites caused malaria in man. The disease is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito (insect
vector).
When an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a healthy man to suck his blood, thousands of parasites
are injected into his blood along with the mosquito’s saliva. The parasites enter the liver cells and red blood
corpuscles, where they grow and multiply asexually by fission. As their number increases, more and more liver
cells and red blood corpuscles are attacked and consequently damaged. The parasites release posionous
toxins into the bloodstream and an accumulation of these toxins causes malaria in man.
Symptoms : Fever with high temperature, chill and shivering, a muscular pain, severe headache and vomiting
tendency are the primary symptoms of malaria. Remission of fever with profuse sweating and fall of temperature
indicate malaria. Fever recurs after every 24 hours or 48 hours, as the case may be. During severe attack,
the patient may even die.
Process of Transmission : When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected man to feed on his blood, the
parasites settle in the walls of the stomach of the mosquito and reproduces there, sexually. The number of
parasites increase once again.
Mode of Infection : When this infected mosqutio bites another healthy person it again injects thousands of
parasites, along with its saliva, into the person’s bloodstream, and the same cycle is repeated.
The malarial parasite has two hosts, man and mosquito and it spends a part of its life cycle in each.
The mosquito does not suffer from malaria but it serves as a means for transfering the parasite from one
person to another and acts as vector.
1. Personal protection :
(a) As far as possible, we should wear clothes which leave as little of our skin exposed.
(b) The exposed parts of our bodies may be treated with mosquito repellents.
(c) Doors and windows should preferably be screened with mosquito-proof gauze and mosquito nets
should be used while sleeping at night.
2. Destruction of adult mosquitoes:

Spraying liquid insecticides and fumigation with sulphur dioxide gas is effective.
3. Destruction of larvae:
(a) If paraffin or kerosene oil is introduced into stagnant water where larvae are present, it forms a layer
on the water and suffocates both larvae and pupae by blocking their respiratory openings.
(b) Liquid insecticides are effective.
4. Biological Control:
Fish such as minnows, sticklebacks, and Gambusia feed on larvae and pupae, and may be introduced into
ponds and lakes to eradicate them.
5. Elimination of breeding places:

Breeding of mosquitoes can be minimized by ensuring that our cities, towns, and villages are kept free
of stagnant ponds, open drains, and ditches. Water should not be allowed to stand and the openings
of drains should be cleaned regularly.

Biology
6. Preventive medicine:
For the destruction of the malarial parasite in the human host, anti-malarial drugs such as Quinine,
Paludrin, Atabrin, Plasmochin, Avinacrine, Pamaquine, Mepacrine and Chloroquine is effective.
Protozoan Disease :
Disease Pathogen Symptoms and Cure
Malaria Plasmodium High fever with chill of intermittent
Periodically Pain in joints- Quinine
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Intestinal spasms, dysentry, Antibiotics
Giardiasis Giardia intestinalis Vomiting, loose motions

African sleeping sickness Trypanosoma gambiens Patient feels sleepy, nervous system
impairment, Vector- Tse - tse fly
Kala azar Leishmania donovani High fever associated with enlargement of

spleen and liver, Vector- Sand fly
Bacterial Disease :
S.N. Disease Pathogen Symptoms and Cure
1. Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Chronic cough, Fever, weakness, bloody sputum,
tuberculosis breathlessness.
Treatment: DOT S- Directly observed treatment
short course.
Vaccine: B.C.G. Bacillus Calmette Guerin
2. Chol era Vibrio cholerae Diarrhoea - dehydration, vomiting

Antibiotics - ORS and salt sugar solution
3. Typhoid Fever Salmonella typhi Fever, loss of appetite, intestinal ulcers.
Erruption of spots and rashes on abdomen diarrhoea
Detection by widal test, Antibiotics and vaccine.
4. Diarrhoea Salmonella, Watery stools, vomiting, headache, fever,

Shigella, E.coli abdominal pain - Antibiotics like penicillin.
5. Diphtheria Corynebacterium High grade fever, difficulty in breathing DPT

diphtheriae vaccine: Diphtheria, Pertussis Tetanus vaccine
6. Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis Breathlessness, Hoarse sound

(Pertussis) Prevention by DPT vaccine
7. Pneumonia Streptococcus Infection in lungs and difficulty in breathing,

pneumoniae high fever, antibiotics
8. Tetanus Clostridium tetani Sustained contraction of body muscles, spams,

or Lock jaw Lock jaw, unconsiousness. T.T. vaccine
(Tetanus, toxoid)
9. Plague Yersinia pestis High Fever, headache, unconsciousness,

or Black Death Enlargement of axillary lymphnodes Antibiotics
10. Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Patches on skin, ulcer and nodules formation in
or skin and nerves deformilites wasting of fingers
Hanson disease and toes
Treatment - Multidrug therapy (MDT)

Biology
Viral Disease :
S.No. Disease Pathogen Symptoms and Cure
1. Poliomyelitis RNA Polio Atrophy of muscles and paralysis of legs. Oral Polio vaccine
virus and ‘Salk’ vaccine
2. Mumps Mumps-virus Painful enlargement of parotid salivary glands. Mumps
(Parotid vaccine, isolation of infected babies and use of antibiotic.
infection) MMR (Vaccine)
3. Rabies Rabies – Spasm of throat & chest muscles, fear from water, paralysis
(Hydrophobia) Virus and death. Immunisation of dogs. Pasteur-treatment.
4. AIDS HIV (Human Weight loss, fever, diarrhea, oral thrush, enlargement of
Immune lymph nodes, pneumonia, cancer of skin and lymph system,
Deficiency rapid decline in health and death. Avoid drug abuse and
Virus) promiscuous homosexual contact. Only disposable needle
and syringes should be used. Screening of blood donors
should be done. Azidothymidine (AZT) is one of the drugs
that has prolonged the life of AIDS victim.
5. Measles Rubeola High fever, rash eruption of the skin, inflammation of the
(Rubeola) RNA Virus respiratory mucous membranes and loss of appetite.
Edmonston-B-vaccine, isolation, Antibiotic and Sulpha drug.
Vaccine - MMR
6. Common cold Rhino Virus Fever, headache, running nose. More prevalent in cold
weather. Avoid crowded places. Cover nose and mouth when
coughing and sneezing.
7. Influenza (Flu) RNA Virus Headache, fever, fatigue, drowsiness, general ache all over
(Myxovirus the body. Some-times dry cough and pain-ful eyes. Running
influenzae) nose is less common.. Avoid crowds, changes in
temperature, and fatigue. Cover nose and mouth when
coughing, as secretions from nose and throat are infected.
Influenza Vaccine
8. Rubella Rubella Virus Bright red rash begins from face to body.
Vaccine MMR
Helminthes Disease:
S. No. Disease Pathogen Symptoms and Cure
1. Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides Abdominal spasm, insomia,
vomiting loose motion,
restlessness.
2. Dracunculiasis Dracunulus medinenis Blisters on skin of arms
shoulder and legs
3. Elephantiasis Wuchereria bancrofti Swelling of hand, scrotum,
testis and breasts
4. Taeniasis Taenia solium Abdominal pain, nausea,
Anaemia, loss of appetite,
indigestion, nervous disorders

Biology
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. Identify a genetic disease : 11. Common cold is a/an

(A) Beri-beri (B) Scurvy (A) genetic disorder
(C) Haemophilia (D) Diabetes (B) acute disease
2. Which is a chronic disease ? (C) chronic disease
(A) Tuberculosis (B) Night blindness (D) deficiency disease
(C) Cholera (D) Rickets 12. Choose the wrong statements :
3. Which one is not a sexually transmitted disease ? (A) High blood pressure is caused by excessive
(A) AIDS (B) Gonorrhoea weight and lack of exercise
(C) Syphilis (D) Diabetes (B) Cancers can be caused by genetic
abnormalities
4. Which one is not a bacterial disease ?
(C) Peptic ulcers are caused by eating acidic
(A) TB (B) Typhoid
food
(C) Pneumonia (D) Poliomyelitis
(D) Acne is not caused by staphylococcl
5. Identify a protozoan disease
13. We should not allow mosquitoes to breed in our
(A) Ringworm (B) Measles
surroundings because they
(C) Diphtheria (D) Amoebiasis
(A) multiply very fast and cause pollution
6. AIDS can be transmitted through (B) are vectors for many disease
(A) Blood transfusion (C) bite and cause skin disease
(B) Pregnant mother to foetus (D) are not important insects
(C) Sexual contact
14. Which one of the following causes kala-azar ?
(D) All the above
(A) Ascaris (B) Trypanosoma
7. Which one of the following is a deficiency disease ? (C) Leishmania (D) Bacteria
(A) Diabetes (B) Malaria
15. If you live in a overcrowded and poorly ventilated
(C) Goitre (D) Tetanus
house, it is possible that you may suffer from which
8. Which is not an infectious disease ? of the following disease
(A) Diabetes (B) TB (A) Cancer
(C) Leprosy (D) Typhoid (B) AIDS
9. Which disease is caused due to deficiency of a (C) Air borne disease
hormone ? (D) Cholera
(A) Chickenpox (B) Diabetes 16. Which disease is not transmitted by mosquitoes ?
(C) AIDS (D) Malaria (A) Dengue
10. Identify a mismatch (B) Malaria
(A) Malaria-Protozoan (C) Brain fever or encephalitis
(B) AIDS - virus (D) Pneumonia
(C) TB - Bacterium 17. Which one of the following is not important for
(D) Amoebiasis - Worms individual health ?
(A) living in clean space
(B) Good economic condition

Biology
(C) Social equality and harmony (A) vaccination kills the polio causing
(D) Living in a large and well furnished house microorganisms
18. Which one of the following is not a viral disease ? (B) prevents the entry of polio causing
(A) Dengue (B) AIDS organism
(C) Typhoid (D) Influenza (C) It creats immunity in the body
(D) All the above
19. Which one of the following is not a bacterial disease ?
(A) Cholera (B) Tuberculosis 27. The chemicals that kill or stop the growth of certain
(C) Anthrax (D) Influenza kinds of microbes are called :
(A) vaccines (B) microbes
20. Which one of the following disease is not
(C) antibiotics (D) fungi
transmitted by mosquito ?
(A) Brain fever (B) Typhoid 28. Penicillium is a/an
(C) Malaria (D) Dengue (A) antibiotic (B) vaccine
(C) alga (D) fungus
21. The technique of providing immunity by vaccination
was first developed by 29. The diseases that can be transmitted through body
(A) Robert koch fluids are -
(B) Alexender fleming (A) AIDS and hepatitis B
(C) William harvey (B) TB and typhoid
(D) Edward Jenner (C) influenza and cholera
(D) cholera and rabies
22. ‘Penicillin’ a life saving antibiotic, was discovered by :
(A) Alexander Fleming 30. Which of the following does not spread AIDS by ?
(B) Edward Jenner (A) having sex with unknown person
(C) H.G. Khorana (B) kissing on lips
(D) William Harvey (C) transfusing infected blood
(D) taking unsterlized injections
23. For which disease ‘oral’ vaccine is given ?
(A) TB (B) Typhoid 31. ‘Congential diseases’ are those which :
(C) Pertusis (D) Poliomyelitis (A) are these since birth
(B) are inherited
24. ‘BCG’ vaccine is given to infants for protection
(C) are transmitted easily
against
(D) are fatal
(A) Diarrhoea (B) Cholera
(C) Pneumonia (D) Tuberculosis 32. Widal test helps to diagnose
(A) Tetanus
25. Making anti-viral drugs is more difficult than making
(B) Tuberculosis
anti-bacterial medicines because :
(C) Typhoid
(A) viruses make use of host machinery
(D) Whooping cough
(B) viruses are on the border line of living and
non-living 33. DPT Vaccine is for -
(C) Viruses have very few biochemical (A) Diptheria, Polio, Tetanus
mechanisms of their own (B) Diptheria, Pertussis, Tetanus
(D) viruses have a protein coat (C) Diptheria, Pertussis, Typhoid
26. You are aware of Polio Eradication Programme in (D) Diptheria, Pertussis, Tuberculosis
your city. Children are vaccinated because :

Biology
34. World TB day is celebrated on - 37. Polio is caused due to :

(A) March 21 (B) March 24 (A) bacteria (B) virus
(C) March 30 (D) March 18 (C) fungi
35. Who discovered antibiotic streptomycin effective (D) helminthes worm
against Tuberculosis ? 38. The Pulse Polio Programme is organized in our
(A) Selman A. Waksman country for :
(B) Louis Pasteur (A) eradicating polio
(C) Robert Koch (B) spreading polio
(D) Ianowsky (C) curing polio
36. Match the following pairs (D) none of these
A B 39. AIDS day is celebrated on :
1. Tuberculosis I. Entamoeba (A) 5th June (B) 1st October
2. Typhoid II. Streptococcus (C) 11th July (D) 1st December
3. Malaria III. Plasmodium 40. Vector of malaria is :

4. Dysentery IV. Salmonella (A) female Anopheles
(B) male Anopheles
(A) 1- III, 2- IV, 3- I, 4- II
(C) female Culex
(B) 1- II, 2- IV, 3- III, 4- I (D) male Culex
(C) 1- III, 2- I, 3- II, 4- IV
(D) 1- IV, 2- III, 3- II, 4- I
SUBJECTIVE TYPE
1. Define health. 12. What is the significance of good health?
2. How does healthy and disease free not the same? 13. What are nutritional disorders?
3. Does good health depend only on internal 14. How are congenital disorders different from nutritional
environment or it depends on external environment disorder?
also. Justify your answer. 15. Is it necessary that every congenital disorder has to
4. Mention, how can we achieve healthy society? be a hereditary disorder, explain with the help of an
5. Give two examples of each of the following: example?
(a) Acute diseases, 16. What are occupational hazards?
(b) Chronic diseases, 17. Classify the following diseases as infectious or non-
(c) Infectious disease, infectious diseases;
(d) Non-infectious diseases. (a) AIDS (b) Tuberculosis
6. How health of an organism depends upon the (c) Cholera
surrounding environmental condition? (d) High blood pressure (hyper-tension),
7. What are pathogens? (e) Heart disease (f) Pneumonia,
8. What are signs of a disease? (g) Cancer.
9. Name the organism that causes Kala azar. 18. Expand the abbreviated forms given below;
10. Name any two habits, that you should avoid to keep (a) AIDS (b) BCG
good health. (c) HIV (d) ORS.
11. What is the causative organism of peptic ulcer?

Biology
19. Define antibiotics. 27. Why does a person suffering from AIDS die due to
20. What is immunization? even simple infection?
21. What are epidemic diseases? Give an example. 28. How mode of entry of germs, normally decides the
22. What is the specific method of prevention of a disease? organ or tissue to be affected during an infection?
23. Give difference between symptoms and signs. 29. Explain, how does vaccine work?
24. Explain briefly, the statement “prevention is better than 30. Becoming exposed to or infected with an infectious
cure”. microbe does not necessarily mean developing
25. Why is it difficult to make anti-viral antibiotics? noticeable disease, explain?
26. How does antibiotic work? Explain. 31. Describe community issues, that influence health?

Biology
5
Natural Resources
Natural resources
Basic needs of human life are fulfilled by the materials available in the nature, these materials are called natural
resources.
Natural resources are of two types, renewable resources and non- renewable resources.
Renewable resources are present in unlimited quantity in the nature and having the capacity to get replaced by quick
recycling through natural cycles. Oxygen, in air is renewable resource because it is replaced by the plants by the
process of photosynthesis. Some of the other renewable resources are solar radiation, water and atomic power.
However, these resources can be exhausted if used too rapidly by improper management and they do not get enough
time for renewal. Non- renewable resources are limited in nature. These resources once used cannot be replaced
within a reasonable time. Some of non- renewable resources are soil, forests, wild animals, minerals, fossil fuel (coal,
petroleum). For example, mineral deposits of fossil fuels are formed slowly over millions of years, if they are once used
cannot be regenerated.
Types of natural resources:

On the basis of origin, natural resources can be classified into two types:
Abiotic resources:-
Nonliving materials like water, air, soil, rocks, salts, minerals, chemicals, etc., are the abiotic natural resources.
Biological activity is not involved in their formation but they are vital for the survival of biotic organisms.
Biotic resources:-
These are living resources or resources derived directly or indirectly from photosynthetic activities of green plants.
Forests, forest products, crops, fruits, food, wood, fibre, milk and milk products, livestock, fishes, animals including
their by-products and human being are all biotic natural resources. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas
are also the biotic resources as they have been derived from plants.
Air : The breath of life

Air is an important form of inexhaustible natural resource which is essential for our survival. Air consists of a mixture
of gases, containing nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). Carbon dioxide, ammonia, ozone and noble gases (helium,
argon etc.) constitute to 1% of the total volume of the air. Atmosphere is the layer of air above the earth surface. The
density of air in the atmosphere varies at different altitudes from the surface of the earth. The atmosphere is thus
divided into different zones. The air, which we breathe, exists in the first zone, 10 to 12 km from the surface of the earth.
This zone of the atmosphere is called troposphere. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. This is rich in ozone
gas forming ozone layer. It absorbs many harmful solar radiations such as ultraviolet rays. This zone provides
protection to our life. Some of the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays radiation are cataracts, inflammatory diseases,
cancer, etc. This zone provides protection to our life.

Biology
 It is observed that a normal human being requires about 250 to 265 kg air per day for doing various activities.
Air is also essential to grow crops, support animal life and as a medium of communication.
 Study of atmosphere is very important for us. Atmosphere plays an important role in the formation of clouds,
occurence of rain and formation of snow. It prevents certain harmful radiation from reaching the surface of
the earth. It also helps in the formation of winds. The studies on atmosphere also help in making weather
forecast. The weather forecast help us taking necessary measures to prevent loss of human life, cattle and
crops due to torrential rains, cloud bursts, cyclones and dry spells. They also facilitate in taking appropriate
measures against drought and floods. In a way, weather forecast helps us in disaster management.
 Air carries many impurities, which are not good for our health. The chief constituents of the impurities are
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, fluoride compounds, metals and
hydrocarbons. These impurities are known as pollutants, which cause air pollution. Air pollution causes
many diseases; therefore, we must maximize our effort to keep air pure for our survival.
 Nitrogen reduces the activity of oxygen in air.
 At sea level, atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to the weight of 1 kg mass acting on every square
centimeter.
Air Pollution:
 Degradation of air quality and natural atmospheric conditions constitutes air pollution. Natural sources of air
pollution are forest fires, ash from smoking volcanoes, dust storm and decay of organic matter. Pollen grains
floating in air are also a natural source. Man- made sources are population explosion, deforestation,
urbanization and industrialization. Certain activities of human beings release several pollutants in air, such as
carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, lead, arsenic, asbestos, radioactive
matter, and dust.
 Air pollutants can be classified into two categories. These are: primary and secondary air pollutants.
 Primary pollutants enter the atmosphere directly from various sources. Amongst the primary air pollutants,
most important are particulate matter, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HCs), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx).
 Secondary pollutants are formed during chemical reactions between primary air pollutants and other
atmospheric constituents, such as water vapour. Commonly, these reactions occur in the presence of sunlight.
 Photochemical smog occurs in urban areas receiving large amounts of sunlight; caused by photochemical
(light- induced) reactions among nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and other components of polluted air that
produce photochemical oxidants. Photochemical smog is composed mainly of ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN) and NOx . It is often called brown air where solar radiation is intense. In areas or seasons of lesser solar
radiation, smog formation is incomplete and the air is referred to as grey air.
 Ozone act as a pollutant in trophosphere. Ozone may damage plant as well as animal life. In plants, the main
damage occurs in leaf. Ozone aggravates lung diseases in humans. Ozone, an effective oxidant, corrodes the
heritage building surfaces and damages marble statues and other cultural assets. Several plant species are
also very susceptible to PAN in smog. PAN damages chloroplasts and, thus, the photosynthetic efficiency
and growth of plants are reduced. It also inhibits electron transport system and interferes with enzyme
system that perform significant role in cellular metabolism. In humans, PAN causes acute irritation of eyes.

Biology
 Acid rain refers to various ways in which acids from the atmosphere are deposited on the Earth. Acid
deposition includes wet and dry deposition. Wet deposition refers to acidic water received through rain, fog,
and snow. Dry deposition relates to the wind blown acidic gases and particles in the atmosphere that settle
down on the ground. About half of the acidity in the atmosphere is transferred to Earth through dry deposition.
Dry deposited gases and particles can also be washed from trees and other surfaces by rainfall. Nirtrogen
oxides (NOx) and SO2 are produced during the combustion of coal (in industry) and petroleum (in automobile).
Lightning in sky also produces NOx naturally. These gases are highly reactive in air. They rapidly oxidise to
acids (sulphuric or nitric), which quickly dissolve in water and are washed out to the ground as acid rain.
Normally, rainwater is slightly acidic (pH 5.6-6.5) because water and CO2 combine in air to form a weak acid.
The pH of acid rain is less than 5.6, and could be as low as 4 or below. Acid rain results in discolouration and
deterioration of buildings, sculptures, painted surfaces, fabrics, paper, leather, etc. Our heritage monuments
(such as Taj Mahal at Agra) are threatened by the corrosive action of acid deposition. Acid rain adversely
affects terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. Low pH conditions also harm soil microbial community.
 Gases that trap the heat of the sun in the Earth’s atmosphere, producing the greenhouse effect. The two
major greenhouse gases are water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2). Other greenhouse gases include methane
(CH4), ozone, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
 The atmosphere cover around the Earth acts like a window glass pane. It allows most of the solar radiation to
enter right up to the Earth’s surface, but does not allow a significant amount of the long wave radiation
emitted by the Earth to escape in space. The greenhouse gases normally present in the atmosphere absorb
the outgoing long- wave infrared radiation. The atmosphere radiates part of this energy back to the Earth.
This downward flux of radiation, called greenhouse flux, keeps the Earth warm. Consequently, the atmospheric
greenhouse gases forming a blanket over the Earth, control the escape of heat from the Earth’s surface to
outer space so as to keep it warm and hospitable. This phenomenon is referred to as greenhouse effect.
Wind:
Wind is the flow of air. More generally, it is the flow of the gases which compose an atmosphere; since wind is not only
an Earth based phenomenon. The three major driving factors of large scale global winds are the differential heating
between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy between these climate zones), and the
rotation of the planet. Differential heating is the motive force behind land breezes and sea breezes (or, in the case of
larger lakes, lake breezes), also known as on- or off- shore winds. Land absorbs and radiates heat faster than water, but
water releases heat over a longer period of time. The result is that, in locations where sea and land meet, heat absorbed
over the day will be radiated more quickly by the land at night, cooling the air. Over the sea, heat is still being released
into the air at night, which rises. This convective motion draws the cool land air in to replace the rising air, resulting
in a land breeze in the late night and early morning. During the day, the roles are reversed. Warm air over the land rises,
pulling cool air in from the sea to replace it, giving a sea breeze during the afternoon and evening.
Rain :
When water bodies are heated during the day a large amount of water evaporates and goes into the air. The wind
carries the water vapour to various places. When this vapour reaches a certain height, it cools and in turn changes to
tiny droplets of water or snow. An enormous collection of these tiny droplets appears to us in the form of clouds. From
the clouds the water comes down to the surface of Earth in the form of rain or snow.
Rainfall patterns are decided by the wind patterns.

Biology
Bhopal gas leakage tragedy :

The leakage of poisonous gas pollution air with ‘methyl isocyanate’ from a gas plant with a ‘Carbile’ factory at Bhopal
killed thousands of people in their sleep and disabled many with nervous disorders.
Water : A wonder liquid

Water is essential for sustaining life. It is an important medium for all the life processes and acts as universal solvent.
The most unique feature of water is that its density is similar to that of protoplasm. Water is a prime natural resource,
basic human need and precious national asset. We have both the surface and ground water. India has rich water
bodies consisting of rivers, lakes, streams and ponds besides a long coastline. Water resources in our country have
been estimated to an average run off in the river system of 1,896 km 3 and 432 km3 ground water. We are dependent on
water for many purposes like drinking, cooking, cleaning, agriculture, transportation, hydelpower, etc. The surface
and ground water available to us come from the rainfall and snow which are a part of the hydrological cycle.
In our country, the intensity of annual rainfall varies from region to region and accordingly we have four zones
(i) Wet zone : Rainfall is very high in this region(over 200 cm)
(ii) Intermediate zone: Heavy rainfall (100- 200 cm)
(iii) Semi arid zone: Annual rainfall in the zone is moderate (50 to 100 cm).
(iv) Arid zone: Annual rainfall in this zone is very low (20-50 cm).
Water that percolates into the ground through the pore spaces of the rocks is available as ground water. The porous
rocks are saturate with water at a certain level below the surface that is known as zone of saturation. The upper level
of the zone of saturation is called the water table. The water table is expressed with reference to the mean sea level.
However the vertical distance from a place on the surface to the water table is called water level. The water table
reaches the surface in springs, permanent rivers, lakes and swamps and it is deeper on hilltops and in dry areas. The
ground water provides soil moisture for plant growth, supplements water in streams and lakes, and is frequently used
for human consumption.
About 84 percent of the total global evaporation occurs from ocean surface and 16 percent from land surface. At any
given time, the amount of moisture in the air is only enough to meet a total rainfall requirement of 10 days.
About 77 percent of the total rainfall on earth is received on the sea surface (as against 84 percent evaporation from
this segment) and 23 percent on land (16 percent share of total evaporation to the atmosphere). There is a net gain of
7 percent rainfall water on land surface to support plant and animal life throughout the year.
Why is water so necessary?

Water is an inevitable part of the living organisms as it performs the following functions for the survival of living
organisms:
(i) Cellular Processes: All cellular process take place in a water medium.
(ii) Chemical Reactions: All the reactions that take place within our body and within the cells occur between
substances that are dissolved in water.
(iii) Transportation: Transportation of substances from one part of the body to the other always occurs in a
dissolved form. Hence, organisms need to maintain the level of water within their bodies in order to stay alive.
Terrestrial life forms require fresh water for this purpose as their body cannot tolerate the high amounts of
dissolved salts present in saline water.

Biology
Hence, we can easily say that water sources should be easily accesible for animals and plants to
survive on land.
(iv) Household Activities: At home, we need water for drinking, bathing, washing and cooking.
(v) Commercial Purposes: Water is an essential requirement for navigation, fishery, agriculture, industry
and electricity generation.
(vi) Universal Solvent: Due to its universal solvent property, it dissolves all chemical substances in it.
(vii) Climate Control : It has a strong influence in controlling climate.
The following activities related to water are necessary to understand so that we may be able to know the
availability and utility of water.
Water Pollution :
 Eutrophication: growth of algae on the surface of water due to contamination of water by nitrogenous
fertilizeres that polutes water.
 The water pollution may be defined as “presence of foreign organic, biological, radiological or physical
substance in water that ends to lower its quality and either constitutes a health hazard or decreases the utility
of water”.
 There are two types of sources of water pollution: (1) Point sources (2) Non- point sources. Point sources
include factories, power plants, underground coal mines and oil wells situated close to water source.
They discharge pollutants directly into the water source. But, it is generally possible to treat the pollutants
before they enter the water body. Non- point sources are scattered and do not have any specific location
for discharging pollutants into a particular water body. They include run- off from fields, lawns, gardens,
construction sites, logging areas, roads and streets, etc. Non- point sources are difficult to monitor, regulate
and treat.
 Water pollutants are substances (impurities) such as calcium and magnesium compounds, which get
dissolved in water from natural deposits in and around water sources.
Micro-organisms, such as protozoans and other metals, detergents, domestic waste and radioactive
wastes are also water pollutants.
Soil :
 Soil forms the uppermost layer of the land.
 Mismanagement of this resource as a result of indiscriminate cutting of trees (deforestation) has caused
considerable damage to the quality of soil.
 Soil is an important natural resource, which is essential for our survival as well as all other life forms.
It provides (i) food and fodder, (ii) clothing, (iii) provides anchorage to the plants, (iv) water and minerals to
the plants, and water for various human needs, irrigation and industry, and (v) home to a number of soil
organisms.
 Soil is formed from parent rock material over millions of years by a process called weathering.
 Weathering occurs by (i) physical means such as the sun (temperature), rain, wind, frost or by (ii) biological
means, through the action of plants, animals and micro-organisms.

Biology
Soil Pollution :
 Any unfavourable alteration in soil by addition or removal of substances and factors, which decreases soil
fertility, is called soil pollution.
 Natural agents like water and wind, constantly tend to remove the topsoil and cause erosion. Rain falling
upon the unprotected topsoil, washes it down into the streams. Due to the absence of plant covering, eroded
soil cannot hold water. Water rushes into the rivers and overflows as flood.
 Dust storm also causes soil erosion. The particles of topsoil are picked up in such quantities that they
form clouds of dust.
Human beings also cause soil erosion. The growing human habitation and expansion of urban areas lead to
removal of vegetation. Once vegetation is removed, the naked soil gets exposed to wind and water.
Biogeochemical Cycle (Cycling of materials) :

Different materials and minerals not only provide the building blocks for the living substance i.e., protoplasm, but are
also needed for the operation of the living system. These materials are essential for life and are known as biogenic
nutrients. These are absorbed by plants from the soil, water and air. The major nutrient elements are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. These elements enter the living organisms at the producer level in the ecosystems and, from the
producers, they get transferred to other trophic levels. The cyclic flow of nutrients between non-living environment
(soil, rocks, air, water) and living organisms is termed as biogeochemical cycle.
Carbon Cycle :
In the abiotic environment, carbon is present in four forms:
(a) As carbon dioxide in the atmosphere or air (about 0.03 – 0.04%),
(b) As dissolved carbon dioxide or carbonic acid and bicarbonates in water or hydrosphere,
(c) As fossil fules like coal, petroleum and natural gas, and
(d) As carbonates and graphite in the rocks.

Biology
Carbon, a constituent of all living organisms, is an integral part of all the major organic compounds of the protoplasm
like carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acid while atmosphere is the main reservoir of gaseous carbon. Oceans
are the main depositors of biological carbon.
The basic movement of carbon is from the atmosphere.
During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to synthesise organic compounds. These
organic compounds enter the food chain as food and reach animals in successive trophic levels.
Carbon dioxide returns to the biosphere in five ways:
(a) Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as a product of respiration.
(b) By decomposition of organic wastes and dead bodies by decomposers.
(c) By burning of fossil fuels, like wood, coal, petrol, gas, and kerosene.
(d) By volcanic eruptions.
(e) By weathering of carbonate-containing rocks through the action of soil micro-organisms, plant roots and
acid rain.
Nitrogen Cycle :
Nitrogen is an important component of biologically important molecules essential to life like amino acids, proteins and
nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Air contains about 78% of nitrogen, which exists in molecules form as N2. Water bodies
also contain nitrogen. Producers cannot absorb nitrogen in its elemental form. It has to be first converted into nitrates
for the use of plants. The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates is called nitrogen fixation.
 Ammonification : The process of conversion of complex organic compounds like proteins into
ammonia (NH3) is called ammonification.
 Nitrification : The process of conversion of ammonia into nitrites and nitrates is called nitrification.
Nitrification is brought about by nitrifying bacteria in the soil.
(i) Ammonia is oxidised to nitrites (NO 2 ) by the action of Nitrosomonas bacteria.
(ii) Nitrites are further oxidised to nitrates (NO 3 ) by the action of Nitrobacter.
Nitrates enter in the soil and water and are absorbed by the plants.
 Denitrification: The conversion of nitrates salts present in the soil and water to free nitrogen gas is
called denitrification. Bacteria called Pseudomonas bring about denitrification.

Biology
Oxygen Cycle :
Oxygen forms about 21 percent of the atmospheric gases. It is also present in dissolved form in water bodies and helps
in the survival of aquatic life. Oxygen is also present in combined forms such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
It is also present in the combined form in the Earth’s crust as the oxides of most metals and silicon. Oxygen is also an
essential component of most biological molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and fats.
All living organisms, plants, animals and decomposers, take oxygen from their surroundings (air or water) and utilize
it for respiration.
Oxygen is utilized in decay and decomposition of dead organisms, as also in the burning of fuels such as wood, coal
and petroleum, Here, again, the by products, CO2 and H2O, are released into the atmosphere.
The green plants, in turn, utilize carbon dioxide and water (in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll) to prepare
carbohydrates through photosynthesis, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. In fact, green plants are a major source of
oxygen in the atmosphere.

Biology
Water cycle :
Water is essential and a principal component of living beings and also vital for life processes. It forms 60 to 90% of
the cell content. It serves as a habitat for a variety of organisms including bacteria, protozoa, other aquatic
animals and plants. It has a strong influence in regulating climate.
Plants lose water to the atmosphere through transpiration. Water is also released into the atmosphere from soil,
by evaporation rivers and oceans. These water vapours form cloud which bring rain and the water is returned to
the soil, rivers and oceans.
From the above discussion on mineral cycling, we can conclude that
(i) The mineral cycle through living and non-living components of the biosphere.
(ii) The amount of various materials cycling through the biosphere remains more or less constant.
Unfortunately, certain human activities disrupt the harmonious movement of minerals in the nature, making these
biogeochemical cycles acyclic. Activities such as the over use of chemicals like fertilizers and pesticides in
agriculture, excessive use of fossil fuels, use of machines and vehicles with improper combustion mechanism and
mining operations discrupt these cycles. This may also upset the food chains operating in nature and also cause
serious environmental hazards.

Biology
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. Cholera spreads due to

(A) food adulteration (B) humid weather
(C) water pollution (D) bacteria
2. Acid rain is caused by an increase in the atmosphere concentration of
(A) ozone and dust (B) SO2 and NO2 (C) SO3 and CO (D) CO and CO2
3. Maximum deposition of DDT will occur in
(A) phytoplankton (B) crab (C) eel (D) sea gull
4. A lake with an inflow of domestic sewage rich in organic waste may result in
(A) drying of the lake very soon due to algal bloom
(B) an increased production of fish due to lot of nutrient
(C) death of fish due to lack of oxygen
(D) increased population of aquatic food web organism
5. The term ‘biomagnification’ refer to the
(A) growth of organism due to blood consumption
(B) increase in population size
(C) blowing up of environmental issues by man
(D) increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable pollutants as they pass through food chain
6. Which one of the following pair is mismatched?
(A) fossil fuel burning - release of CO2
(B) nuclear power - radioactive waste
(C) solar energy - greenhouse effect
(D) biomass burning - release of CO2
7. Greenhouse effect is the cumulative result of the influences of certain gases. Indentify the gas which is not involved
in this influence.
(A) methane (B) chloroflurocarbons (C) nitrogen (D) carbon dioxide
8. Soil conservation is a process in which
(A) soil is aerated (B) soil erosion is allowed
(C) sterile soil is made fertile (D) soil is protected against loss
9. Plants die in water -logged soil because of
(A) nutrient leaching (B) dilution of soil nutrient
(C) stoppage of root respiration (D) dilution of cell sap
10. A pair of non-renewable resources is
(A) coal and mineral (B) plants and coal
(C) water and natural gas (D) energy and water
11. If more trees are grown in the industrial towns:
(A) there will be rains (B) inhabitants will have more shades
(C) oxygen will be replenished (D) they will provide more fuel and food

Biology
12. Depletion of forest result in

(A) less rainfall (B) soil erosion (C) loss of fertility (D) all the above
13. Which one of the following is an example of both organic and inorganic resources?
(A) Metallic ferrous ores (B) Microbes
(C) Soil (D) Air
14. Life supporting part of earth’s surface is known as:
(A) lithosphere (B) stratosphere (C) biosphere (D) ecotone
15. The most important function of Rhizobium is
(A) N2 assimilation (B) N2 fixation (C) Ammonification (D) Nitrification
16. Harmful UV rays of the Sun are absorbed by
(A) Carbon dioxide (B) Ozone (C) Oxygen (D) Helium
17. One of the important gases that is responsible for greenhouse effect is
(A) CO2 (B) O2 (C) N2 (D) CO
18. Air is a mixture of gases with the following gas in maximum percentage
(A) Oxygen (B) Hydrogen (C) Nitrogen (D) Carbon dioxide
19. Biosphere includes:
(A) Hydrosphere (B) Lithosphere (C) Atmosphere (D) All of the above
20. The quality of environment can be improved by
(A) Deforestation (B) Overuse of natural environment
(C) Soil erosion (D) Soil conservation
21. Fertility of the soil is reduced by
(A) Decaying organic matter (B) Crop rotation
(C) Intensive agriculture (D) None
22. Deforestation causes:
(A) Soil erosion (B) Pollution (C) Both of above (D) None of these
23. The average amount of CO2 in atmosphere is
(A) 0.3% (B) 0.003% (C) 3.0% (D) 0.03%
24. The average amount of N 2 in atmosphere is
(A) 78% (B) 0.3% (C) 7.8% (D) 0.03%
25. The ozone layer blocks
(A) Sunlight (B) Infrared radiations (C) UV radiations (D) Ozone
26. Which substance is responsible for depletion of ozone layer?
(A) CO2 (B) CH4 (C) CFCs (D) CO
27. Which organism cannot fix atmosphere nitrogen?
(A) Rhizobium (B) Nostoc (C) Azatobacter (D) E. coli
28. Which gas causes ‘greenhouse effect’ and leads to global warming ?
(A) Carbon monoxide (B) Carbon disulphide
(C) Carbon dioxide (D) Oxygen

Biology
29. ‘Freeing’ of N2 gas from nitrates present in soil and water is known as -
(A) Nitrification (B) Ammonification (C) Denitrification (D) Nitrogen fixation
30. Long exposure of UV light to man can cause
(A) Loss of air (B) Skin cancer (C) Loss of skin colour (D) Loss of vision
31. Harmful UV radiations coming from sun to earth are absorbed by
(A) O2 (B) CO2 (C) N2 (D) Ozone
32. What would happen, if all the oxygen present in the environment is covered with ozone?
(A) We will be protected more
(B) It will become posionous and kill living forms
(C) Ozone is not stable, hence it will be toxic
(D) It will help harmful sun radiations to reach earth and damage many life forms.
33. The two forms of oxygen found in the atmosphere are
(A) water and ozone (B) water and oxygen
(C) ozone and oxygen (D) water and carbon dioxide
34. The process of nitrogen fixation by bacteria does not take place in the presence of
(A) molecular form of hydrogen (B) elemental form of oxygen
(C) water (D) elemental form of nitrogen
35. The nitrogen molecules present in air can be converted into nitrates and nitrities by
(A) a biological process of nitrogen fixing bacteria present in soil
(B) a biological process of carbon factor present in soil
(C) any of the industries manufacturing nitrogenous compounds
(D) the plants used as cereal crops in field
36. One of the following processes is not a step involved in the water cycle operating in nature
(A) evaporation (B) transpiration (C) precipitation (D) photosynthesis
37. Which of the following is not a green house gas?
(A) Methane (B) Carbon dioxide (C) Carbon monoxide (D) Ammonia
38. Which step is not involved in the carbon cycle?
(A) Photosynthesis (B) Transpiration (C) Respiration (D) Burning of fossil fuels
39. ‘Ozone hole’ means
(A) a large sized hole in the ozone layer (B) thinning of the ozone layer
(C) small holes scattered in the ozone layer (D) thickening of ozone in the ozone layer
40. Ozone layer is getting depleted because of
(A) excessive use of automobiles
(B) excessive formation of industrial units
(C) excessive use of man-made compounds containing both fluorine and chlorine
(D) excessive deforestation
41. Which of the following is a recently originated problem of environment?
(A) Ozone layer depletion (B) Green house effect
(C) Global warming (D) All of the above

Biology
SUBJECTIVE TYPE
1. Define biosphere.
2. Why is it difficult for life to exist on moon or Venus?
3. Which component of marble reacts with acids present in acid rain?
4. How is land and sea breeze formed? Explain.
5. What is smog? How is it harmful?
6. How is wind formed?
7. Why coastal area has moderate temperature conditions?
8. Give difference between weather and climate.
9. Differentiate between natural and artificial sources of air pollution.
10. What is rain water harvesting?
11. Define eutrophication.
12. What do you understand by the term bio-magnification or bio-concentration or bio-accumulation?
13. Discuss two types of sources of water pollution.
14. What are the factors responsible for soil erosion?
15. How is soil formed?
16. Where will the effect of moving water on weathering of rocks be more, in upper course of river or lower course of river and
why?
17. How does fencing of fields with trees beneficial for farmers?
18. Reforestation can some-time lead to monoculture and which finally leads to decrease in soil fertility. Explain.
19. Why nitrogen cycle is perfect cycle in nature?
20. Although 75% of Earth is covered with water, but still we need to conserve it. Why?
21. Rivers add minerals to sea water. Discuss how?
22. Why fertile soil has lots of humus?
23. What is acid rain? How is it formed?
24. Why do people enjoy flying kite near coastal areas?
25. Why Mathura refinery poses problem to the Taj Mahal?
26. The flow of energy is unidirectional, whereas, bio-geo-chemical transfer is cyclic. Explain why?
27. A motor car, with its glass totally closed, is parked directly under the sun. the inside temperature of the car rises very high.
Explain why?
28. Show diagrammatically nitrogen cycle.
29. Explain the role of sun in soil formation.
30. Carbon dioxide is useful for plants, but still is considered a pollutant. Why?
31. Why moon has high day and night temperature extremes?

Biology
6
Improvement in Food Resources
Improvement in Food Resources
Agriculture: Agre- Field. Culture-Cultivation
 It is the applied biological science which deal with the production of plants and raising of livestock for human
use is called agriculture.
 Involving soil cultivation.
 Crop Farming.
 Breeding and managment of crop and live stock.
Modern Agriculture :
Modern agriculture is a combined effort of art, science and technology to provide food, cloth and shelter to
increasing human population, for improving the efficiency of the agriculture process and contribute to increased
output. These are as follows ;
 Tools and machines are made and used.
 Building of dams and canals for irrigation.
 Development of new pest resistant and high yielding variety.
 Used fertilizer and pesticides for nutrition and protection of crop.
Crop :
Plants of same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale known as crop.
Different types of crop require different climatic conditions. Crops are divided into two groups based on growing
season.
Kharif Crops :
Paddy (rice), maize, millets, groundnut, soyabean, arhar, black gram or urad, green gram or moong, cotton, jute
and hemp. Vegetables of Kharif crops are spinach, gourd, garlic, lady finger, pumpkin and brinjal. Fruits of Kharif
crops are watermelon, mango, litchi, plum, peach, etc.
Rabi Crops :
Wheat, barley, gram, mustard, pea and linseeds. Vegetables of Rabi crops are cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, radish,
turnip, beans, etc. Fruits of Rabi crops are apple, pomegranate, orange, etc.
Improvement in Crop Yield :

The yield of a crop can be increased by adopting a number of improved agricultural practices, from sowing to
harvesting. The various practices are as follows:
1. Soil preparation 2. Sowing 3. Irrigation 4. Weeding
5. Harvesting 6. Threshing 7. Winnowing 8. Storage.

Biology
These agricultural practices can be grouped into three scientific approches :

I. Crop Production Management II. Crop Protection Management
III. Crop Variety Improvement
I. Crop Production Management :

(i) Nutrient Management, (ii) Manures and Fertilisers,
(iii) Organic Farming, (iv) Irrigation,
(v) Cropping Patterns,
(i) Nutrient Management:

There are about 40 elements found in the plant ash, but only 16 elements are essential for plant growth and
development. Hence, these 16 elements are called essential elements or essential plant nutrients.
Out of these sixteen elements, nine elements are required by plants in relatively large quantities. These are
called macronutrients. Seven elements are required in comparatively less amount. These are called micronutrients.
Macro and micronutrients with their sources:

Source Nutrients Type
1. Air Carbon (C), Oxygen (O) Macronutrient
2. Water Hydrogen (H) Macronutrient
3. Soil (i) Nitrogen (N), Pho sph o ro us(P), Potassium (K), Macronutrient
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium(Mg), Sulphur (S)
(ii) Iron (Fe), Manganese(Mn), Boron (B), Zinc (Zn), Micronutrient
Copper (Cu), Molybdenum(Mo), Chlorine (Cl)
Differences between macro and micronutrients:

Characteristics Macronutrients Micronutrients
Quantity Required in Required in
comparatively very small
large quantities. quantities (in
traces).
Concentration More than Less than
1mg/gm of dry 1mg/gm of dry
matter of plant. matter of plant.
Use Used in building Used in
plant body and enzymatic
different activities.
protoplasmic
structures.
Examples Nitrogen, Iron, Zinc,
Phosphorus, Manganese,
Potassium, Chlorine,
Calcium, Copper, Boron,
Magnesium, etc. etc.

Biology
(ii) Manures and Fertilisers :

Manuring : Farmers have to add manure to the field to replenish the soil nutrient process known as manuring.
Manure or Organic Manure :

Organic substances are obtained from the decomposition of plant and animal wastes, which added to soil in
order to increase soil fertility, aeration and water holding capacity.
Types of Manure :7
(i) Farm yard manure: Consist of cattle dung, farm refuse, fallen leaves and twigs.
(ii) Compost: Consist of rotten vegetable, sewage and sludge and animal refuse.
(ii) Vermicompost: Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of
worms and other earthworms to create a mixture of decomposing vegatable or food waste, bedding
materials.
(iii) Green manure: These are fast growing herbaceous crops which are ploughed down and mixed with the
soil, while still green.
Advantages of Manure :
 Increase organic matter in soil and have low cost.
 Reduced soil erosion.
 Increase soil fertility, water holding capacity and aeration.
 Improve the texture of soil.
 Increase the number of friendly microbes.
Disadvantages of Manure :
 They have low amount of nutrient.
 Manure are bulky and not easy to be absorbed.
Fertilizer :
These are commerically manufactured inorganic salts containing one or more essential plant nutrients like N,
P, K, which are used to increase soil fertility.
Advantages of Fertilizers :
 They are nutrient specific and require in small amount.
 They are water soluble and absorbed by the plant easily.
Disadvantages of Fertilizers :
Fertilizers can change the chemical composition of soil and cause water pollution (eutrophication).

Biology
Differences between manure and fertilizer :

Manure Fertilizer
Organic substances obtain by the decomposition of plant Artificial inorganic salts.
and animal waste.
They are rich in organic nutrient not rich in (N.P.K.). They are rich in (N.P.K.) nitrogen phosphorus and
potassium
They are not nutrient specific They are nutrient specific.
They are not soluble in water so slowly absorbed by plants. They are soluble in water and quickly absorbed
They are not harmful to the environment. They are harmful to the environment.
They have nutrients in small quantity so needed in large They have higher amount of nutrients so required in
quantity. very small quantity.
They are bulky substances so difficult to store and transport They are in concentrated form and easy to transport
and storing.
They are prepared in field They are prepared in factories.
(iii)Organic Farming :
Organic farming is a farming system in which chemical fertilisers, herbicides or pesticides are minimally used
or not used at all. Instead, manures, recycled from wastes and biofertilisers are used in place of chemical
fertilisers. Neem leaves or turmeric are used as biopesticides specifically in case of stored foodgrains.
Advantages of Organic Farming :

(i) Natural ecosystem is not disturbed, as organic farming is in harmony with the natural ecosystem.
(ii) Soil fertility is preserved.
(iii) Harmful effects of chemicals on the living organisms are avoided.
(iv) Pollution in air, water and soil does not take place.
(iv) Irrigation :
Supply of water to crop at different intervals is called irrigation. Sources of irrigation:- Well, tube well, ponds,
lakes, river, canal and dams.
Methods of Irrigation :
Traditional methods:
(i) Moat (pulley system) (ii) Chain pump
(iii) Dhekli (iv) Rahat (lever system)
These are cheaper and less efficient methods.
Cattle and human labour is used.
Modern Methods of Irrigation :

(i) Sprinkler System :
 Useful for sandy soil and uneven land.
 Efficient system in the canal irrigated area of Haryana, Rajasthan, M.P.

Biology
 Spread water uniformly over plant and field.

 In this system the perpendicular pipes having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to main line at
regular intervals.
(ii) Drip System : Boon in poor water region.

 Provide water to plants drop by drop at the root.
 Water is not wasted at all.
 Best irrigation technique for fruit crop, garden and trees.
Advantages of Irrigation :
 Maintain the moisture of soil.
 Nutrient dissolved in water get transported to each part of plant.
Disadvantages of Excessive or Untimely Irrigation:

All crop plants require water at different stages of their development. Plants require the right amount of
water at the right time.
 Excess of water (waterlogging) in the soil inhibits the process of germination of the seeds as the seeds
do not get sufficient air to respire.
 Roots do not grow well if there is waterlogging in the field.
 If the crop is irrigated when fully mature, it gets damaged. The plants, which are unable to resist the
strong winds, fall down affecting the yield. The falling down of the crop due to untimely irrigation
is termed as lodging. The excess from the field then has to be drained of immediately.
(v) Cropping Patterns :

1. Mixed Cropping : Mixed cropping is the practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in the
same field.
 The basic objective of mixed cropping is to achieve insurance against total crop failure under poor
rainfall conditions and thereby minimising risk and monetary losses.
Some mixed crops grown in India :
Soyabean + Pigeonpea,
Pigeonpea + Mung bean
Cotton + Sunflower,
Groundnut + Sunflower
Wheat + Mustard,
Wheat + Chickpea
Barley + Chickpea,
Sorghum + Pigeonpea
2. Inter-Cropping :
 Inter-cropping is the practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field in rows.

Biology
Advantages :
 Productivity is increased.
 It economises space and time of cultivating two or more crops.
 It helps to maintain soil fertility.
3. Crop Rotation : The crop rotation means growing different types of crops alternately (or pre-planned
succession) in the same soil.
II. Crop Protection Management : It includes eradication of pests, pathogens, weeds and other organisms
that is harmful to the crop plants.
(i) Weeding : Removal of weeds or undesirable plants is called weeding.
Weeds are unwanted plants which grow along with the crop. Some of the common weeds found in wheat
and rice fields are:
 Amaranthus (chaulai)
 Chenopodium (bathua)
 Convolvulus (hiran khuri)
 Wild-oat (javi)
 Parthenium (congress grass)
 Cyperinus rotundus (motha)
Control of Weeds :
(a) Mechanical Control : It can be done by ploughing, burning and cutting of weeds before they produce
flower and seeds.
(b) Chemical Control : By Spraying weedicides.
Some weedicides used to control different weeds are:
 Atrazines
 2, 4-D (2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid)
 Deltron
 Isoproturon
 MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenyl acetic acid)
 Butachor
(c) Biological control- By living organisms to destroy weeds. Cassia plant prevents the growth of
Parthenium weed. Herbivorous fish (Carps) feed on aquatic weeds (Hydrilla). Cochineal insect used
to remove opuntia.
It is advantageous because :
(i) It does not cause pollution
(ii) Organisms are harmless to the main crop

Biology
(ii) Insect pests and their control :

Insects which destroy or damage crop plants are called insect pests. All crops are attacked by insect
pests.
Insect pests attack the plants in three ways:
 They cut the roots, stem and leaves.
 They suck the cell sap from various parts of the plants.
 They bore into the stem and fruits.
Thus, they affect overall health of the crop and reduce yield.
Control of Insect Pests:

 By using pesticides : The chemicals used to eliminate pests are called pesticides. Pesticides include
insecticides (for killing the insects), weedicides (for killing the weeds), rodenticides (for killing rats),
fungicides (for killing the fungi).
By using natural insecticides: Like neem, nicotine, pyrethrum, etc.
 Biological method of pest control : In this method, some insects, birds or some other organisms
are deliberately left in the affected crop fields to kill the pests selectively, e.g., Australian ladybirds
were left in citrus orchards to control the scale insects in California, U.S.A.
(iii) Storage : There are two types of food materials perishable and non- perishable.
1. Perishable food materials : Perishable food materials are those which get spoiled easily when kept
for sometime at room temperature, for example, vegetables, fruits, fish, meat and milk.
2. Non- perishable food materials : Non- perishable food materials are those which do not get spoiled
even kept for a long time at room temperature, for example, wheat flour, food, grains, spices and sugar.
Mode of Storage : There are two different modes of storage: dry storage and cold storage.
Dry Storage :
 This method is used for storage of non- perishable food materials, Foodgrains are dried in the sun
to bring down the moisture content below 14% weight to prevent the attack by pests. The dried
foodgrains are then weighed, packed in gunny bags and transferred to properly ventilated halls called
godowns or granaries.
The gunny bags in the godown should be kept about 60 to 70 cm away from the walls and on wooden
platforms about 10 to 15 cm above the ground. The godown must be kept pests free by spraying
various pesticides from time to time.Farmers store foodgrains for their personal use in metal bins.
Dried neem leaves are added in the bin to prevent pest infestation.
 Grain silos are specially designed tall cylindrical structures for bulk storage of foodgrains. These silor
can store different stocks of foodgrains at different levels. The required foodgrain can be taken out
from the openings provided in the silos.
 Granaries and silos should be inspected from time to time to check for infestation of any kind. In our
country food grains are stored in large godowns by agencies like Food Corporation of India, State
Warehousing Corporation, etc.

Biology
Cold Storage :
This method is used for storage of perishable food materials. These food material have very short shelf-
life so that these are usually stored at low temperature. Icebox or refrigerator is used at home to store
fruits, vegetables, milk, milk products, fish etc. On commercial scale, the perishable food materials are
stored in either a deep freezer or a cold storage.
Advantages of Food Storage :

 It prevents the food from being spoiled by the action of enzymes and microorganisms.
 It increases the storage period of food materials.
 It helps in the availability of season fruits and vegetables round the year.
 It makes the transportation of food materials easier.
 It helps to maintain prices in the market.
 It helps in maintaining buffer stock to meet any emergency in the country.
Precautions :
 They should be safe from moisture insect, rats, and microorganism.
 Grains are properly dried in the sun.
 Store grains in jute bags or metallic bins.
 Store in silos, granaries and godown with chemical treatment.
 Dried neem leaves are used for storing food grains.
II. Crop Variety Improvement:

Varietal improvements mean to develop varieties with desired character such as higher yields, better qualities,
resistance to diseases and pests, etc. Plant breeding can be defined as a science of improving genetic make-
up of plants in relation to their economic use.
Principle:
The basic principle of this approach depends on finding a crop variety that can give a better yield. Varietal
improvement means combining desirable characteristics in one plant and then multiplying it.
The varieties of crops can be improved by breeding for various desirable characteristics such as disease
resistance, response to fertilizers, product quality, wider adaptability, change in maturity duration and high
yields. There are two modes of incorporating desirable characters into various crop varieties:
1. Hybridization: The crossing between genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new type of plant
(hybrid) is called hybridization. Hybridization always incorporates the desired characteristics of both
parents in a newly developed variety. The crossing may be either of the following three types:
(a) Intervarietal, i.e., between different varieties
(b) Interspecific, i.e., between two different species of the same genus.
(c) Intergeneric, i.e., between different genera.
The intervarietal hybridization is most common and extensively used.
2. Genetic Modification: In this mode of crop improvement, a desirable gene is introduced into the
particular crop for the development of desired characteristic. This results in genetically modified crops.

Biology
Improved varieties of some important crops:

Commodities Crops Varieties
Cereals Rice IR-36, Pusa, Vikas, Jaya, Padma, IR-8, Pusa-205
Wheat Sonara-64, Sharbati Sonara, Pusa Lerma, Sonalika
Maize Kalyan Sona, Hira Moti, Arjun
Ganga 5, Ganga 101, Shakti, Vikram Ranjit, Deccan Hybrid
Pulses Chickpea K 850, H 208, Pusa 240, Pant 114
Pigeonpea Pusa Ageti, UPAS 120, Pusa 84, Manak, T21
Uradbean T9, Pant 430, PS 1, CO5
Mungbean PS 16, S 8, T 44, K851, Aasha
Oilseeds Groundnut MH2, IC G51, M 37, Kaushal
Mustard Pusa Gold, Kranti, Pusa Agani, RH 30
Soyabean PK 262, PK 327, Pusa 24, Durga, Gaurav
Sunflower BSH 1, Modern, Arun, Paras
 Higher yield : Higher productivity of crop per acre can be brought about by developing High Yielding
Varieties (HYV) by cross- breeding and hybridization.
 Improved quality : The varieties are improved to enhance the desirable qualities, e.g., baking quality
in wheat, protein quality in pulses, oil quality in oilseeds, better taste quality in fruits, preserving
quality in fruits and vegetables.
 Biotic and abiotic resistance : Under natural condition, the crop plants are prone to certain biotic
factors like diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, etc. and abiotic factors like
drought, salinity, water logging, heat, cold, frost, etc. These biotic and abiotic stresses cause a great
deal of loss of production. Varieties resistant to these stresses can improve crop production.
 Change in maturity duration : The shorter the duration of crop variety from its sowing to
harvesting the more economical is the variety. It helps the farmers in raising multiple rounds of crops
in a year over the same piece of land. This will also reduce the cost of crop production.
 Wider adaptability : Farmers should develop plant varieties which are insensitive to temperature and
duration of light. This will help in crossing the cultivation barriers so that crop plants can be grown
throughout the year under different climate conditions in different areas.
 Desirable agronomic traits : To acheive higher productivity, varieties should have desirable agronomic
characteristics, e.g., cereal crops should be dwarf with short maturation period, so that they consume
less nutrients and are strong enough to withstand fast blowing winds. Fodder crops should be tall
and should have intensive branching and high tillering.
 Easy to acclimatize : The varieties should have the ability to adopt themselves to new climatic
conditions.
Animal Husbandry :
The branch of agriculture which deals with the management, breeding, feeding, weeding and care of domestic
animals is called animal husbandry. Important components of animal husbandry are as follows:
 Proper feeding and clean drinking water.
 Clean and ventilated shelter.
 Prevention and care of animal diseases from spreading.
 Proper breeding of animals. Animals that provide food for human consumption may be listed as:

Biology
(i) Dairy Animals :

They include animals that provide milk e.g. cow, buffalo, goat, camel etc. India has the largest population of
milk producing animals but the total quality of milk produced by them used to be comparatively low as
compared to some other countries. But in recent years, with the efforts of National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB), it has greatly increased.
Milk is a highly nutritious food. It contains nearly all the nutrients required by us, and is called as complete
food. Cow’s milk contains 3.6 % fat, 4% protien, 4.5 % sugar, 0.70 % minerals and 87.20 % water. Milk is mostly
obtained from cows and buffaloes.In order to get more milk, the cows and buffaloes have been brought from
other countries. They are called exotic breeds while Indian breeds are called indigenous breeds. Efforts are
being made to produce better breeds of cows and buffaloes which produce more milk.
Feed for dairy animals generally contains two types of substances- roughage and concentrates - in the form
of fodder and grain respectively along with a lot of water.
Roughage :
It consists of coarse and fibrous substances having low nutrient content. The animals get roughage from hay
(straw of cereals) and fodders like berseem, lucerne, maize, bajra and jowar.
Concentrate food :
Foods rich in one or more nutrients (like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins) and low in fibres
are provided by cotton seeds, oilseeds, oilcakes, and cereal grains like gram and bajra. In winters cattle are
mostly fed on green fodder, mainly berseem and lucerne (leguminous fodder), while in other seasons they are
given maize, bajra, jowar and dry fodder.
A breed is a group of animals of common origin within a species with certain special identifying characteristics.
Breeds are grouped under three categories:
(i) Milch breeds (dairy animals): These include the animals which are kept for obtaining milk.
(ii) Draught breeds: These animals are used in agriculture and transportation.
(iii) Dual-purpose breeds: Cows yield fairly good milk and the bullocks are good for draught work.
Breeds of Cows :
(a) Indigenous Breeds : The Indian breeds found locally are called indigenous breeds. Indigenous breeds
of dairy are mainly of three types :
(i) Red Sindhi : This cow is medium in size and red in colour with dark and light red shades.
(ii) Sahiwal : This breed of cow is other dairy cows. The animal is large and of heavier built.
(iii) Gir : This is the native breed of Gir forest in Gujarat. This cow is medium in size and fairly good milk
yielder.
(b) Exotic Breeds : The breeds that are brought from outside are called exotic (foreign breeds)
The exotic (foreign) breeds of cows that have been used for cross-breeding are:
1. Jersey from USA
2. Brown Swiss from Switzerland
3. Holstein-Friesian from Holland.

Biology
(c) Cross Breeds : Cross breeds are produced by mating the bulls of the exotic breeds and cows of the
indigenous breeds or vice versa.
Some successful cross-breeds on these lines are:
 Karan Swiss: It is a cross-breeds of Brown Swiss and Sahiwal.
 Karan Fries: It is a cross-breeds of Holstein-Friesian and Tharparkar.
 Frieswal: It is a cross-breed of Holstein-Friesian and Sahiwal.
Brown Swiss × Sahiwal → Karan Swiss
Holstein-Friesian × Sahiwal → Frieswal
Breeds of Buffaloes :
 Murrah : This is the original breed of Punjab and Haryana. It produces about 2000 to 2500 litres of milk
during its location period with fat content upto 7 percent.
 Mehsana : This is a breed of Mehsana and Vadodra districts of Gujrat. The milk yield given by these
is about 1500 to 2500 litres during the lactation period.
 Surti : It is also a breed of Gujarat and found in Vadodra and Kairi districts. The milk yield given by them
varies from 1600 to 1800 litres during their lactation period.
Cattle diseases
S.No. Causal Organism Disease
1. Virus Foot and mouth disease, Pox, Dermatitis
2. Bacteria Rinderpest, Anthrax
3. Fungi Ringworm
Prevention of Cattle Diseases:

 The animals should be kept in spacious and airy shelter.
 Proper cleanliness should be maintained in cattle sheds.
 The animals should be given regular bath and groomed.
 The animals should be given nutritious feed.
 They should be vaccinated at regular intervals.
 Proper disposal of wastes and isolation of sick animals is very important.
(ii) Fish Farming :

The rearing and management of fish on a large scale is called pisciculture.
The term aquaculture is used to describe the culture of aquatic organisms in fresh or marine waters. However,
the culture of marine fish is called mariculture.
Blue Revolution :
Increase in the production of fish, shellfish, prawns, crabs and shrimps through culture fishery has brought
a revolution. This revolution in fish food is called Blue Revolution.
1. Capture fishing : The fish is caught from natural water, both marine and inland.
2. Culture fishing : It is cultivating, rearing and harvesting of fish. Culture fishery is also called fish
farming or pisciculture.

Biology
Inland Fisheries :
Inland fisheries refers to the conservation and utilization of fish in the inland water bodies such as ponds,
flooded plains, wetlands, rivers, canals, esturarne bodies, etc. It also includes a study of the way the fish
population interacts with each other in the inland water bodies exceeding 10 ha (ha is the symbol for hectare)
in water area.
Marine Fisheries :
The broad objective of marine fisheries are the same as that of inland fisheries, except that it deals with fish
that live in the sea. It aims at optimizing the production and capture of edible and ornamental marine fish and
harnessing their products.
Compositive fish culture system :

This is a very intensive fish farming system. It is also known as polyculture of fish. In this system, a
combination of 5 or 6 fish species is used in a single fish pond. Both local and imported fish species are used
in such systems. The species are selected in such a way that they should not compete for food, i.e., they
should have different types of food habits.
 Catlas and silver carp are surface feeders,
 Rohus feed in the middle-zone of the pond, i.e., column feeder,
 Mrigals and common carps are bottom feeders and
 Grass carps feed on the weeds.
What is Fish seed?

The term “fish seed” is used to include various developing stages of a fish, required for stocking ponds for
culture. This includes the following:
 Spawn : This term is used for developing fertilized eggs. It is 1 to 2 days long.
Spawning occurs at midnight. In the next morning few eggs are examined: the fertilized eggs are crystalline,
transparent and look like a pearl. They come up to surface on a slight movement of water. The unfertilized
eggs are opaque and whitish.
 Hatchlings : It is a stage immediately after hatching.
 Sacfry : It is newly hatched larva with yolk sac.
 Fry : Young larvae after yolk sac is absorbed form fry. Fry is up to 40 mm size.
 Juveniles : Young ones resembling adult fish.
 Fingerlings : Young ones of large fishes, resembling the adult fish, but only 4-12 cm in length.
 Yearlings : Young ones that are one year old.
Technique of fish-seed production by induced breeding :

 Use of inducing agents : Breeding among the fish is synchronized by injecting them with gonadotropin
hormone obtained from the pituitary gland of donor fish.
Synthetic inducing agents : ovaprim, ovatide and nova.
 Hormone extraction : A particular fish is chosen to obtain the extract. Its brain is dissected out and
its pituitary gland (hypophysis) is taken out.

Biology
 Injecting hormones into healthy brooders : The filtered material (liquid) is injected into a female fish
that is gravid. A similar dose is injected into the male fish, which too is sexually mature.
 Spawning : After a few hours of sluggish movement in the water, the brooders discharge gametes. This
is called spawning.
 Hatching: The pure seeds of eggs begins to develop into embryos and then into fish fries.
 Care of fish fries : The fish fries should be collected gently to ensure minimum or no injury to the fish
fries. Some times it is useful to add some antibiotics also so that the fish fries do not catch any infection.
 Transfer of fish fires : Fish seeds are transferred to the nursery pond and then to the rearing pond. As
the fish grow up to a stage called the fingerling, they are transferred to the stocking pond.
Diseases of Fish :
Diseases in fish are caused mainly by viruses and bacteria. The two well known infectious diseases are IPN
(Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis) and VHS (Viral Haemorrhagia Septicemia).
(iii)Poultry Animals
Eggs and meat are obtained from hen, duck and turkey. Over the year, the demand of eggs and meat has
increased considerably. Hence efforts are being made to improve the egg and meat production.
 Growers: The first phase of life of poultry is growing period (upto sexual maturity). During this period,
the chicken are called growers.
 Layers: The period from sexual maturity till the end of egg laying is called laying period and the chickens
which are used for producing eggs are called layers.
 Broilers: Those fowls which are used for producing meat are called broilers.
Desi or Indigeneous Breeds :

 Indigenous or desi fowls: Assel, Kadaknath, Chattisgarh and Bursa.
 Exotic breeds: White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red
 Cross breeds or Improved breeds: HH260, IBL-80, B-77 and IIS-82
Advantages of Cross Breeds:

The cross breeds of fowls are quite advantageous over the indigenous breeds because of following reasons:
 They lay more eggs (about 200 eggs annually, while desi hen lay about 60 eggs per year).
 They yield more meat (about 2.3 kg of feed for 1kg meat; while desi varieties consume about 5-6 kg feed
to give 1 kg meat).
 The eggs produced by cross breeds are larger as compared to indigenous breeds.
 Cross breeds consume less feed (about 2kg for producing a dozen eggs; while the indigenous breeds
consume 6 kg feed for producing the same number of eggs.
Egg and Broiler Production :

Hens raised for egg production are called layers. Egg production is one of the important economic aspect of
poultry. Young birds are vaccinated. Their food should be rich in vitamins, minerals and macronutrients. They
start laying eggs at the age of 5 months. The average egg production period in commercial layers is 500 days.
When egg production becomes uneconomical, the layers are sold for slaughtering.

Biology
Broilers are quick growing birds which are raised for 6-8 weeks. They attain the weight of 700 g to 1.5 kg.
Their food is rich in vitamin A and K.
Diseases and Pests of Poultry Birds :

Poultry birds suffer from a number of diseases caused by virus, bacteria, fungi, parasites as well as nutritional
deficiencies. Some common poultry diseases are:
 Viral diseases – Ranikhet, Bird Flu
 Bacteria diseases – Tuberculosis, Cholera, Diarrhoea of chick
 Fungal disease – Aspergillosis
Diseases can be controlled with better management like:
 By providing proper housing, cleanliness, sanitation and rich diet.
 By spraying disinfectants at regular intervals.
 By timely vaccination aganist infectious diseases.
(iv) Bee Keeping :

The practice of keeping or rearing, caring and management of honey bee on a large scale for obtaining honey
and wax is called apiculture. The place where the bees are raised is called apiary.
Common Species of Honey Bee :

(a) Indigenous variety :
 Apis cerana indica - Indian bee
 Apis dorsata - Rock bee
 Apis florea - Little bee
(b) Exotic variety :

Apis mellifera - Italian bee.
Colony of Honey Bee :

Honey bees are social, polymorphic insects which live in colonies in nests or hives. The colony of honey
bee has bees belonging to three castes.
 Queen bee: She is the supreme bee in a colony.
 Drones: They are smaller and stouter than the queen bee.
 Workers: They are the most active members of the colony.
Components of Honey :
 Honey contains glucose, fructose, sucrose sugars, mineral salts, a few other substances and water.
 Fructose is the main sugar of honey.
 Honey is used as a nutritive substance and in the form of medicine.
 The wax obtained from beehive is called Bee Wax. This wax is used in sculpturing and manufacturing of
creams, floor polish, boot polish and medicines.

Biology
Rearing of Bees :
 Closed, box shaped, artificial beehives are used for apiculture.
 The artificial hives are provided with large broad chamber and metallic or plastic plates lined with wax.
 These plates provide a base for the formation of the hive. The closed boxes bear many pores through
which the worker- bees can come in and out.
 The queen bee always remains inside the hive. The drones (male) go for one nuptial flight and provide
sperms to the queen which are sufficient for complete life span.
 After this drone have no utility in the hive. Either the drones die on their own or they are expelled out
of the hive, so that they are forced to die.
 The artificial beehives are put in such places where nectar- bearing flowers are in proximity.
 The flowering time of the crop is suitable from the point of view of apiculture.
 The queen bee lays two types of eggs. The fertilized eggs can develop into worker bees and queen bees
while the unfertilized eggs gives rise to drones. This process is known as parthenogenesis.
 Development of worker or queen from the fertilized eggs depends upon the difference in their nutrition.
 The larvae which are fed on royal jelly continuously have the capability of developing into queen bee.
But usually there is only one queen in one bee hive.
 The first developed queen kills the rest of the developing queens. The previous queen leaves the hive
and goes elsewhere.
 The worker bees collect nectar from the flowers but it is not possible to store it as such.
 The bees concentrate it and convert it into honey and then store it into cells of the hive.
 After the accumulation of honey the plates of the hive are removed. Honey and extra bee wax is separated
from the plates.

Biology
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. The science of growing crop plants is called

(A) Horticulture (B) Floriculture (C) Agriculture (D) Animal husbandary
2. The science of growing vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants is called
(A) Floriculture (B) Horticulture (C) Agriculture (D) Garden Culture
3. Cereal plants like wheat, rice, maize and barley are rich in
(A) Proteins (B) Carbohydrates (C) Fats (D) Minerals
4. Pulse crops are rich in
(A) Proteins (B) Fats (C) Vitamins (D) Carbohydrates
5. Vegetables and fruits are rich in
(A) Carbohydrates (B) Fats (C) Proteins (D) Minerals and Vitamins
6. Which macronutrient is required in largest quantity by plants?
(A) Phosphorus (B) Potassium (C) Nitrogen (D) Magnesium
7. Which one is not a ‘Rabi’ crop?
(A) Wheat (B) Barley (C) Gram (D) Maize
8. Identify the ‘Kharif’ crop.
(A) Potato (B) Mustard (C) Rice (D) Wheat
9. Which one is not a micronutrient?
(A) Iron (B) Copper (C) Manganese (D) Magnesium
10. Identify the macronutrient.
(A) Copper (B) Zinc (C) Sulphur (D) Boron
11. The unwanted plants which grow with main crops are called
(A) Bogus plants (B) Herbs (C) Weeds (D) Grasses
12. Which one is not a biofertilizer?
(A) Rhizobium (B) Azolla (C) Anabaena (D) Urea
13. The example of ‘green manure’ is
(A) Farm yard manure (B) Compast
(C) Ammonium phosphate (D) Berseem
14. Root nodules of leguminous plants contain
(A) Rhizobium (B) Anabaena (C) Azolla (D) Mycorrhiza
15. The enrichment of water bodies with nutrients leading to excessive growth of phytoplankton is known as
(A) Nitrification (B) Ammonification (C) Eutrophication (D) Phyto-enrichment
16. To solve the food problem of the country, which among the following is necessary?
(A) Increased production and storage of food grains
(B) Easy access of people to the food again
(C) People should have money to purchase the grains
(D) All the above

Biology
17. Find out the correct sentence

(i) Hybridization means crossing between genetically dissimilar plants.
(ii) Cross between two varieties is called as interspecific hybridization.
(iii) Introducing genes of desired character into a plant gives genetically modified crop.
(iv) Cross between plants of two species is called as inter-varietal hybridisation.
(A) (i) and (iii) (B) (ii) and (iv) (C) (ii) and (iii) (D) (iii) and (iv)
18. Weeds affect the crop plants by
(A) killing of plants in field before they grow (B) dominating the plants to grow
(C) competing for various resources of crops (plants) causing low availability of nutrients
(D) all the above
19. Find out the correct sentence about manure
(i) Manure contains large quantities of organic matter and small quantities of nutrients.
(ii) It increases the water holding capacity of sandy soil.
(iii) It helps in draining out of excess of water from clayey soil.
(iv) Its excessive use pollutes environment because it is made of animal excretory waste.
(A) (i) and (iii) (B) (i) and (ii) (C) (ii) and (iii) (D) (iii) and (iv)
20. Which one of the following nutrients is not available in fertilizers?
(A) Nitrogen (B) Phosphorus (C) Iron (D) Potassium
21. Preventive and control measures adopted for the storage of grains include
(A) strict cleaning (B) proper disjoining (C) fumigation (D) all the above
22. Who is known as “Father of white revolution” in India?
(A) Prof. M.S. Swaminathan (B) Dr. V. Kurien
(C) Mrs. Indira Gandhi (D) Shri Jai Prakash Narain
23. ‘Murrah’ is a high milk-yielding breed of
(A) Goat (B) Cow (C) Buffalo (D) Sheep
24. ‘Blue Revolution’ refers to increase in
(A) Milk production (B) Egg production
(C) Grain production (D) Fish production
25. Which one of the following is a local breed of cow?
(A) Red Sindhi (B) Brown Swiss (C) Jersey (D) Karan production
26. Which one of following is a fresh water fish?
(A) Catla (B) Sardine (C) Hilsa (D) Bombay duck
27. The exotic variety of bee commonly used for commercial honey production is
(A) Indian bee (B) Italian bee (C) Rock bee (D) Little bee
28. Find out the wrong statement from the following
(A) White revolution is meant for increase in milk production
(B) Blue revolution is meant for increase in fish production
(C) Increasing food production without compromising with the environmental quality is called as sustainable
agriculture
(D) None of the above

Biology
29. Cattle husbandry is done for the following purposes

(i) Milk Production (ii) Agricultural work
(iii) Meat production (iv) Egg production
(A) (i), (ii) and (iii) (B) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (C) (iii) and (iv) (D) (i) and (iv)
30. Which of the following are Indian cattle?
(i) Bos indicus (ii) Bos domestica (iii) Bos bubalis (iv) Bos vulgaris
(A) (i) and (iii) (B) (i) and (ii) (C) (ii) and (iii) (D) (i) and (iv)
31. Poultry farming is undertaken to raise following
(i) Egg production (ii) Feather production
(iii) Chicken production (iv) Milk production
(A) (i) and (iii) (B) (i) and (ii) (C) (ii) and (iii) (D) (iii) and (iv)
32. Which one of the following species of honey bee is an Italian species?
(A) Apis dorsata (B) Apis florae
(C) Apis cerana indica (D) Apis mellifera
33. Poultry fowl are suspectible to the following pathogens
(A) Viruses (B) Bacteria (C) Fungi (D) All the above
34. Which one of the following fishes is a surface feeder?
(A) Rohu (B) Mrigal (C) Common carp (D) Catla
SUBJECTIVE TYPE
1. What is blue revolution, white revolution, yellow revolution and silviculture?
2. What are transgenic organisms?
3. Mention any four reasons for varietal improvement.
4. Write down three types of hybridization.
5. What should be the desirable character for a fodder plant?
6. How does the method of selection used to obtain a new variety of plant?
7. Write down the difference between manures and fertilizers.
8. What is organic farming?
9. Which mineral taken by plant can be called a nutrient?
10. What is vermi-composting? How is it better than compost?
11. Why scientific storage of crop an important step in increasing food production?
12. Why grain silos are used instead of cuboidal storage structures?
13. Which method is better spraying or fumigation during storage of food grains and why?
14. Write down the important characteristics, that should be kept in mind for shelter of cattle?
15. Define artificial insemination.
16. Write down major component of feed of cattle.
17. Write down two ways of obtaining fishes.
18. What is pasturage?
19. Why sandy soil does not support growth of plant?

Biology
20. What is apiculture?

21. Why in multiple cropping, two plants of similar nutrient requirement is not used?
22. Expand (a) HYV, (b) GMO.
23. How does excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers affects nearby water bodies?
24. Why Italian bees are preferred in apiary?
25. How is green manure used?
26. Differentiate between capture fishery and culture fishery.
27. What is composite culture? Why is it better?
28. What are broilers and how are they different from layers?
29. Pesticides are boon as well as a bane. Explain how.
30. What factors are kept in mind for selecting crops for mixed cropping? Why intercropping is a better method than mixed
cropping?
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

1. A 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. A 6. A 7. A
8. A 9. B 10. B 11. A 12. D 13. D 14. C
15. B 16. A 17. C 18. A 19. A 20. A 21. B
22. B 23. B 24. C 25. C 26. C 27. D 28. A
29. C 30. A 31. B 32. A 33. B 34. B 35. D
2. TISSUES
1. A 2. A 3. A 4. D 5. C 6. B 7. B
8. D 9. A 10. A 11. A 12. C 13. C 14. A
15. C 16. A 17. B 18. C 19. A 20. B 21. B
22. A 23. D 24. A 25. B 26. A 27. A 28. D
29. B 30. D 31. A 32. C 33. B 34. A 35. A
36. C 37. A 38. B 39. D 40. B 41. D 42. B
43. B
3. DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS

1. A 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. C 6. B 7. D
8. C 9. D 10. C 11. B 12. D 13. A 14. B
15. B 16. B 17. A 18. B 19. B 20. C 21. A
22. C 23. A 24. C 25. C 26. B 27. A 28. C
29. A 30. C 31. B 32. B 33. B 34. C 35. B
36. D 37. C 38. D 39. C 40. A 41. A 42. C

Biology
4. WHY DO WE FALL ILL

1. C 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. D 7. C
8. A 9. B 10. D 11. B 12. D 13. B 14. C
15. C 16. D 17. D 18. C 19. D 20. B 21. D
22. A 23. D 24. D 25. C 26. C 27. C 28. D
29. A 30. B 31. B 32. C 33. B 34. B 35. A
36. B 37. B 38. A 39. D 40. A
5. NATURAL RESOURCES
1. C 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. D 6. C 7. C
8. D 9. C 10. A 11. C 12. D 13. C 14. C
15. B 16. B 17. A 18. C 19. D 20. D 21. C
22. C 23. D 24. A 25. C 26. C 27. D 28. C
29. C 30. B 31. D 32. B 33. C 34. B 35. A
36. D 37. D 38. B 39. B 40. C 41. D
6. IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES

1. C 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. D 6. C 7. D
8. C 9. D 10. C 11. C 12. D 13. D 14. A
15. C 16. D 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. C 21. D
22. B 23. C 24. D 25. A 26. C 27. B 28. D
29. A 30. A 31. A 32. D 33. A 34. D

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4 Year Course for

Cell is called structural & functional unit of life because :

Cell theory : (It was published in 1838-1839)

4 Year Course 1 Class IX

Differences between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells:

4 Year Course 2 Class IX

Difference between plant cell & animal cell :

4 Year Course 3 Class IX

(A) Cell Boundaries :

1. Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane

Structure of Plasma Membrane

Transport Across the Membrane

4 Year Course 4 Class IX

Differences between Diffusion and Osmosis :

S. No. Diffusion Osmosis

1. Diffusion can occur in any medium. It occurs only in liquid medium.

3 Semipermeable membrane is not required. Semipermeable membrane is required.

Type of solutions on the basis of concentration

(B) Active transport (with the utilization of energy)

4 Year Course 5 Class IX

4 Year Course 6 Class IX

 It is more prominent in non-dividing cells.

(d) Chromatin Threads:

(C) Cytoplasm (Cytosol) :

2. Cell Organelles / Cytoplasmic organs:

4 Year Course 7 Class IX

A. Living Part of a Cell B. Non Living part of a cell

1. Plasma Membrane 1. Cell wall (Plant cell only)

4 Year Course 8 Class IX

(a) Grana : It constitues of the lamellar system.

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(iv) Endoplasmic Reticulum

Components of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

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(b) Smooth E.R./Agranular E.R.

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(vi) Ribosome (Engine of cell)

Prokaryotic ribosomes Eukaryotic ribosomes

Larger subunit Smaller subunit Larger subunit Smaller subunit

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(ix) Centrosome : Discovered by Benden

Cell Division Explaination

(a) Mitosis It has following steps:

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1. Who proposed the cell theory ?

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19. Centriole in the cell is associated with

20. Cell secretion is done by

21. Network of endoplasmic reticulum is found in :

22. Inside the cells, the hydrolytic enzymes are contained in

23. A plant cell differs from an animal cell in the absence of :

24. Genes are located on the :

25. The largest cell in human body is :

26. Ribosome get synthesized in :

28. Lysosomes are formed in :

29. Shrinkage of protoplasm when cell is kept in hypertonic solution is known as :

30. A cell placed in hypotonic solution will :

31. A cell will swell up if :

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