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AIS - Chapter 5 System Development
AIS - Chapter 5 System Development
These four symbols are combined to show how data are processed.
1. Data sources and destinations
A source or destination symbol on the DFD represents an organization or individual that sends or receives
data that the system uses or produces. Data sources and data destinations are represented by squares.
An entity/item can be both a source and a destination
2. Data flows
– Appear as arrows
– Represent the flow of data between sources and destinations, processes, and data stores.
3. Processes
✓ Appear as circles
✓ Represent the transformation of data
4. Data stores
✓ Appear as two horizontal lines
✓ Represent a temporary or permanent repository of data. DFDs do not show the physical
storage medium (such as disks and paper) used to store the data. As with the other DFDs
elements, data store names should be descriptive.
Subdividing the DFD
DFDs are subdivided into successively lower levels to provide increasing amounts of detail, because few
systems can be fully diagrammed on one sheet of paper. Users have needs, so a variety of levels can
better satisfy these requirements.
The highest level DFD is called a context diagram. A context diagram provides the reader with a
summary-level view of the system. It depicts a data processing system and the external entities that are:
the sources and destinations of the system`s inputs and outputs.
Guidelines for Drawing a DFD
FLOWCHARTS
A flowchart is an analytical technique that describes some aspect of an information system in a clear,
concise, and logical manner.
A flowchart is a graphical representation of a system that describes the physical relationships between its
key entities. Flowcharts can be used to represent manual activities, computer processing activities, or
both. Flowcharts use a set of standard symbols to depict processing procedures and the flow of data.
Flowchart Symbols
Every shape on a flowchart depicts a unique operation, input, processing activity, or storage medium.
In the days of yore, flowcharts were commonly drawn with flowcharting template, a piece of hard,
flexible plastic on which the shapes of symbols have been die cut. Most flowcharts are now drawn using a
software program such as Visio, a drawing package based on the green plastic flowchart templates.
Flowcharts can also be drawn using Microsoft Word, Excel, and Power Point. The software uses pre-
drawn shapes, and the developer drags the shapes into the drawing.
There are four types of flowcharting symbols:
(2) Processing symbols: either show what type of device is used to process data or indicate when
processing is performed manually.
(3) Storage symbols: represent the device used to store data that the system is not currently using.
Symbol Name Explanation
Storage Symbols
Represents data stored permanently on a
Magnetic disk/drive magnetic disk/drive. Frequently used to
represent master files and databases.
(4) Flow and miscellaneous symbols: indicate the flow of data and goods. They also represent such
operations as where flowcharts begin or end, where decisions are made, and when to add explanatory
note to flowcharts.
A, DOCUMENT FLOWCHARTS
A document flowchart illustrates the flow of documents and information among areas of responsibility
within an organization. A document flowchart is used to depict the elements of a manual system,
including accounting records (documents, journals, ledgers, and files), organizational departments
involved in the process, and activities (both clerical and physical) that are performed in the departments.
Document flowcharts trace a document from its cradle to its grave. They show where each document
originates, its distribution, the purpose for which it is used, its ultimate disposition, and everything that
happens as it flows through the system.
• Internal control flowcharts are document flowcharts used to evaluate the adequacy of internal
controls, such as segregation of duties or internal checks.
• They can reveal weaknesses or inefficiencies such as:
– Inadequate communication flows
– Unnecessarily complex document flows
– Procedures that cause wasteful delays
• Document flowcharts are also prepared in the system design process.
– If a flowchart takes more than one page, label the pages as 1 of 5, 2 of 5, 3 of 5, etc.
– Show documents or reports first in the column where they are created.
Start with a rough draft; then
18. Redesign the flowchart to avoid clutter and a large number of crossed lines.
19. Verify the flowchart`s accuracy by reviewing it with the people familiar with the system. Be sure
all uses of flowcharting conventions are consistent.
20. Draw a final copy of the flowchart. Place the name of the flowchart, the date, and the preparer’ s
name on each page of the final copy.
B, SYSTEM FLOWCHARTS
System flowchart depicts the relationship among the inputs, processes, and outputs of an AIS. System
flowcharts portray the computer aspects of a system. They depict the relationships between input (source)
data, transaction files, computer programs, master files, and output reports produced by the system.
Systems Development
Whether systems changes are major or minor, most companies go through a systems development life
cycle. The steps in that cycle and the people involved in systems development are discussed in this
section.
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
The five stages in the systems development life cycle are:
1) System Analysis 4) Implementation and Conversation
2) Conceptual Design 5) Operations and Maintenance
3) Physical Design
1) Systems analysis
As organizations grow and change, management and employees recognize the need for more or better
information and request a new or improved information system. The first step in systems development is
systems analysis. When a new or improved system is needed, a written request for systems development
is prepared. The request describes:
✓ The current system’s problems.
It is important to determine system objectives so that analysts and users can focus on those elements most
vital to the AIS`s success, however, it is difficult for a system to satisfy every objective. For example,
designing adequate internal controls must be viewed as a trade-off between the objectives of economy
and reliability. Similarly, cutting clerical costs must balance the objectives of capacity, flexibility, and
customer service.
A system`s success often depends on the project team’ s ability to cope with constraints the organization
faces. Common constraints include governmental agency requirements, managerial policies and
guidelines, lack of sufficiently qualified staff, the capabilities and attitudes of system users, available
technology, and limited financial resources.
To maximize system performance, the effects of these constraints on system design must be minimized.
Strategies for Determining Requirements:
One or more of the following four strategies are used to determine AIS requirements:
3) Physical design
During the physical systems design phase, the company determines how the conceptual AIS design is to
be implemented. Physical design translates the broad, user-oriented AIS requirements of conceptual
design into detailed specifications that are used by programmers to code and test the computer programs.
Input and output documents are designed, computer programs are written, files and databases are created,
procedures are developed, and controls are built into the new system. This phase is complete when
physical system design results are communicated to the information systems steering committee.
i. Output design: The objective of output design is to determine the nature, format,
content, and timing of printed reports, documents, and screen displays. Tailoring
the output to user needs requires cooperation between users and designers.
Outputs usually fit into one of the following four categories:
Scheduled reports: Have a pre-specified content and format and are prepared on a regular basis.
Examples include monthly performance reports, weekly sales analyses, and annual financial
statements.
Special-purpose analysis reports: Have no pre-specified content and format and are not on a
regular schedule. They are prepared in response to a management request to evaluate an issue,
such as which of three new products would provide the highest profits. Example: Analysis of
impact of a government mandate on profitability
Triggered exception reports: Have pre-specified content and format but are prepared only in
response to abnormal conditions. Excessive absenteeism, cost overruns, inventory shortages, and
situations requiring immediate corrective action trigger such reports.
Demand reports: Have a pre-specified content and format but are prepared only on request. Both
triggered exception reports and demand reports can be used effectively to facilitate the
management process.
ii. File and database design
iii. Input design
iv. Program design
v. Procedures design
vi. Controls design
4) Implementation and conversion
System implementation is the process of installing hardware and software and getting the AIS up and
running. This process generally consists of developing a plan, preparing the site, installing and testing
hardware and software, selecting and training personnel, completing the documentation, and testing the
system. Conversion is the process of changing from the old to the new AIS. Many elements must be
converted: hardware, software, data files, and procedures. The process is complete when the new AIS has
become a routine, ongoing part of the system.
Conversion Approaches
Four conversion approaches are used to change from an old to a new system:
• Direct conversion
• Parallel conversion
• Phase-in conversion
• Pilot conversion
Parallel conversion operates the old and new systems simultaneously for a period of time.
– You can process transactions with both systems, compare output, reconcile differences,
and make corrections to the new AIS.
Parallel processing protects the company from errors, but it is costly and stressful for employees to
process all transactions twice. However, because companies often experience problems during
conversion, parallel processing has gained widespread popularity.
Phase-in conversion gradually replaces elements of the old AIS with the new one.
– The new system is often phased in a module at a time.
These gradual changes mean that data processing resources can be acquired over time. The disadvantages
are the cost of creating the temporary interfaces between the old and the new AIS and the time required to
make the gradual changeover (complete conversion).
Pilot conversion implements a system in just one part of the organization, such as a branch office or a
single store. When problems with the system are resolved, the new system could be implemented at the
remaining locations. This approach localizes conversion problems and allows training in a live
environment. The disadvantages are the long conversion time and the need for interfaces between the old
and the new systems, which coexist until all locations have been converted.
Implementation and conversation constitute the capstone phase during which all the elements and
activities of the system come together. Because of the complexity and importance of this phase, an
implementation and conversion plan is developed and followed. As part of implementation, any new
hardware and software is installed and tested. New employees may need to be hired and trained, or
existing employees relocated. New processing procedures must be tested and perhaps modified. Standards
and controls for the new system must be established and system documentation completed. The
organization must convert to the new system and dismantle the old one. After the system is up and
running, any fine-tuning adjustments needed are made and a post-implementation review is conducted to
detect and correct any design deficiencies. The final step in this phase is to deliver the operational system
to the organization, at which time the development of the new system is complete. A final report is
prepared and sent to the information systems steering committee.
5) Operation and maintenance
The final step in the SDLC is to operate and maintain the new system. Once the system is up and running,
operations and monitoring continue.
• Tasks include:
– Fine-tune/adjust and do post-implementation review.
– Operate the system.
– Periodically, review and modify the system.
– Do ongoing maintenance.
– Deliver improved system.
Eventually, a major modification or system replacement is necessary and the SDLC begins again.
In addition to these five phases, three activities (planning, managing the behavioral reactions to
change, and assessing the ongoing feasibility of the project) are performed throughout the life cycle.
THE PLAYERS
Accounting Information System | Lecturer: Rukiya T. 15
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implementing AIS, including:
a) Top management: One of the most effective ways to generate systems development support is a
clear signal from top management that user involvement is important. With respect to systems
development, top management’s most important roles are:
✓ Providing support and encouragement for development projects and aligning information
systems with corporate strategies.
✓ Establishing system goals and objectives.
✓ Reviewing the performance and leadership of the information system department.
✓ Establishing policies for project selection and organizational structure.
✓ Participating in important system decisions.
• The principal roles of user management are:
✓ To determine information requirements for departmental projects.
✓ To assist systems analysts with project cost and benefit estimates.
✓ To assign key staff members to development projects.
✓ To allocate appropriate funds to support systems development and operation.
b) Accountants
Accountants may play three roles during systems design:
– First, as AIS users, they must determine their information needs and system requirements and
communicate them to system developers.
– Second, as members of a project development teams or information systems steering
committee, they help manage systems development.
– Third, accountants should take an active role in designing system controls and periodically
monitoring and testing the system to verify that the controls are implemented and functioning
properly. All systems should contain sufficient controls to ensure the accurate and complete
processing of data. The system also should be easy to audit. If addressed at the start of
development, auditability and control concerns can be minimized. Trying to achieve them
after a system has been designed is inefficient, time-consuming, and costly.
c) Information systems steering committee
Because AIS development spans functional and divisional boundaries, organizations usually establish an
executive-level information systems steering committee to plan and oversee the information system
function. The committee often consists of high-level management people, such as the controller and the
systems and user-department management. The steering committee sets policies that govern the AIS and
ensures top-management participation, guidance, and control. The steering committee also facilitates the
coordination and integration of information systems activities to increase goal congruence and reduce
goal conflict.
d) Project development team
Each development project has a team of systems specialists, managers, accountants and auditors, and
users that guides development. Team members plan each project, monitor it to ensure timely and cost-
effective completion, make sure proper consideration is given to human element, and communicate
project status to top management and the steering committee. They should communicate frequently with
users and hold regular meetings to consider ideas and discuss progress so there are no surprises upon
project completion. A team approach usually produces more effective results and facilitates user
acceptance of the implemented system.
e) Systems analysts
Systems analysts study existing systems, design new ones, and prepare specifications that are used by
computer programmers. Analysts interact with information technology and systems employees