Earthscience Exam Notes

Chapter 1 - Slideshow 1
Three major influences of geology on art:

1. Materials - natural mineral substances derived from the Earth comprise the
media that artists use (stone, clay, pigments, etc.)
2. Aesthetics - Earth’s materials and physical features inspire artistic expression.
3. Unusual environmental circumstances - Rare geologic events have influenced
artists on a subconscious level.
Two main areas of geology:
Physical geology deals with the materials composing Earth and seeks to understand
the processes that operate upon and beneath its surface.
Historical geology deals with the origin of Earth and ists development through time.
Creation Stories
Hopi Creation Story (Northern Arizona)
● Taiowa (Creator) first existed in an endless space.
● No time, no shape, and no life.
● Sotuknang (Creator’s nephew) matter from space to make the nine worlds
through which the Hopi people would ascend.
● The Creator instructed Sotuknang to gather together waters from space and
place them on these worlds to make land and sea and to gather r air to make
winds and breezes.
A Chinese Creation Story (about 1st century B.C.)
● Long ago (when heaven and earth were still one), the universe was contained
in an egg-shaped cloud.
● Within the chaos of that egg, Pan Gu, a huge giant, grew for 18,000 years.
● One day, Pan Gu awoke and stretched, and the egg broke to release the
universe.
● Lighter elements drifted upwards to make the sky and heavens, while heavier
elements settled downwards to make the earth.
● In this new world, Pan Gu worried that heaven and earth might mix again; so
he held them apart (with the heavens on his head and the earth under his
feet).
● Pan Gu grew to hold them apart for 18,000 years until the heavens were high
above the earth.
● Finally, he realized they were stable, and soon after that, he died.
● With the giant's death, Earth was transformed.
● His arms and legs became the mountains.
● His blood became the rivers, sweat became the rain and dew.
● His voice became the thunder, breath became the winds.
● His hair became the grass
● His teeth and bones became the minerals and rocks
● His flesh became the soil.
● His left eye became the sun, and his right eye became the moon.
● Thus in death, Pan Gu made the world as it is today.
Shinto Creation Story (Japan, about 700 A.D )
● In the beginning, Heaven and Earth were not yet separated, forming a chaotic
mass like an egg which contained “germs.”
● Purer and clearer part formed Heaven, while the heavier and more solid part
became Earth.
● Heaven easily became a united body (and therefore formed first), but the
formation of the heavy/solid part was accomplished with difficulty (so Earth
formed later).
Judeo-Christian Creation Story: First Chapter of Genesis
● “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.
● The earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep,
and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters…
● And God said, "Let there be an expanse between the waters to separate water
from water." So God made the expanse and separated the water under the
expanse from the water above it. And it was so. God called the expanse "sky."
And there was evening, and there was morning--the second day.
● And God said, "Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let
dry ground appear." And it was so. God called the dry ground "land," and the
gathered waters he called "seas”…
The Modern Scientific Account : Big Bang
● In the beginning, the universe existed as a singularity (a point at which the
laws of the present-day universe break down).
● The singularity contained infinite mass, infinite density and no volume.
● (a tiny “something” surrounded by infinite “nothingness”)
● For reasons still unknown, the singularity “exploded” about 13-15 billion years
ago.
● The universe cooled as it expansion continued.
● Photons (parcels of energy) were transformed into fundamental particles
(among them, electrons, protons and neutrons) that ultimately formed atoms.
● E = mc2 (E=energy, m=mass, c=speed of light)
● Evidence:
● As light from distant galaxies approach Earth, wavelengths of light are
stretched (toward red end of light spectrum), indicating that galaxies are
moving away from us. This is called the “red shift.”
● If the universe were static, there should be no background radiation.
● In 1978, radioastronomers demonstrated that extra energy exists throughout
the observable universe (above that which could be accounted for by a static
universe).
● Abundance of light elements (hydrogen and helium) found in the observable
universe is on par with the predictions of how matter would form from a “Big
Bang” event (with light elements dominating the stage).
● The first element to form was hydrogen.
● Next came the formation of helium. Helium was formed via the fusion of
hydrogen atoms.
● Trace amounts of lithium might have soon followed.
Common themes
Formation of Galaxies
● Galaxies may have formed at the intersections of spaghetti-like bodies of light
gases
Formation of Stars
● Stars began to form within the bodies of gas that formed the first galaxies
● The first stars were born within nebulae.
● Can still see this process happening today!
● In this Hubble Space Telescope photo, newly born stars illuminate the Orion
Nebula.
● Stars are “pressure cookers” that produce heavy elements from light elements.
Very large stars can produce elements heavier than hydrogen and helium
within.
● Exploding stars (supernovae) scatter both light and heavy elements back into
space.
Formation of our Sun
Our sun is thought to be a third-generation star (i.e. its formation was
preceded by at least two supernova cycles)
● Majority of the material concentrated in the centre of a spinning nebula,
forming the Sun.
Formation of Planets
● Remaining dust and gas that surrounded the newly developing Sun coalesced
to form larger solid bodies that became planets
● Early atmosphere was burned off by solar wind of developing Sun.
Formation of the Moon
● Moon thought to have been flung off newly forming Earth due to impact (or
glancing blow) by Mars-sized object.
Formation of the Earth
● Earth’s first atmosphere was Jupiter-like (dominated by hydrogen and
helium).
● The tilt of Earth’s axis also probably resulted from a large impact.
● Large bodies of debris continued to impact Earth until about 4 billion years
ago.
● Impacts by bodies up to 100 km in diameter were common by this point.
● Earth started to cool after this violent period.
● Things began to settle after about 4 billion years ago.
● By this time, Earth’s atmosphere (produced by volcanic gases such as carbon
dioxide and water vapour) was probably similar to Venus.
● Water condensed to form the first oceans.
Formation of life
● The simplest forms of life (microbes) appeared about 3.5 billion years ago
(based on occurrences of fossil stromatolites- structures formed by bacteria.
● Some bacteria were capable of photosynthesis.
● In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is consumed to produce sugar (food for the
photosynthesizing organism).
● Oxygen is produced as a byproduct.
● Life was crucial in transforming Earth’s Venus-like atmosphere to the
oxygen-rich conditions of Earth’s third atmosphere.
● Today, we tend to accept scientific accounts at face value and dismiss cultural
traditions.
● But if we compare creation stories with our current scientific understanding of
Earth’s origins, we can see some common elements.
Why is Earth so lucky ?
● Perhaps the most important factor is the distance of Earth from the Sun.
● To appreciate this factor, we must compare our home planet with our
neighbours.
Our Planetary Neighbourhood
● In general, we can think of planets in our solar system as belonging to either
or two basic forms:
● Jovian Planets: Large, “Jupiter-like,” planets that have very thick atmospheres
and are relatively far from the Sun.
● (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
● Terrestrial Planets: small, “Earth-like,” rocky planets that have thin
atmospheres and are relatively close to the Sun.
● (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars)
Earth and its terrestrial planet Family
● Earth’s characteristics are more similar to its neighbouring planets Venus and
Mars, than to the Jovian planets.
● But even within the family of terrestrial planets, Earth is unique.
● Earth is in a very precarious position!
● This is illustrated by the absence of complex life on Venus and Mars.
If Earth orbited like Venus
● If Earth were to occupy the orbit of Venus, the increased solar radiation
would raise the average temperature of the planet
● Raising the global temperature would put more water vapour into the
atmosphere and, through the greenhouse effect, make the temperature even
higher.
● At extremely high temperatures, photosynthesizing organisms could not
survive, leading to the accumulation of volcano-sourced carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, and a further increase in temperature.
● The planet’s surface would be dry, hot and barren.
If Earth orbited like Mars
● If Earth were to move to the orbit of Mars, the decrease in incoming solar
energy would cool the oceans, increase the size of the polar caps and lead to
less water vapour in the atmosphere.
● The reflectivity of the planet would increase, thus reducing the temperature
further. In the extreme, the Earth would probably be covered with ice.
The Earth System
● The Earth itself is a complex system of interacting components. In the most
basic sense, we can think of the Earth as consisting of four major domains or
“spheres”:
● Geosphere: comprises the solid Earth and includes both Earth’s surface and
the various layers of the Earth's interior.
● Atmosphere: gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth and constitutes the
transition between its surface and the vacuum of space.
● Hydrosphere: includes all water on Earth (including surface water and
groundwater).
● Biosphere: the life zone of the Earth and includes all living organisms, and all
organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
Earths Four Spheres
●
● Earth is a closed system
●
The Underworld
● Well after the formulation of ancient “underworld” myths,
many people continued to believe that Earth was hollow. For example, “A
Journey to the Centre of the Earth” by Jules Verne (1864) detailed
subterranean tunnels that led to a world filled with prehistoric creatures
● Earth scientists view the Earth in a very different way
● Based on the behaviour of seismic waves in the Earth’s interior (and other
lines of geological evidence) we are pretty damn sure that the Earth is not
hollow
● The solid Earth consists of a series of “shells” with differing characteristics.
● We can classify Earth’s “shells” according to chemical composition or physical
properties.
● If you were to colour-code the shell-like layers in either scheme, the Earth
would look like a giant gobstopper in cross-section.
●
●
Why is earth compositionally zoned?
● Differentiation of the core, mantle and crust probably occurred during the
early stages of planetary development.
● During its early development, Earth was in a semi-molten state. The heat
responsible for melting these materials was probably generated from:
○ Intense and frequent bombardment by meteoritic bodies
○ Decay of radioactive elements.
○ The preferential sinking of heavy elements such as iron and nickel
toward the centre of Earth (thus forming the iron-nickel core).
○ …so heavier elements (e.g. iron and nickel) were concentrated at the
centre of the planet, whereas lighter elements remained in the mantle,
and still lighter elements were concentrated in the crust and
atmosphere.
Importance of a lithosphere
● The lithosphere (the upper, brittle layer of Earth) is broken into plates
(tectonic plates) that “float” on the asthenosphere. When these plates spread
apart, bump into one another, and slide past one another, they form surface
irregularities (more on this later)
Importance of a Crust
● The crust (comprising the uppermost part of the lithosphere) is the part of the
geosphere on which we reside.
● Oceanic crust (under oceans) and continental crust (under continents)
● In the next few lectures, we will investigate the building blocks of the crust.
Defining characteristics of minerals:
● Naturally occurring
● Solid
● Inorganic (non-living)
● Definite chemical composition (within defined limits)
● Ordered internal structure (crystalline)
Minerals
● Most rocks are solid aggregates of mineral crystals or particles derived from
other rocks.
Composition of Minerals
● Minerals are made of elements
● An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by
normal chemical means.
● Elements familiar to most people include hydrogen, helium, oxygen, carbon
and calcium.
● Note that manganese, selenium, chromium, etc. are NOT a mineral- they are
elements !
● There are over 100 elements known (92 of which naturally occur on Earth).
Atomic Structure
● An atom is the smallest particle of matter that retains the characteristics of an
element.
● An individual atom has a nucleus made of protons and neutrons.
● Orbiting around the nucleus are fast-moving electrons, that form cloud-like
shells (each defining an energy level)
● Here is a more simplified view of an atom, showing the nucleus and electrons
in a single plane. Nearly all of an atom’s mass is in its nucleus.
●
When the Cup isnt full
● Atoms want to have their electron shells completely filled with electrons.
● The innermost shell can hold two electrons.
● Shells beyond this can hold eight electrons.
● When the outermost shells of atoms aren’t completely filled, they bond with
other atoms
● Positive and negative ions are attracted to one another and bond together.
● Consider two chlorine atoms (both with 7 electrons in their outer shell).
● Both atoms want to a full outer shell of 8 electrons.
● Solution: share electrons with the other atom.
● In some cases, bonds produced by slight charge imbalances
Ionic Bond
● When an atom gives up an electron
Covalent bond
● When an atom shares an electron
Graphite
● Graphite:
● Strong sheets of carbon
● (covalently bonded)
● …weakly held together by very week bonds
● Graphite in pencil easily rubs off on paper (due to weak bonding between
carbon sheets)
Mica Minerals
● Strong sheet-like units of silica
● (with covalent and ionic bonds)
● …weakly held together by intermolecular bonds
Metalic Bonding
● Occurs in metals in pure, native form (e.g copper, gold, and silver).
● Nuclei of metal atoms “float” in a sea of electrons (electrons constantly
migrate among ions of the substance).
● Free migration of electrons accounts for strong ability of metals to conduct
electricity and the ease with which metals are shaped.
Mineral properties
● Chemical composition and crystal structure of minerals can be can be
accomplished with great precision by laboratory methods (but this is
expensive and time consuming).
● The appearance and physical behaviour of minerals are directly related to
their chemical composition and bonding characteristics of their components.
● So…the physical properties of minerals are very handy in the accurate
identification of minerals.
● Certain properties are also responsible for the beauty and usefulness of
various minerals.
Common Mineral Properties
Crystal forms
● Arrangement patterns of atoms within minerals are manifest in their external
crystal form.
● The packing arrangement of atoms within any given mineral results in a
characteristic geometry of crystal faces.
Cleavage
● Arrangement patterns of atoms within minerals also result in characteristic
patterns of breakage.
● In some minerals, bonds between some atoms are weaker than others (a
mineral will preferentially break along planes of weaker bonding within the
crystal structure).
● When a mineral breaks along well-defined planes, it is said to have cleavage.
● Mica minerals show the simplest form of cleavage – only one direction of
cleavage.
● Cleavage in mica results from preferred breakage along planes of weak
bonding between strongly bonded sheets of atoms (primarily silicon and
oxygen).
● Cleavage occurs due to the internal structure of mineral crystals
● Many minerals have more than one cleavage direction
Cleavage planes vs crystal faces
● The orientation of crystal faces (in crystal form/habit) is an external property.
● The shape of a crystal is the overall geometrical shape of smaller units joined
together (like a model made of Lego blocks).
● Cleavage is an internal property (planes of weakness).
● A mineral with cleavage will always cleave in the same direction (with the
same angles of intersection).
Fracture
● Some minerals do not have a distinct cleavage due to more uniform bond
strengths throughout the crystal structure (i.e., no distinct planes of
weakness).
● But some minerals do break in other characteristic ways as fracture.
● For example, broken surfaces of quartz are scoop-shaped. The curved
surfaces look like the interior of a seashell, so is called conchoidal fracture.
● In minerals with both cleavage and fracture, fracture surfaces tend to be dull
whereas cleavage surfaces are flat and shiny).
Hardness
● Another useful diagnostic property is hardness (measure of the resistance of
minerals to being scratched).
● The hardness of a mineral reflects the overall strength of bonding within its
crystal structure.
● Hardness is measured in units of Mohs scale of hardness (a relative scale
developed by geologist Frederick Mohs based on the ability of harder minerals
to scratch softer minerals).
●
Specific Gravity
● Specific gravity is a number representing the ratio of the weight of a mineral
to the weight of an equal volume of water.
● For example, if a mineral weighs three times as much as an equal volume of
water, its specific gravity is 3.
● On a more practical level, we can just say that some minerals are heavier than
others. This comes in handy when identifying minerals that look very much
alike but have very different specific gravities.
Diaphaneity
Transparent
● Light enters and exits the mineral in an uninterrupted fashion (like through
clear glass)
Translucent
● Light enters and exits the mineral, but scatters (like through milk)
Opaque
● the light cannot penetrate the surface of the mineral
● (like a piece of metal).
Lustre
● Lustre is the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a
mineral.
● For now, we will just say that there are two main types of lustre:
Colour
● Colour primarily manifests the chemical content of a mineral.
● In a few minerals, colour can be a very diagnostic property.
● For example, the mineral azurite has an intense blue colour.
● The more common mineral pyrite (iron sulphide- “fools gold”) have a
characteristic brassy colour.
● In other minerals, colour can be the most misleading of all mineral properties.
● Quartz, for example, is always made of silicon and oxygen.
● Pure quartz is clear and colourless.
● However, just as a drop of red food colouring can make a glass of water turn
pink, minute traces of impurities can impart big differences in the colour of
some minerals.
● A number of different reasons why minerals have colour.
● Most relate to the behaviour of charges among ions within the mineral.
● An interesting case: Amethyst (Quartz with trace amounts of ferric iron
(Fe3+)). Irradiation knocks out an electron.
● This “yellow” range of wavelengths of white light is absorbed (so we see
wavelengths of purple, which is the complimentary colour on the colour
wheel).
Streak
● Another way of identifying some minerals is to powder them. We do this by
rubbing the mineral specimen against an unglazed porcelain plate called a
streak plate.
● Hematite (iron oxide) is a good example of a mineral that can be readily
identified by its streak colour.
● Different specimens of hematite can look completely different largely due of
variations crystal size (large crystals reflect light more readily than small
crystals). But all forms produce a reddish brown streak.
Other Useful Properties
● Magnetism: some minerals, such as magnetite are magnetic. A variety called
lodestone can strongly attract iron objects.
Reaction with acid
● some minerals will effervesce (fizz) when reacted with acid. Calcite is the only
mineral that effervesces strongly in acid.
Optical properties
● some minerals, such as calcite, will produce a double image when an object is
viewed through its crystals.
Smell, taste, and feel can also be useful in the identification of minerals.
Gemology
● Gemology: The study of gems.
● Most closely allied with mineralogy, drawing on chemistry, physics and
geology
● Physics and chemistry: physical, chemical, and optical properties of minerals
● Geology: provides clues to how the gem material formed and where to
prospect.
● Also involves gem testing and appraisal, cutting and polishing, synthetically
manufactured gems, precious metals and alloys, grading, marketing, and
sales.
What constitutes a gemstone?
● Gemstone: Collective term for all objects used with ornamental stones for
personal adornment.
● Gem: A gemstone that has been cut to accentuate its beauty (sometimes also
applied to pearls)
● Gemstones are basically divided into two main categories:
● Precious gemstones are characterized by great beauty, durability, stability,
large size and rarity.
● Semiprecious gemstones generally have only one or two of these qualities.
Gemstone Value
● Again, the value of most gemstones, precious or semiprecious, is based on
three general qualities:
○ Beauty
■ obviously subjective, and varies from person to person.
■ Beauty of a gem is usually based on one (or a combination of)
colour, lustre, transparency, or unusual optical properties.
○ Durability
■ Durability is the resistance of the gemstone damage and
dependent upon physical properties, such as hardness and
tenacity.
■ Hardness is judged on the resistance of a gem to scratching.
■ Tenacity is the resistance to bending and breaking.
■ Hardness is NOT the same as tenacity
■ Diamond is extremely hard (cannot be scratched by any other
mineral) it has a low tenacity due to its perfect cleavage (i.e. it
can actually be broken along any of 4 cleavage planes).
■ Conversely, while nephrite jade is relatively soft for a gem (can
even be scratched by dust in the air), it is composed of fibrous
crystals that resist breaking. Therefore, it has high tenacity.
○ Stability
■ Stability usually refers to the gem’s resistance to destruction by
chemical factors.
■ A mineral such as calcite, that dissolves readily in acid renders it
useless as a gemstone!
■ Stability can also refer to how well a gemstone retains its colour
Other factors that influence gemstone value
● A number of additional factors will influence the value of a gemstone. The
three most significant ones are:
○ Weight
■ A gem’s value is also dependent on its weight.
■ The carat (ct) is the standard unit of weight used in the pricing
of gemstones.
■ 1 carat is equivalent to 0.2 grams.
■ Due to differences in the density/specific gravity of different
gems, carat weight can be misleading.
■ For example, a one-carat sapphire is much smaller than a
one-carat opal.
■ A one-carat diamond is smaller than a one-carat sapphire.
■ When looking for a setting for a particular gemstone, the gem’s
dimensions in millimetres should be used, not the carat weight.
○ Rarity
■ The rarity of certain gemstones will greatly influence their
market value.
■ The rarity of particular gemstones reflects the uniqueness of the
natural geological processes that form them (just the right
ingredients and just the right physical conditions).
■ Rare gemstones tend to command a higher price than more
common ones.
■ However, when new discoveries introduce more gemstones of a
particular variety to the global market, the market price will tend
to decrease for that variety.
■ Carat weight can also factor into the rarity
○ Demand
■ Value of certain gemstones fluctuate with trends in fashion.
■ Dark red garnets (called pyrope [“fiery”] garnet) from Bohemia
became very popular in Victorian times.
■ Buyers willing to pay high prices to own them.
■ After fad waned, the market price for these garnets fell
dramatically.
■ Turquoise jewellery was popular in the early 20th century.
■ Went out of fashion, then experienced a resurgence in popularity
in the late 20th century when Tex-Mex fad swept the U.S. in the
late 1980s and early 1990s
Cutting and Polishing
● Gemstones are cut and polished to accentuate their natural beauty.
● Keep in mind that “cut” accounts for some part of the value of most gemstones
(typically higher for diamonds)
● This is where the skill of experienced cutters are important (not all types of
cuts are suitable for a particular gemstone)
● Three basic cuts are used:
○ Cabochon
■ Simple round- to oval-shaped dome.
■ Used principally in translucent (clouded) and opaque gemstones
with bold colours and intermediate hardness.
■ Common gemstones cut into cabochons are turquoise and opal.
○ Brilliant cut
■ Accentuates a gemstone’s ability to transmit, reflect and disperse
light.
■ Principally developed for diamonds (but used for other
gemstones as well).
■ The round brilliant cut commonly seen in cut diamonds can
have up to 59 facets that are carefully angled to highlight a
stone’s brilliance and light disperson (“fire”).
■ Also takes advantage of diamond’s four cleavage directions
planes, yielding the largest number of cut stones from a given
sample.
○ Step (Trap) Cut
■ Step cut has a broad table-like facet with smaller and longer
rectangular facets around its edges
■ Main facet can range in shape (but typically rectangular or
diamond-shaped)
■ This type of cut emphasizes the colour of stones with a low
degree of light dispersion (“fire”)
■ A special type of step cut is the emerald cut.
■ Developed to reduce edge damage of emeralds and other brittle
gems.
■ Is also sometimes preferred for flattish specimens of diamonds
(to economize on the total amount of diamond present in a
natural specimen)
● But many variations on these basic types of cuts.

● Just as organisms are classified into groups according to shared
characteristics, rocks can be divided into categories
○ Igneous
■ The term “igneous” is derived from the Latin ignis = “fire”
■ As indicated by their name, igneous rocks are formed from hot
material.
■ The hot, molten, parent material of igneous rocks is called
magma.
■ Magma, in its simplest form, contains:
● A liquid component (called “melt” ).
● Gases (called “volatiles” ), including water vapour and
carbon dioxide.
● Most magma is generated by the partial mantle.
■ Temperature and pressure increase with depth in Earth’s
lithosphere.
■ Increased temperature acts to melt rock (atoms pushed further
apart toward a liquid)
■ Increased pressure acts to drive the material toward a solid state
(atoms pushed together into a solid)
■ Pressure counteracts melting effect of increasing temperature.
■ So how can rocks be melted ?
■ In places where hot, near-liquid, material of the asthenosphere
is allowed to rise toward the surface, the pressure acting on this
material is lowered.
■ This material, still very hot, but is under less pressure.
■ Reduction of pressure on allows the material to be completely
molten into magma.
■ This magma-forming mechanism occurs in places where
lithospheric plates are moving apart.
■ In some places on Earth, one lithospheric plate is pushed under
another.
■ This process is called subduction.
■ Note that the crust underlying the oceans (oceanic crust)
contains lots of water.
■ As the plate descends, it is heated, and releases the water in the
form of vapour. The vapour therefore hydrates the rock in the
asthenosphere.
■ Water vapour lowers the melting point of rock, allowing it to
melt into magma.
■ In this way, “wet” rocks tend to melt at lower temperatures than
“dry” rocks
■ Magma, now a mixture of liquid melt and gas, is less dense than
the rock from which is was derived.
■ The magma rises and can collect in large pockets called “magma
chambers.”
■ Magma can remain trapped in a magma chamber (or in smaller
associated bodies), or can escape to the surface and erupt from
volcanoes.
■ Now closer to the surface than before, the magma starts to cool,
allowing minerals to crystallize from the chemical components
of the melt.
■ If magma remains trapped in a magma chamber, it cools very
slowly, allowing the crystals to grow to large sizes.
■ Rocks that form from the cooling of magma below the surface
are commonly called plutonic igneous rocks (named after Pluto,
Roman god of the underworld).
■ Because they are formed from magma intruded into pre-existing
rocks of the crust, they are also called intrusive igneous rocks.
■ Depending on the characteristics of the rocks into which magma
is intruded, intrusive bodies can assume different shapes and
sizes
■ Batholith: Very large mass of igneous rock formed from cooling
of a major magma chamber
■ Dyke: A tabular-shaped igneous body oriented at a significant
angle to layers of pre-existing rocks.
■ Sill: A tabular-shaped igneous body intruded parallel to layers of
pre-existing rocks.
■ Laccolith: A blister-like igneous body intruded parallel to layers
of pre-existing rocks (but involving some upwarping of overlying
layers)
■ Volcanic neck: The remnant of igneous material that once
occupied the vent of a volcano
■ Because intrusive igneous rocks cool below Earth’s surface,
mineral crystals have ample time to grow.
■ As a result, the mineral crystals of intrusive igneous rocks are
large enough to be observed with the unaided eye.
■ The result is what is termed a phaneritic texture.
■ (phaner = visible)
■ Magma that escapes a magma chamber and reaches Earth’s
surface can erupt from a volcanic centre. The extruded material
is called lava.
■ Lava is extruded from a volcanic vent due to the expansion of
volatiles (gases) as they escape to the surface in response to a
decrease in pressure (similar to what happens when you open a
pop bottle than has been shaken).
■ Lava is not exactly the same as magma (has lost much of the
gases).
■ In some cases, a magma can cool slowly underground in its early
stages, but can then travel rapidly toward the surface where it
can cool at a faster rate.
■ This two-stage cooling can result in an essentially aphanitic rock
(from quick cooling phase), but contains a few large crystals
called phenocrysts (from slow cooling phase)
■ The resulting texture is called a porphyritic texture.
■ In some instances, lava solidifies too quickly for any significant
crystallization to occur.
■ Unordered ions remain essentially “frozen” before they can unite
to form crystals.
■ The result is a glassy texture.
■ Obsidian is a common rock exhibiting such a texture
■ Lava is not the only material produced by volcanoes.
■ Eruptions that are exceptionally violent can eject dust-sized
particles (ash) to fist- or even car-sized bodies (bombs).
■ These particles include blobs of molten material and pulverized
bits of rock.
■ Rocks composed of this fragmented material are said to have a
pyroclastic texture
■ (pyro= fire, klastos= broken)
■ Most igneous rocks are principally made of silicate minerals
(with others in smaller quantities).
■ All silicate minerals contain silica.
■ Among the most important silicate minerals used in the
identification of igneous rocks are the ferromagnesian minerals.
■ Ferromagnesian minerals are those silicate minerals containing
iron (indicated by the “ferro” part of the name) and magnesium
(indicated by the “magnesian” part of the name). Due to their
iron/magnesium content, they are dark in colour (green, brown
or black).
■ Silica may occur as individual tetrahedra or multiple tetrahedra
linked into chains or sheets, forming “structural units” of silica.
■ Internally strong silica “units” are ionically bonded with metal
ions (mainly iron and magnesium). Planes of weakness are
planes of ionic bonding (ionic bonds are weaker than covalent
bonds).
■ Due to variation in the arrangement of ionic bonds and packing
arrangement of silica units, different ferromagnesian mineral
vary in cleavage and fracture.
■ Quartz, the second most common mineral type in igneous rocks,
is the only common silicate mineral consisting entirely of silicon
and oxygen.
■ Because of the complete sharing of oxygen by adjacent silicon
atoms, all of the bonds in quartz are equally strong. As a
consequence, quartz does not have cleavage and generally shows
a conchoidal fracture. Pure quartz is clear and colourless.
■ Feldspar is the most common mineral group, forming under a
very wide range of temperatures and pressures.
● Like quartz, the structure of feldspar minerals is a three
dimensional framework of silica, but also contains very
light metals that include sodium (Na), calcium (Ca) or
potassium
● Bonds are less uniform in strength than in quartz.
● Cleavage planes mark planes along which bonding is
weakest (2 directions of cleavage at 900)
● The two most common types of feldspar are plagioclase
and potassium feldspar:
● Plagioclase contains ions of sodium and calcium. Colour
ranges from white to bluish grey.
● Potassium feldspar, contain ions of potassium. Colour
ranges from creamy white to salmon pink.
● Both minerals have two directions of cleavage meeting at
90o, reflecting the same pattern of bonding weakness
within the crystal structure of the feldspar mineral group.
■ Different minerals crystallize at different temperatures. Thus, as
a magma cools, minerals crystallize in a distinct sequence
(expressed as Bowen’s Reaction Series).
■ The ferromagnesium minerals remain distinct in terms of their
composition at different temperatures. Thus they crystallize in a
discontinuous sequence.
■ Plagioclase changes gradually in composition with changing
temperature. Thus, plagioclase crystallizes in a continuous
sequence.
■ In contrast, magmas generated by decompression melting of the
mantle (in places where plates are spreading apart) are
produced by the melting of both low and high temperature
minerals, and therefore have a more mafic composition (i.e. the
magma contains silica, but also a large amount of iron and
magnesium).
■ Not all magmas have the same composition. This is partly
because of differences in their environment of formation.
■ Magmas produced by hydration tend to be formed at lower
temperatures than those produced by decompression melting.
■ Under relatively low temperatures, low-temperature felsic
minerals are preferentially melted, enriching the magma in
silica. As a result, magmas produced at subduction zones tend to
be felsic to intermediate in composition.
■ Why are they so durable?
● Interlocking crystals
● Hardness
● Scratch resistant
● Uniform structure
○ Sedimentary
■ Formation
● Three kinds of sediment:
○ Clastic sediment - consisting of particles derived
from pre-existing rocks (e.g. sand)
○ Chemical sediment - consisting of mineral matter
precipitated from a solution (e.g. salt)
○ Biochemical sediment- consisting of materials
produced by organisms (e.g. shells, bone, teeth,
leaves, wood, etc.)
■ Sources of Clastic sediment: Weathering Rocks
● Mechanical/physical weathering: the physical breakup of
rocks and minerals without changes in their composition.
● Accomplished mainly by physical agents (e.g. water, wind
and ice), but aided by biological factors (e.g. widening of
cracks in bedrock by tree roots).
● Chemical weathering: breakdown of minerals due to
chemical reaction of minerals with water or gases in the
air.
● Mechanical weathering basically serves to break rock into
smaller particles.
● In areas where the degree of chemical weathering is very
low (e.g. in cold, dry, regions of the Canadian Arctic),
clastic sediment can consist almost entirely of small
fragments of rock with no change in mineral makeup.
● Some minerals are more susceptible to weathering than
others.
● For minerals in igneous rocks, resistance to weathering
basically follows the same trend of same trend as the
order of crystallization in Bowen’s Reaction Series.
● This is because high-temperature minerals are less stable
at Earth’s surface than low-temperature minerals.
● Note that Earth’s surface is a lot cooler than the
environments in which minerals form from magma;
low-temperature minerals are most stable at Earth’s
surface.
● Note that olivine (crystallized at high temperature) will
tend to weather more readily than quartz (crystallized at
low temperature). It is for this reason that quartz is very
abundant in sedimentary rocks, whereas olivine is very
rare.
● Chemical weathering is most intense in warm, humid
climates (e.g. tropical rainforests).
● Chemical weathering produces a number of solid
products (minerals) and free ions.
● The primary mineral products of weathering are quartz
and clay – these products form the bulk of sedimentary
particles. Iron oxides (hematite) can also be left behind as
residue.
● The remaining material is dissolved in water, in the form
of ions.
● Dissolved ions are transported in river water to the sea
(more on this later)
■ Transportation
● Once dislodged (eroded), sedimentary particles can be
transported away from their source area by:
○ Gravity
○ Water
○ Wind
○ Ice
● Sedimentary particles ultimately come to rest once the
transporting medium can no longer carry them.
● As a general rule, smaller/lighter particles are deposited
in less-agitated conditions than larger/heavier particles
when transported by wind or water. Sedimentary
particles can therefore experience some degree of sorting.
Beach sand tends to be well-sorted and rounded, due to
constant wave action.
● Sedimentary particles transported and deposited rapidly
by events such as mudflows tend be angular and poorly
sorted.
■ Depositional Environments
● Clastic sediments can be deposited in a wide variety of
settings.
● Characteristics of clastic sedimentary rocks can provide
information on where their constituent sediments were
originally deposited.
■ Lithification
● After sediment is deposited, it undergoes changes into
rock.
○ Lithification (lithos = stone)
● Compaction: As sediment layers are buried, particles
(clasts) squeezed together (as the spaces between them
get smaller The material thus becomes more rock-like.
● Cementation: Minerals precipitate from water in pore
spaces between grains (clasts). Grains “glued” together,
making sediment more rock-like
■ Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Evaporates
● Due to evaporation, dissolved ions can become too
concentrated for the water to hold, so positive and
negative ions join together and precipitate as minerals.
● Evaporite deposits accumulate in basins isolated from
main sea
● seawater flows into basin, becomes concentrated in
dissolved ions and sinks.
● The saltier water cannot escape back to the ocean, and
becomes further concentrated to the point that “evaporite
minerals” are deposited.
■ Biogenic/Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
● Two common rocks that are formed from biogenic
sediment are fossiliferous limestone, chert, and coal.
● Fossiliferous limestone is composed almost entirely of
calcite shells (skeletons) of organisms. In many cases,
the identity of the former owners of skeletal material can
be identified.
● A familiar rock that, in a loose sense, can also be
considered a variety of fossiliferous limestone is chalk,
which is made of microscopic skeletons of algae.
■ Uses
● Much of the exterior stone in the older buildings on the
Western campus is made of hard “Whirlpool Sandstone”
quarried close to Georgetown, Ontario
● The exterior stone of the Visual Arts building on the
Western campus is a highly decorative type of limestone
called Tyndall Stone quarried in Manitoba
● The exterior windowsills are made of laminated “Eramosa
Limestone” (actually dolostone) quarried in Wiarton.
● Dark concentric ring-like features visible in slabs cut
horizontally (slices through dome-like hummocks of fossil
“microbial mats” made by bacteria).
● Slabs of “Eramosa Limestone” (dolostone) also commonly
used as flagstones for walkways.
● Takes advantage of laminated structure of the stone
(splits easily along laminations)
○ Metamorphic
■ Formed
● Formed by the transformation of pre-existing rocks under
the influence of high temperatures and pressures and
chemically active fluids
● Contact metamorphism: Pre-existing rock is “baked”
under relatively low pressures.
● Commonly occurs when rock is heated by igneous
intrusion, forming a metamorphic halo or “aureole” in the
adjacent rock – generally local in extent.
● Regional metamorphism: Pre-existing rock subjected to
heat and pressure on a regional scale.
■ Types
● Contact metamorphism: Heat, uniform pressure.
● Regional metamorphism: Heat, differential pressure
● Metasomatism: Chemically active fluids.
● Parent Rock (original rock before metamorphism)
■ Follation
● In contact metamorphism, pressure is uniform (so, grains
of platy minerals such as mica, and elongate minerals
such as pyroxene and amphibole retain a random
orientation).
● Regional metamorphism generally occurs in areas where
two lithospheric plates are pressing against one another,
and rocks are subjected to differential stress.
● In response to this stress, platy/elongate minerals line up
to produce a foliated texture (folium = leaf)
● Rocks containing platy/elongate minerals that subjected
to regional metamorphism (and therefore) affected by
differential pressure are typically foliated.
● Increasing intensity of metamorphism (“metamorphic
grade”) results in increased size of mineral grains, and the
development of different types of foliation.
● With increasing metamorphism, shale transforms
sequentially into four metamorphic rocks.
● Shale > Slate > Phyllite > Schist > Gneiss
● Foliation more noticeable due to increase in degree of
● preferential alignment and size of platy/elongate grains
● Foliated rocks tend to be used for architectural purposes
such as slate roofing and walkway tiles (slate and phyllite
durable, easily split into sheets of relatively even
thickness).
■ Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
● Some metamorphic rocks, can have a non-foliated texture
if it has undergone contact metamorphism.
● If present, platy/elongate crystals will be randomly
oriented due to uniform pressure.
● Some metamorphic rocks (whether formed by contact or
regional metamorphism always have a non-foliated
texture). This is because they lack platy/elongate minerals
(e.g., mica) required to define foliation.
● Neither marble (composed of calcite) nor quartzite
(composed of quartz) contains minerals that form
platy/elongate crystals.
● Mineral grains grow in size and form an interlocking
texture. Fossils once present in the original sedimentary
rock are obliterated due to this recrystallization
● Non-foliated metamorphic rock marble is commonly used
in sculptures due to low hardness (calcite has hardness of
3) and uniform texture.
■ Metasomatism
● occurs when fluids (generally water or carbon dioxide)
react with a pre-existing rock and alter the chemical
composition of minerals within the rock. In some cases,
the fluid itself is involved. In others, substances dissolved
in the fluid are involved.
Unicorn
● Scientist, Otto von Geuricke, convinced of the existence of unicorns,
attempted to assemble a skeleton from these bones
●
Griffon
● The Griffon, one of the oldest mythical creatures, has existed for at least 5,000
years in human culture.
● Main features: the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle (complete
with a beak)
● According to Greek legend, the griffin’s nests were made of gold, a substance
that the griffin fiercely guarded.
● The griffin is also said to have laid stone eggs
● The griffon’s image is also geographically widespread.
● The griffin is featured in artifacts from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and
India, is commonly represented in gargoyles, and is a popular image in coats
of arms.
● Note that even today, the griffin is a prominent symbol of courage, strength
and wisdom (e.g. think about the Harry Potter books and movies).
The supposed occurrence of gold in griffin nests may too be related to geologic
factors.
● The sand grains composing the sandstone in which dinosaur remains are
found were probably derived from the weathering and erosion of underlying
sedimentary rocks (some of which are known to contain gold).
● 3. In desert areas, erosion is concentrated in the low, unvegetated, areas
between sand dunes. Through the sorting action of wind, light sedimentary
particles (e.g. quartz grains) are preferentially blown away, while heavy
sedimentary particles (e.g. large pebbles, gold grains, are left behind.
IN SHORT
● Protoceratops (and/or Oviraptor) remains
● Nests containing fossilized dinosaur eggs
● Gold concentrations in dinosaur nest areas
● Lots of imagination
● = Griffin myth
Western Asia
● Although the Greeks claimed that the Griffin generally resided in India, gold
artifacts (decorated with Griffins) excavated in the 1940s by Soviet
archeologist Sergei Rudenko suggest that the idea of the Griffin probably
originated in western Asia (probably in the Gobi desert region).
● This region is well-known for its well-preserved dinosaur fauna. One of the
most common types of dinosaur found is the herbivorous dinosaur
Protoceratops.
○ Protoceratops features:
○ Compact skull with a strong beak (used for snipping vegetation), and
delicate frill with a lower chance of being preserved than the rest of the
skull.
○ A squat body with a long tail and four legs (so might be deemed similar
to a lion, although it was a reptile).
○ Long shoulder blades (which could be misinterpreted as the bases of
wings).
○ Also found in the dinosaur-bearing sandstones of the Gobi desert are
dinosaur nests, some containing fossil eggs.
○ Are the fossil dinosaur eggs the “stone eggs” of the griffin ?
○ It was assumed that all of the nests were made by Protoceratops.
○ Later investigations indicated that at least some nests were made by the
carnivorous dinosaur Oviraptor (containing unhatched Oviraptor
babies).
○ One such nest preserves the skeleton of an adult Oviraptor fossilized in
the act of protecting its nest.
○ The direct association of Oviraptor with fossil eggs might suggest that it
was the remains of Oviraptor, not Protoceratops that spawned the
griffin myth.
○ Note that Oviraptor too had a beak-like snout and a long tail.
○ However…Oviraptor was bipedal (walked on two long back legs), not
quadripedal, so Protoceratops remains a contender.
○ Another possibility: The griffin myth was fabricated from findings of
the remains of both Protoceratops and Oviraptor.
○ The direct association of Oviraptor with fossil eggs might suggest that it
was the remains of Oviraptor, not Protoceratops that spawned the
griffin myth.
○ Note that Oviraptor too had a beak-like snout and a long tail.
○ However…Oviraptor was bipedal (walked on two long back legs), not
quadripedal, so Protoceratops remains a contender.
○ Another possibility: The griffin myth was fabricated from findings of
the remains of both Protoceratops and Oviraptor.
Cyclops
● The cyclops is another mythical beast that may be rooted in a grain of truth.
● Homer’s famous tale of the adventures of Odysseus features a band of
one-eyed giants called the Cyclops (plural: Cyclopes).
● While searching for supplies on an island (thought to be Crete), several men
are captured and eaten by one of the Cyclopes (Polyphemus).
● The survivors escape by getting the monster drunk and blinding it.
● Very possible that the Cyclops myth is based on fossil remains of an extinct
relative of the modern elephants.
● Remains of extinct dwarf elephants that lived throughout the Mediterranean
during the time of the last Ice Age can be found on several islands.
Deinotherium
● Remains of larger ancient mammals called deinotheres are widespread
throughout Europe, Asia and Africa, preserved in rocks ranging in age from
1.8 to 23 million years old.
● This animal was 4.5 metres tall at the shoulder and unlike modern elephants
possessed two tusks in its lower jaw.
● But more significant to this discussion is the very large nasal opening in the
centre of the skull (typical of all elephants, both modern and ancient).
● It would be very easy for a person to misinterpret the nasal opening as a single
eye orbit.
● IN SHORT
○ Remains of a huge, bulky creature (extinct elephant relatives)
○ …with a very big hole in the centre of its head
○ …on the Island of Crete
○ …some imagination
○ …suggests a very strong connection to the Cyclops myth, don’t you
think
The processes of fossil preservation
● are very finicky!
● Less than 5% of all remains of all living things make it into the fossil record
(and most of what actually is preserved is hard tissue)!
● To fossilize any evidence of past life requires exceptional conditions (which
involves a lot of luck)!
● Fungi and bacteria break down dead organic matter further at the cellular and
molecular level.
● Physical weathering mechanically breaks down hard, mineralized tissues (e.g.
shells, bone, teeth)
● Mineralized tissues also tend to dissolve (via chemical weathering), and erode,
if exposed at the surface.
● As a general rule, hardparts (shells, bones, teeth, etc.) have a greater chance of
survival in the fossil record than do soft tissues (e.g. skin, muscle).
● This is because hardparts are more robust, more stable (in a chemical sense)
and are more resistant to destruction overall.
Hardparts
● This is because:
● Soft tissue decay removes the connective tissue that holds the hard parts
together
● So even gentle physical disturbance leads to:
● Disarticulation: Dissociation of hard parts
● Fragmentation: Breakage and dissociation of fragments thus formed
● In some cases, the orientations of fossil remains can indicate aspects of the
environment in which they were deposited.
● Hardparts that do survive would be subject to
○ Dissolution: Dissolution of minerals in hardparts.
○ Abrasion: Erosion of hard tissues due to “sandblasting” effects of
suspended sediment particles and rubbing against sediment particles
What makes these objects beautiful?
● Aesthetic beauty lies in:
○ Chambered appearance of fossils
○ Natural alignment of the fossils.
○ The contrast of the light-coloured calcite crystals infilling the chambers
against dark matrix
○ Contrast in texture (fossils polished, matrix rough).
Unaltered/Actual Remains
● Skeletal remains composed of stable minerals (e.g. calcite or silica) can be
preserved without significant change in chemical makeup or internal
structure.
● Hardparts (mineralized skeletal components such as shells, teeth and bones)
are more likely to be preserved close to their original state because they are
less prone to breakdown.
● …However, under rare circumstances, soft tissues can also be preserved
without significant alteration
Four main types of alteration processes are
● More often than not, fossil remains are physically and/or chemically altered in
some way.
Recrystallization - Although some hardparts can be preserved with
little change, most experience at least some degree of recrystallization
after burial (crystals tend to increase in size due to the higher
temperatures encountered below Earth’s surface)
Petrifaction/Permineralization - Occurs when mineral matter fills
small pores of the remains of an organism
Replacement- Sometimes, organic matter or minerals of an organism
are replaced by different mineral substances. This replacement occurs
at a microscopic level.
○ Depending on the chemistry of sediment porewaters within sediment, a
number of minerals can replace the original material.
○ Calcite shells are commonly replaced by silica (silicon dioxide), pyrite
(iron sulphide) or apatite (calcium phosphate).
Carbonization
○ Carbon-rich remains such as plant matter is lightly heated when
buried.
○ During this low-grade cooking, elements such as oxygen are released,
while carbon is left behind.
○ As a result, the remains are enriched in carbon.
○ Coal is basically fossilized organic sludge that accumulates in swamps.
Molds
●
Internal External
Casts
● Formed when an external mould is infilled by sediment or precipitated
minerals. It appears as a replica of the original buried object.
● In this case, the sediment surrounding a tree trunk hardened to hold its shape
after the tree trunk completely decayed.
● Sediment later washed into the hole (the external mould), producing a natural
cast of sandstone.
Chapter 4- Slideshow 3
Body V Trace fossils
● Thus far, we have concentrated on the remains of organisms. As these
fossilized remains represent body tissue, we call them body fossils.
● But body fossils aren’t the only types of fossils that we have to work with.
● We also find trace fossils.
● Trace fossils record the activities of ancient organisms.
● Whereas body fossils tell us things about the anatomy of organisms, trace
fossils provide evidence of behaviour.
● The study of trace fossils is called ichnology (from Greek ikhnos, meaning
track)
Shapes in Nature
● There are a few fundamental shapes and patterns of shapes that elements that
appear in many different organisms, both living and fossil
○ 1. The planispiral
○ 2. The helix
○ 3. The hexagon
○ 4. Fractals - a geometrical shape or pattern made up of identical parts,
which are in turn similar to the overall pattern.
Chapter 5 slideshow 1
Evidence of Earths Past
● The overwhelming majority of Earth’s history is recorded in rocks.
● Note that written human history only extends back about 5,000 years.
Geologic materials record 4.6 billion years of history !
● Two concepts of time are used in geology:
○ Relative time: based on the relative timing of geological events (i.e. the
order in which events occurred).
○ Absolute time: the determination of age in years before present, based
on the decay of radioactive isotopes.
Relative time
● All events occur in a sequence.
● For example, on an average day, most people:
○ Go to sleep at night
○ Eat supper late in the day
○ Eat lunch at about mid-day
○ Eat breakfast in the morning
○ Wake up in the morning
● Try to think about the order of events with the “earliest event” at the bottom of
the list and the “latest event” at the top.
Original Horizontality
● Sediments and some bodies of extrusive igneous rocks (e.g. lava flows) are
deposited as horizontal layers or strata.
● Based on this principle, the law of original horizontality states that strata are
laid down horizontally.
● This is important because if strata are not horizontal, it means that they were
disturbed later by tectonic forces.
Superposition
● In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, and/or extrusive igneous
rocks, we can assume that younger rocks sequentially overlie older rocks.
● Based on this principle, the law of superposition states that in any sequence of
layered rocks, a given stratum must be older than any stratum on top of it.
Fossil Succession
● Evolution is an irreversible processes. Thus, individual fossil species
represent finite periods of time and occur in a specific sequence.
● The law of fossil succession states that fossils occur in a consistent vertical
order in sedimentary rocks all over the world. Thus the relative age of “slices”
of time represented in rocks can be determined from the fossil content of
rocks.
Cross-Cutting Relationships
● Geologic features such as faults (cracks along which movement has occurred)
and igneous intrusions are cut into pre-existing rock bodies.
● Based on this principle, the law of cross-cutting relationships states that a
fault or intrusive igneous body must be younger than the rock through which
it has cut.
Inclusions
● In the process of intrusion, magma can dislodge fragments of surrounding
rock, which can become incorporated into an igneous rock body.
● Likewise, eroded fragments of rock can be incorporated into later-deposited
sedimentary strata.
● Dislodged fragments of rock that are incorporated into younger rocks called
inclusions.
Law of Inclusions
● The law of inclusions states that if a rock body (Rock B) contains fragments of
another rock body (Rock A), it must be younger than the fragments of rock it
contains; Rock A must have been there first to provide the fragments.
Missing Time
● The rate of sediment deposition is not uniform through time.
● Significant pauses in sediment deposition may occur, or in extreme cases, rock
can be removed by erosion.
● Under these circumstances, “time” (in the form of rock) goes missing.
● The amount of missing time in a given succession of strata (layered
sedimentary or extrusive igneous rocks) may range from mere years to billions
of years (e.g. the amount of time missing between the deposition of the
youngest sedimentary rocks in London and overlying glacial sediments is
about 375 million years!)
● If deposition resumes after the interruption, a distinct (and often irregular),
surface is produced.
● A geological surface separating older from younger rocks and representing a
significant gap in the geological record is called an unconformity.
● Note that erosion generally takes place when land is uplifted (erosion is the
generally takes place in high areas, whereas deposition generally takes place in
low areas)
Unconformities
● Unconformities can be identified by sharp contrasts in rock type or
orientation of strata above and below them.
● Three main types of unconformities are recognized:
● Nonconformity – an unconformity that separates underlying metamorphic or
igneous rocks from overlying horizontal sedimentary strata.
● Disconformity – an unconformity that separates underlying horizontal
sedimentary rocks from overlying horizontal sedimentary rocks.
Isotopes
● To determine the absolute age of a rock body in years, we use the “clocks”
provided by atoms of elements contained in minerals.
● Remember that atoms of a specific element will always have a specific number
of protons (with an equal number of electrons to balance the charge).
● However, the number of neutrons can vary. This means that the atomic
weight can vary.
● Atoms of the same element with differing atomic weights are called isotopes.
● Certain isotopes (we will call these parent isotopes) will lose (or sometimes
gain) particles in its nucleus to form an isotopes of a new elements (daughter
isotopes), releasing energy in the process.
● This process is called radioactive decay.
Radiometric Dating: The Basic Idea
● As more and more atoms of a parent substance decay in a sample, more and
more daughter atoms are produced and accumulate.
● Therefore the relative ratio of daughter atoms to parent atoms is proportional
to the amount of time elapsed since decay began.
● The higher the proportion of daughter atoms to parent atoms, the older the
sample.
Rate of radioactive decay
● Rates of decay are commonly expressed in terms of half-life.
● Half life is the time required for half of the atoms in a sample to decay to
daughter atoms
● If parent:daughter ratio is 1:1 (1/2 parent left), one half-life has passed
● If parent:daughter ratio is 1:3 (1/4 parent left) two half-lives have passed
● If parent:daughter ratio is 1:7 (1/8 parent left) three half-lives have passed
● If parent:daughter ratio is 1:15 (1/16 parent left) four half-lives have passed
Datable Materials
● The ratio of Potassium-40 (parent isotope) to Argon-40 (daughter isotope) is
proportional to the time elapsed since the potassium-bearing minerals
crystallized.
● The larger the amount of Argon-40, relative to Potassium-40, the older the
sample.
● Note that a number of different materials and igneous bodies can contain
potassium-bearing minerals
Dating sedimentary strata
● Very ancient clastic sedimentary strata cannot be dated directly by
potassium-argon method.
● However, igneous bodies that have intruded into strata, or extrusive igneous
rocks that are inter-layered with sedimentary strata, can provide absolute
dates.
● Igneous materials can therefore be used to define brackets of time for
packages of sedimentary strata.
● Likewise, this bracketing technique can be used to estimate the age of fossils
contained in the strata.
The Geologic Time Scale
● Based on the principles covered thus far in the lecture, geologists have
constructed a “master timetable” for the Earth. This is called the geologic
time scale.
● The geological time scale was born from concepts of relative time (the relative
ordering of events), with an emphasis on time slices represented by distinctive
fossil forms.
● With the development of precise dating techniques (using radioactive
isotopes) came a basis for assigning absolute dates to boundaries of these time
slices.
Importance of the Geologic Time Scale
● Provides a framework for the timing of geological events
● Makes scientific communication more efficient (each time slice is given a
name)
● Comprises a hierarchy of time units (so that time can be expressed in both
large and small units).
How geologic time is divided
● Eon – the greatest expanse of time
● Era – subdivision of Eon
● Period – subdivision of Era
● Epoch – subdivision of Period
●
Chapter 5, Slideshow 2
The Dynamic Earth
● Earth is a very dynamic planet, both externally and internally (although all
geological processes that we can actually observe are at the surface).
● It is due to this dynamic nature of Earth that the three rock classes (Igneous,
Sedimentary and Metamorphic) exist at all!
● At the same time, it is important to note that the Earth is also the ultimate
recycler – any of the three rock classes can be changed into the other rock
classes.
● The cycle of rock recycling is called the ROCK CYCLE.
Heat Plumes and Convection
● Heat flow within the Earth is not uniform.
● Also all the material in the mesosphere (lower part of the mantle) can flow to
some degree (even though it is solid).
● Hot material flows upward in plumes, whereas cold material flows downward
Convection Cells
● This produces huge convection currents in the mesosphere. This process is
crucial in the delivery of heat to shallower layers of the Earth.
Asthenosphere and Lithosphere
● Of all the material in the mantle, the asthenosphere flows most readily. It is
possible that asthenosphere has smaller convection cells within the
larger-scale convection patterns of the mantle as a whole.
● Remember that the asthenosphere is not quite a liquid, but flows like a liquid
over long periods of time.
● Floating on the near-liquid asthenosphere is the lithosphere, which is hard
and brittle.
● Remember the lithosphere comprises both the uppermost, brittle part of the
mantle (lithospheric mantle) and the crust.
● Boundary between the crust and mantle called the Mohorovicic discontinuity
(“Moho” for short)
● The lithosphere is not a continuous sheet, but rather, is broken into plates
Convection Model
● One might visualize plate movement being controlled by convection. Perhaps
convection currents in the asthenosphere drag the scum (lithospheric) plates
along ?
Ridge-Push Model
● Alternatively, perhaps plates are actively pushed from sites of spreading as
liquid soup (magma) is injected and plates slide down flanks of mid-ocean
ridges under the influence of gravity.
● Note that a ridge is formed at the site of spreading because the newly
solifidied material is still warm and floats higher than older, cooler solid
material further away from the site of spreading…hence the term “ridge-push”
Slab-Pull Model
● As a lithospheric plate cools, it thickens a bit, but more importantly, increases
greatly in density
● This would cause the old, outer edge of a plate to sink.
● In effect, the slab of scum (lithosphere) could be pulled by the sinking, leading
edge of the plate (which is subducted when it meets an adjacent slab). A
trench marks the area where the plate begins its descent beneath the adjacent
plate)
So Which Model is Correct ?
● At the present time, it is thought that the majority of plate movement is due to
slab-pull.
● It appears that the neither convection nor “ridge push” are strong enough on
their own to move entire plates.
● However, it is probable that convection and “ridge push” contribute to plate
movement to at least a minor degree (note that all models are compatible).
Types of Plate Boundaries
● Plate movement is manifested in two principal types of plate boundaries:
● 1. A divergent boundary is the boundary between two plates that are moving
apart (diverging). New lithosphere is formed at divergent boundaries via
seafloor spreading.
● 2. A convergent boundary is the boundary between two plates that are moving
toward one another (converging). Lithosphere is destroyed at convergent
boundaries via subduction.
Creation and Destruction of Lithosphere
● Features on the ocean floor show boundaries of divergence and convergence.
● Divergent boundaries are represented by mid-ocean ridges (e.g. East Pacific
Rise, Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
● Convergent boundaries are represented by trenches (e.g., Peru-Chile trench).
● Thus far, we have treated all lithosphere as being the same.
● The real world shows a minor complication.
● The lithosphere underlying the ocean differs slightly from the lithosphere
underlying the continents.
● This is why Earth has ocean basins and continents!
Oceanic lithosphere versus Continental Lithosphere
● The mantle part of the lithosphere (lithospheric mantle) is fairly uniform in
composition (ultramafic rock)
● However, the crustal part of the lithosphere varies in composition.
● Two types of crust are recognized:
● Oceanic crust (mafic crust which underlies the oceans).
● Continental crust (intermediate to felsic crust that underlies the continents).
Effect of Lithospheric Thickness
● The top of thick block of a buoyant material with stand higher than a thin
block of the same material. However, the proportion of the block standing
above and below the top surface of the material on which it is floating is
constant. This concept is termed ISOSTASY (“equal standing”)
● For example the top surface of thick block of wood stands higher above water
level than that of thin block of wood. However, the ratio of material above and
below water level is the same for a thick block and a thin block.
● Likewise, the great thickness of continental lithosphere allows it to stand very
high above the top surfaces of the asthenosphere. Oceanic lithosphere,
tending to be very thin, stands low.
Ocean basins and continents manifest the combined effects of density and isostasy.
● Because oceanic lithosphere is dense and thin, it floats low on the
asthenosphere, forming ocean basins.
● Because continental lithosphere is light and thick, it floats high on the
asthenosphere, forming high-standing landmasses.
Why does it matter that continental lithosphere is different from oceanic lithosphere
?
● Oceanic lithosphere is constantly formed and destroyed (by seafloor spreading
and subduction). Therefore, ocean basins are temporary features.
● Continental lithosphere is too buoyant to be destroyed by subduction – in
effect, plates of continental lithosphere “go along for the ride” as oceanic
lithosphere is created and destroyed. Therefore continents are permanent
features (although they can change configuration).
Divergent plate boundaries are where seafloor spreading occurs, producing new
oceanic lithosphere.
● Upper crust of oceanic lithosphere is made of the volcanic rock basalt
(aphanitic mafic rock, cooled at surface).
● Lower crust of oceanic lithosphere is made of the plutonic rock gabbro
(phaneritic mafic rock, cooled at depth)
Evolution of Ocean Basin
●
● Hot plume in mantle upwarps lithosphere of continent.
● Cracks develop (generally in a triple junction), forming rift valleys.
● Mafic magma is generated by decompression melting. Magma that cools at
depth forms gabbro of lower crust. Magma that cools at surface forms basalt.
● Two of the arms continue to spread, forming oceanic lithosphere of an ocean
basin. The remaining “failed arm” stops spreading and becomes filled with
sediment (Bay of Fundy basin represents one such failed arms of the Atlantic)
Early evidence of seafloor spreading
● Jigsaw puzzle fit of continents suggests the former existence of the
Supercontinent Pangaea (later determined to have existed in Permian Period)
● Fossils of land organisms (of Permian-Triassic periods) such as the lizard
Mesosaurus and the fern Glossopteris distributed over multiple continents:
how did they get from one continent to another ?
○ The linkage of fossil occurrences on different continents suggests that
continents were once connected (and then split apart when ocean
basins developed between them)
● Old mountains belts (Appalachians and Caledonides) now separated but if
continents are fit together, mountain chains form a continuous belt
○ Distribution of coal swamps and glacial ice sheets exactly where they
would be expected to be found
● Symmetrical pattern of normal and reverse polarities on either side of a
divergent boundary can only be explained if magnetic polarity fluctuates as
new crust is continually being formed.
● Linear arrangement and relative heights of hotspot volcanoes (volcanoes
produced by movement of plate over stationary magma plumes from mantle).
● Zones where lithospheric plates move toward one another and where oceanic
lithosphere is consumed back into the mantle.
○ This process ensures that the Earth retains a constant volume
(otherwise the Earth would be expanding- which we know isn’t
happening !)
●
● Evidence of Subduction
● Existence of ocean trenches (deepest areas of the ocean)
○ a trenches is the surface expression of a subduction zone where oceanic
lithosphere begins its descent
● 2. Explosive volcanoes (hydration melting produces thick, viscous
intermediate or felsic magma). Extrusive igneous rocks andesite or rhyolite
(and lots of pyroclastic materials). Intrusive rocks include diorite and granite.
● 3. Areas with most severe earthquakes (indicating severe compression and
subsequent release of energy)
● -focal points of earthquakes are deeper inboard of the trench. The slanted
zone marked by earthquake foci (called the Wadati-Benioff zone) indicates the
angle of descent of the subducted slab.
● 4. Rocks of oceanic origin found high and dry in the largest mountain ranges
Other geologic consequences of plate tectonics
● Clastic sediments are derived from wearing-down of mountains that
ultimately owe their existence to the uplift associated with the convergence of
plates.
● If a mountain chain is close to the sea a “clastic wedge” can form.
● Thick deposits of coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rocks grade into thinner
deposits of finer-grained clastic rocks toward the sea.
● Limestones and other carbonates dominate offshore (subtidal)
Other geologic consequences of plate tectonics
● Compression created by converging plates, together with heating of rock as
the crust is thickened and lowered downward produces regional
metamorphism (metamorphic grade increases with depth). This accompanies
the upward bulging of crust at the surface that forms mountains. Contact
metamorphism can also occur around chambers of magma generated by
hydration melting).
Another Minor Complication: Transform Plate Boundaries
● Zones where lithospheric plates move alongside one another. These are
basically “offsets” that form within moving plates. No oceanic lithosphere is
created or destroyed (sometimes called “strike-slip” boundaries)
● Most common in oceanic lithosphere of ocean basins (offset segments of
divergent plate boundaries)
● Sometimes occur in continental lithosphere (e.g. San Andreas fault)
● No magma is generated in this type of boundary
Implications of Plate Tectonics
● So…Oceanic lithosphere is constantly being created at divergent plate
boundaries, destroyed at convergent plate boundaries, and offset at transform
plate boundaries
● Again, oceans are temporary features.
● In the past 600 million years, Atlantic has opened, closed and reopened (we
are now witnessing only the latest opening event)
● Mechanical weathering: physical breakup or disintegration of material
(without changes in the composition of the material).
● Principal forms of mechanical weathering include:
Frost Wedging - Frost wedging. This occurs when liquid water
penetrates cracks within a rock and freezes.
○ Water expands when it converted to ice, widening the cracks.
○ With repeated cycles of water penetration and freezing, cracks get
increasingly large, ultimately resulting in the breakup of the material.
○ Cycling process is called “freeze-thaw weathering.”
Root Wedging- This occurs when roots of plants (e.g. trees) penetrate
into small cracks.
○ As the root increases in size, it increases the size of the crack until
pieces of the rock break apart
Unloading- This occurs when a plutonic igneous rock body (e.g. a
batholith) expands as overlying rock is removed by erosion.
○ Outer layers of the intrusion expand more than the rock below and
separate like layers of an onion (exfoliation).
○ Sheets of igneous rock “pop” off the surface as the body continues to
expand
Chemical weathering
● Chemical weathering: breakdown or decomposition of minerals due to
chemical reaction of minerals with water or gases in the air.
● Three main processes are responsible for chemical weathering:
○ Dissolution- Dissolution: The process in which a material is dissolved
in a liquid (e.g. salt in water).
■ Most minerals (with the exception of a few such as halite) are,
for practical purposes, insoluble in pure water,
■ However, the presence of acids in the natural environment
greatly increases the corrosive action of water.
■ For our purposes, we will think of an acidic solution as being a
solution containing lots of hydrogen ions (H+).
■ Acids are very reactive and are capable of breaking down most
minerals.
■ A mineral that is particularly prone to acid dissolution is calcite.
■ Dissolved hydrogen ions of the acid react with calcite in the
following way
○ Oxidation-
■ Oxidation, occurs when oxygen combines with another element
to form an oxide that can be subsequently removed by erosion.
In nature, iron is particularly prone to oxidation, forming the
mineral hematite (we call this rust).
■ Oxidation is an important process in the decomposition of mafic
(iron and magnesium rich) minerals. The rate of oxidation is
accelerated when water is present (as most car owners can
appreciate).
○ Hydrolysis
■ Hydrolysis occurs when minerals react with water to form other
products.
Mechanical and Chemical Weathering Work Hand-in-Hand

● Weathering processes are not mutually exclusive – work together to weaken
and break down rock.
● Mechanical weathering increases the amount of exposed surface that can be
acted upon by chemical weathering.
● As rocks are broken down into smaller and smaller fragments, the rate of
chemical weathering increases.
Differential Weathering and Erosion
● A logical extension of the surface area effect is that rocks generally show
differential weathering (i.e. they weather in a non-uniform manner).
● Weathering tends to be concentrated at intersections of fractures (e.g. joints
produced by stresses within the rock).
● Erosion preferentially removes material from the most-weathered areas,
leaving behind rounded edges.
Erosion
● Many different forms of erosion can be observed on Earth.
● Four major erosional agents are:
○ Liquid water
■ Liquid water is one of Earth’s most potent agents of erosion
because:
● It can transport dissolved substances released by
chemical weathering.
● Flowing water (as generated by the interaction of waves
and currents with underlying rock) can loosen and pluck
particles (process of scouring).
● These particles, in turn, can impact underlying rock and
abrade it.
○ Wind
■ Differential weathering and the gentle scouring of grains
loosened by weathering has resulted in a “billowy” appearance in
this jointed granite (Joshua Tree National Monument,
California)
■ Material locally weathered along joints by hydrolysis and
oxidation has been gently removed by water.
■ Sediment particles picked up by wind can then impact rock
surfaces to abrade them. A sandblaster (used to clean residues
from old buildings) works in the same way
○ Ice
■ Like water and wind flowing glacial ice can pluck loose sediment
grains from the ground.
■ Plucked fragments of rock under the ice can then abrade rock as
they are dragged across the bed of the glacier.
○ Gravity
■ Lastly, gravity is also very important in erosion. Material
weakened by even gentle weathering can fail and be transported
downslope.
■ The rapid downslope movement of materials due to gravity is
called mass-wasting.
Clay
● The term “clay” is used in a number of ways. It can refer to:
○ 1. A mineral (specifically a member of the “phyllosilicate” mineral
group - a large group of platy minerals that include the micas).
○ 2. Sediment grain size (0.002 mm diameter).
○ 3. A mass of minerals (primarily clay
● minerals) that behave plastically when wet.
● In this lecture, we will consider clay in all
● three meaning
Ceramics
● In the visual arts, clays are used primarily in the fashioning of ceramic
items
● A ceramic can be loosely defined as a hard, brittle, nonmetallic material made
from clay and other Earth materials and hardened by firing at high
temperature; it contains minute silicate crystals suspended in a glassy cement.
● Note that unlike a glass, a ceramic has a crystalline structure.
Properties of clay
● Clay mineral crystals have a platy habit and also have perfect cleavage (in one
direction). Thus, both intact and broken clay mineral grains tend to be wide
and flat (like plates).
● Under weak stress, the plates slide past one another, allowing the mass of clay
to deform readily (especially when lubricated by water)
● When slightly wetted, clay is also very cohesive (i.e. sticks together very well)
This again is due to the high surface area of the mineral grains (very broad,
flat, surfaces). Small amounts of water cling to the Particles. Surface tension
produced by the water film allows particles to stick together, like a deck of wet
cards
Where clays are made
● As we learned in previous lectures, clay minerals can be produced from the
weathering of other minerals, particularly feldspars.
● There are many different kinds of clay minerals, but on a practical level, we
can loosely categorize clay into two main types:
Primary clays (also called china clays or kaolin)
• Found close to their original site of formation (i.e. site of weathering) due to little or
no transport of clay particles
• Consist mostly of the clay mineral kaolinite
Secondary clays (also called sedimentary clays)
• Transported from original site of formation (i.e. site of weathering)
• Found far away from their original site of weathering
• Can contain kaolinite, but also generally also contain other clay minerals as well as
quartz, iron oxides, and organic matter
Which clays are used for ceramics
● Rarely do potters use a clay from a single source as a working clay.
● Most ceramic clays are blends of materials from different sources.
● Experience has taught that even better results are obtained when several
different clays are blended together. Such a blended clay is called a clay body.
● By blending, potters can vary the texture and colour of their clays
Clay types
● Clay bodies can be loosely categorized into three basic types:
○ Earthenware
○ Stoneware
○ Porcelain
Grog
● A low-porosity material called grog (crushed quartz or pre-baked clay fired
under high temp) is also added to some clay bodies.
● Bricks commonly crushed to make grog.
● Crushed and sized to suit particular applications.
● Retains heat (so good for cookware)
● Adds rustic appearance (“tooth”) to ceramic items.
Why Add Grog?
● Lacking the microscopic size and shape of clay particles (and also lacking
water), grog adds stiffness to excessively soft clay.
● Addition of grog to clay body has beneficial effect on shrinkage because grog
does not retain water as fresh clay does.
● Also allows gases to escape during drying process.
● Therefore, its presence reduces the overall shrinkage rate of the clay during
the drying process; more grog = less shrinkage, less grog = more shrinkage.
Earthenware
● made from secondary clays
● well suited for the manufacture of thick-walled articles such as mugs, plates,
and flower pots
● cheapest to make (secondary clays more common than primary clays)
● -colour can range from white to terra cotta (if iron oxide present)
● -texture ranges from fine to rough, depending on grog content
Stoneware
● made mostly from primary clays
● suited for the manufacture of vessels that are stronger than earthenware
● also used to make non-porous products such as floor tiles and drainage pipes
● -often coarse in texture (contains grog)
● -colour: usually brown due to presence of iron oxide.
● -allows for a wider range of glaze effects, such as fine speckles
Porcelain
● made from primary clays
● -suited for manufacture of very thin objects that are very strong (e.g.
dinnerware)
● -smooth texture (no grog)
● -porcelain was produced as early as 10th century in Asia (hence the term
“China” for high-quality porcelain)
● -bone is sometimes added to the clay for more translucent appearance (hence
“bone china”)
Methods of shaping
● Handbuilding: “Freeform” method of forming an item without the use of a
potter’s wheel.
● Throwing: Clay item is shaped on a spinning potters wheel
● Slipcasting: Item is produced as a cast inside a mould. Slurry of water and
ceramic ingredients (called "slip") is poured into mould.
Air Drying
● A ceramic piece is air-dried to “greenware” state before it is fired.
● Wet clay contains a large amount of water (25 % minimum). When clay dries,
water evaporates from it.
● As this happens, clay particles are drawn closer together, resulting in
shrinkage.
● If drying (and therefore shrinkage) is uneven, stresses are produced in the
clay, forming cracks or warped areas. This is why it is important to ensure that
the piece is of fairly uniform thickness.
Firing
● Complete drying doesn't take place until the piece is in the kiln.
● This happens when the boiling point of water has been reached (100°C).
● Water between clay particles are cooked off.
● This must happen slowly, or the formation of steam within the body of
the clay may cause it to burst.
● Organic impurities and sulphur compounds “burned off” At temperatures
from 300° and 800°C.
Vitrification
● Finally, the mineral component of the ceramic fuse together due to
intergrowth of mullite crystal and silica is molten.
● When cooled, the molten silica filling spaces between interlocking mullite
crystals becomes glass, binding the whole structure together.
● The ceramic, now made of fused mineral components is hard and durable.
Firing Temperatures
● Clays vitrify at various temperatures depending upon the clay minerals
present, as well as the amount of impurities (e.g. iron oxides) present in the
clay body.
● Primary clays (as used in porcelain) vitrify at higher temperatures (up to
1,400 °C) because the clay body (almost pure kaolinite) has a very high
melting point.
● Secondary clays (as used in earthenware) vitrify at lower temperatures (as low
as 1,000°C) because iron oxides serve as a flux to lower the average melting
point of the clay body b.
Bisqueware
● A ceramic that has been fired in a kiln but has not yet been glazed is called
“bisqueware” or “biscuit ware.”
● In cases where porosity/permeability is desired (e.g. in flowerpots), this is the
final stage of production.
● In most cases, the ceramic is glazed (to seal the ceramic and to add a
decorative element)
Glazing
● After the ceramic has completed its firing process, it is glazed.
● The ceramic pieces are glazed to both beautify the item and to give the item a
waterproof finish.
● Glaze is basically a form of glass, consisting basically of
● 1. Glass-forming minerals (e.g. silica, feldspar)
● 2. Stiffeners (such as clay)
● 3. Fluxes which lower the melting point of the other glaze components (calcite
and dolomite are common fluxes).
● When fired, these ingredients melt (up to 2000 OC). A glass results from
cooling of this molten stuff
● Just as impurities can alter the colour natural minerals, small amounts of
certain substances can be added to glaze to produce different colours.
●
Guangxi Province, Southern China
● A popular landscape depicted in ancient art of China is that of the
breadloaf-like mountains of Guangxi Province of southern China
● In many paintings, the landscape appears almost surreal, the peaks of the hills
being very high, but having an exaggerated roundness
● Karst Topography
○ This is a possible sequence of early karst development in Guangxi
Province, China:
○ Near-surface dissolution of limestone (sinkholes developed due to
collapse of near-surface caverns).
○ Uplift, increasing downcutting of streams and lowering of water table.
○ Further uplift, downcutting of streams and deep dissolution.
Colorado Plateau Southwestern U.S.A.
● Throughout the arid U.S southwest are towering structures mesas and buttes
that
● Stand high above a relatively flat terrain.
● A mesa (Spanish for “table”) is an isolated, table-shaped, high plateau with a
flat top and steep sides.
● A butte (French for “hill”) is like a mesa, but is smaller in it dimensions and
often pinnacle-shaped.
● In recent geological history (late Cenozoic), much of the U.S. southwest was
gently upwarped into a broad plateau (Colorado Plateau) due to a regional
upwelling of magma (this is why there are extensive lava flows in some places
in Arizona).
● Possibly related to disrupted mantle flow associated with detachment of
shallow- subducte
● The plateau is locally dissected by deep stream valleys.
● Deep dissection is due to the efforts of rivers to cut down to base level (sea
level).
● Separating the deep valley systems are broad flat regions.
Monument Valley, Utah-Arizona
● With further erosion, stream valleys widen, leaving small remnants of the
original plateau “stranded” well away from the valley walls…
● until the terrain looks completely flat with towering buttes and mesas.
● Note that erosion is further enhanced in these arid areas due to the lack of
vegetation (erosion can be extremely high during torrential rainstorms).
Colorado Plateau: Grand Canyon
● Another result of uplift and deep downcutting of streams is the Grand Canyon
● Great width of the Grand Canyon due to downcutting by Colorado River, mass
wasting of canyon walls.
● Next clip: Development of Grand Canyon.
● Valleys of rivers such as the Red Deer River and Milk River in southern
Alberta are deeply cut and bear deeply gullied “badland” topography.
● This topography results from rapid erosion of weakly cemented sedimentary
strata by water runoff. Erosion is also enhanced due to the scarcity of
vegetation.
● Term “badlands” is derived from the term “terres mauvaises à traverser” used
French settlers, which “means bad lands to travel through.”
Differential Weathering and Erosion: Ship Rock, New Mexico
● The famous Ship Rock in New Mexico (a volcanic neck) stands high above the
surrounding terrain because the intrusive volcanic material of the volcanic
neck weathers less readily than the overlying pyroclastic rock and surrounding
sedimentary rock
Devil’s Tower, Wyoming
● Devil’s Tower in northeastern Wyoming is another example of an igneous
body that has resisted erosion better than the rock that formerly surrounded
it.
Half Dome
● Half Dome is a a classic example of an exfoliation dome.
● In this case, the dome was part of a larger igneous body. However, glacial
action has since carved a curved surface into the lower part of the dome
(v-shaped valley formed by river modified into a u-shaped valley by glacier)
● The sheer cliff at the top of the dome was produced by the collapse of rock
along a vertical joint (the collapsed material later transported away by the
glacier).
Sugarloaf (Pao de Acucar) , Rio de Janeiro
● The Sugarloaf in Rio de Janeiro is an exfoliation dome.
● The erosional remnant of a larger body of metamorphic rock (gneiss)
Hoodoos of Alberta
● Hoodoos are small scale, pillar-shaped features produced by the erosion of
layered rocks with differing characteristics of weathering. The famous
Hoodoos near Drumheller, Alberta were formed primarily by water-related
erosion, but wind has influenced their development as well.
● Soft layers of shale at the base of the Hoodoos weather and erode more
quickly than the more
● strongly cemented sandstone layers that cap the Hoodoos.
● The result is an odd mushroom-shape.
Stone Arch, Arches National Park, Utah
● Stone arches are formed when thin walls of freestanding sandstone erode on
each side, and eventually a 'window' or hole in the rock appears.
● With continued erosion, arch eventually collapses
Lesson 7 Slideshow 1
Streams and their importance
● Streams are important pathways of water flow on Earth’s surface, connecting
land areas that receive water as precipitation with the sea. Most “excess
surface water” that does not soak into the ground or is evaporated is directed
down stream channels
● In a geological sense, a stream can be considered a body of water that carries
rock particles and dissolved ions and flows down slope along a clearly defined
path, called a channel
● Streams are important because:
○ They deliver much of the water from land to the sea
○ They erode lots of sediment particles and transport then to lower
elevations (thus being important in the formation of sediment, and
ultimately sedimentary rocks)
○ They carry dissolved ions (weathered from rocks on land) to the sea
(this is why the sea is salty)
○ They are major sources of water and serve as transportation routes for
humans. Most population centres are located along streams (both along
their courses and at their mouths.
Origin of streams
● Water that falls to the ground as precipitation can:
○ Evaporate back into the atmosphere
○ Soak into the ground (ultimately becoming groundwater)
○ Remain at the surface as runoff.
○ Runoff initially moves over the surface in a thin, continuous sheet
(sheetflow), but eventually becomes confined to tiny channels called
rills.
■ Rills merge into larger, more permanent, stream channels which
are tributaries of even larger rivers (a river is a stream with
several tributaries)
Stream Characteristics: Ability to Downcut
● Streams tend to erode downward in an effort to reach base level (sea level).
The greater the elevation above sea level, the greater the rate of downcutting.
Thus, erosion tends to dominate at the headwaters (highest elevation above
base level).
Characteristics: Load
● Streams carry clastic sedimentary particles in two ways:
○ As bedload; large and/or dense particles that remain on the bed of a
stream most of the time, but can move by tumbling and saltation (in
turbulent layer).
○ As suspended load ; small and/or light particles that are suspended in
water most of the time (in turbulent and laminar layers)
● In general, the volume and sediment grain size of both bedload and suspended
load decrease downstream (with increasing distance from the primary
sediment source).
Type of flow
● Two main types of flow occur in streams:
○ Turbulent (non-linear) flow dominates near the bottom and sides of a
stream channel where swirling eddies are generated around elements
of surface roughness.
○ Laminar (linear) flow dominates water that is out of reach of turbulent
eddies.
Common misconception
● This brings up a common misconception – that streams are faster close to
their source than far from their source.
● Headwaters
○ Small, shallow, channels Coarse bedload
○ Turbulent flow dominant
○ Overall velocity often low because drag affects most of water column
● Lowercourse
○ Large, deep, wide channels
○ Fine bedload
○ Laminar flow dominant
○ Overall velocity high because drag is confined near the stream bed (well
below the surface)
Comparing river characteristics: Valleys
● River channels are bounded on either side by valleys.
● Valleys reflect the erosive action of streams, which undercut and destabilize
their banks. Destabilized material tumbles down into the stream channel,
providing sediment particles for the stream to transport as bedload or
suspended load.
Lowest part of a rivers course
● In the lowest parts of a stream’s course, it is deprived of coarse sediment but
still carries lots of fine-grained sediment as bedload and suspended load.
● It has also reached its highest discharge (the volume of water passing a given
point in a given period of time). This is because it is receiving water from a
great many tributaries.
● The high discharge of a river its lowest course can be appreciated when one
considers the total amount of water received by the Mississippi River.
Floodplain Deposition
● Floods are important events that deposit sediments beyond a river’s channel.
This is particularly important in lower river courses where the gradient is very
low.
● During a flood, water spills over the river’s banks.
● The sudden reduction in the speed of the water allows sediment to be
deposited on the floodplain.
Levees
● The coarsest sediment (sand and silt) is deposited closest to the
channel,forming ridges called levees (these are exposed when the river returns
to its normal water level).
Chapter 7, Lesson 2
Costal System
● A beach is part of a coastal system, which includes several zones defined by
their proximity to shore and the dominant processes that occur within them.
● Offshore and shoreface portions of the coastal profile are permanently
submerged in water, below the low tide mark.
● An important feature that separates the offshore from shoreface zones is
fairweather wave base – the depth at which water is affected by wave
movement under normal weather conditions.
Offshore
● The offshore zone lies below fairweather wave base and is therefore unaffected
by normal waves.
● The offshore zone normally only receives fine sediment that settles from
suspension (but can receive coarser grained sediment during storms, when
wave base is lowered).
Shoreface zone
● The shoreface zone lies above fairweather wave base and is constantly affected
by normal waves.
● The gentle gradient of the lower shoreface results from the smoothing out of
sediment associated with the back and forth movement of the waves.
● Near the top of the shoreface zone, the base of a wave is slowed down due to
friction with the seabed
● The wave is oversteepened, and breaks, losing much of its energy. The zone of
breaking waves is often called the “surf zone”
● Due to the loss of energy, some sediment can be deposited in sand bars.
Foreshore
● Once a wave breaks, its water moves as a sheet upslope as swash, and falls
back toward the sea as backwash. The narrow area in which this occurs is
called the swash zone.
● The location of swash zone shifts due to the rising and falling of the water
level, associated with tides
● The area affected by the swash zone on a daily basis is called the foreshore
(between low and high tide marks)
● As the flow of swash slows (and eventually stops) in its upper reaches, some of
the sediment carried by the water can be deposited.
● But much of the sediment is returned back down to the upper shoreface due to
backwash.
Backshore
● Beyond the Foreshore of some beaches is a backshore zone, characterized by
dunes. Dunes are constructed by windblown sediment transported from the
foreshore and elsewhere.
● Sediment can also be transported to the backshore area during storms, when
big waves can reach far inland (note that a storm beach face can be seen well
away from the normal beach face).
Sediment from costal erosion
● Shorelines characterized by exposed bedrock and strong wave activity are
important suppliers of beach sediment.
● Minerals of beach sediment derived mostly from eroded rocks along the coast
match those of the source rocks.
Sediment from rivers
● But most sediment supplied to beaches along continental coastlines is
delivered to the coast by rivers.
● When a river enters a large body of water (e.g. ocean), its flow rapidly
decreases, resulting in the deposition of sediment at the river mouth.
● The resulting sediment deposit is a delta.
● If wave action is strong, sediment deposited at a river mouth can be
transported along the coastline instead of forming a well-defined delta.
● Most waves move toward the shore at a slight angle.
● Consequently, the uprush of water (swash) from each breaking wave is
oblique.
● The direction of swash is oblique.
● However, the backwash runs back to the water at a right angle.
● Sediment particles are therefore transported in a zig-zag pattern along the
beach.
● This “beach drift” can carry sand and pebbles hundred to thousands of metres
per day.
Longshore drift
● In a similar manner, water in the shoreface zone flows toward the shore at an
angle and flows back at a right angle to the shore.
● The net result is a current that flows parallel to the shore. This is called a
longshore current.
● The movement of shoreface sediment by a longshore current is called
longshore drift
Rip Currents
● Breaking waves approaching the beach carry water toward the beach. The
water can't just pile up there: it has to escape back out to sea somehow.
● Various “paths of least resistence” (e.g low areas along sandbars) provide
areas for water to flow back to the sea.
Undertow
● Undertow results when water cannot escape as a rip current.
● Remember that water that is pushed toward the beach must return to the sea
somehow !
● If the water can’t escape as a rip current, it returns to the sea by flowing
underneath the waves.
Reefs
● Another prominent feature of shallow marine settings is the reef.
● Reefs are natural structures of rock formed by marine animals.
● Today’s reefs are largely made by corals, but in the geological past, have been
constructed by sponges and bizarre clams.
● Reef-building organisms build skeletons of calcium carbonate in the form of
aragonite or calcite.
● Large reefs are limited to the warm seawater areas of the tropics.
● Calcium carbonate is easier to precipitate in warm water than in cold water.
● Secretion of calcium carbonate is aided by microscopic cells of algae that live
in the tissues of reef builders (the algae remove carbon dioxide from the
tissues, decreasing the acidity of the water).
● Reefs also tend to preferentially form in areas where:
○ Little clastic sediment occurs (such sediment particles smother reef
builders).
○ Nutrient levels are low.
○ Water is shallow
Atolls
● An atoll is a special kind of reef that is ring-shaped and has a central lagoon.
It is likely that Gilligan’s Island was set in an partially formed atoll.
● An atoll is formed first as a reef that fringes a volcanic island.
● As the island sinks (after volcanic activity has ceased and the crust has cooled,
becoming denser), the reef continues to build upward, eventually ending up as
a ring-shaped structure.
● Bikini atoll (central Pacific) is a famous nuclear testing site
● Site of the first post-war nuclear bomb test.
● There remains a very dark history for the Bikini Atoll in terms of the
treatment of the aboriginal population of Bikini.
Chapter 7, Lesson 3
● Metals are all united by having high electrical conductivity, luster, and
malleability, and the ability of their atoms to lose electrons to form positive
ions (cations).
● In our culture, the term “metal” generally refers to “fusible metals”- metals of
moderate hardness that can be fused with other metals to form alloys (metal
mixtures).
● In turn, we commonly classify these fusible metals in two main categories:
○ Precious metals: Metals of high economic value (often used to make
coins or jewellery)
○ Base metals: Metals of low intrinsic value (as compared to precious
metals
Chapter 8, Lesson 1
Recap: Hydrothermal Processes: Convergent Boundaries
● As a recap, recall that magma is generated at convergent boundaries by
hydration melting
● The magma produced is intermediate to felsic and contains lots of water and
other volatiles.
● Once the magma is completely crystallized, the leftover fluids are watery and
metal-rich.
● This warm, and commonly metal-rich, fluid can become injected into the
surrounding rock, producing disseminated or lode deposits.
● Whenever a plutonic body heats the surrounding rock, contact metamorphism
can occur. This will be our next topic of mineral deposit formation.
Hydrothermal Processes Associated with Metamorphism
● Chemical sedimentary rocks affected by contact metamorphism can host
deposits called skarns.
● In this example, the intrusion of magma into sedimentary rock layers has
metamorphosed limestone to marble.
● Injection of acidic fluids into dissolves cavities in the marble, and metallic
minerals can form in these cavities.
Skarn
● Skarns can host metals and metal-rich minerals minerals due to reaction of
hot fluids with the rock into which the intrusion was emplaced.
● Red chalcocite (copper sulphide) and pyroxene crystals in marble skarn.
● Marble skarn with garnet (red/brown), pyroxene (green) and pyroxene
crystals and veins of native copper.
Hydrothermal Processes: Divergent Boundaries
● Magma generated at divergent boundaries (by decompression melting) tends
to be mafic in composition. Accordingly, metallic mineral deposits in
divergent boundary settings tends to be associated with mafic igneous rocks.
● As in convergent settings, metal-bearing brines left over from the cooling of
magma can penetrate cracks in the crust and form metal deposits.
● However, a more important contributor to the concentration of metals is the
interaction of seawater with oceanic crust under the seafloor.
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) deposits
● At a midocean ridge, salty seawater flows down into faults and other cracks of
the ocean floor.
● As it is warmed, it dissolves sulphide ions, and metal ions (including iron,
copper, lead and gold).
● Leached ions transported in heated water.
● The heated water, now concentrated in metal ions, rises to the surface along
fractures and escape through volcanic vents called “black smokers”
● When the solution hits cold water, the metals precipitate as sulphide minerals
(or in native form in the case of gold)
● Fine crystals of the metallic that emanate from black smokers accumulate in
pods at the surface below).
Deposits Associated With Weathering
● Chemical weathering can lead to economically significant metal deposits.
● A good example: bauxite (aluminum ore)
● Aluminum is very abundant in continental crust, but is generally so tightly
bonded within silicate minerals that it is very difficult to extract.
● Intense chemical weathering over long periods of time removes aluminum
from feldspar and mica and combines it with water to form the mineral
gibbsite – Al2O3.3H2O
● Gibbsite is heated to drive off the water, and further heated to separate pure
aluminum metal from bonded oxygen
Bauxite
● Most of the readily dissolved ions are washed away from the soil,leaving a
residue rich in gibbsite
● In effect, bauxite just is a highly weathered soil.
Deposits Associated with Sedimentary Processes
● Some metallic mineral deposits can form by simple sedimentary
● processes.
● In some cases, minerals eroded from pre-existing can be concentrated via
physical transportation and sorting. These are basically contained in clastic
sediment deposits.
● Some metals of interest can also be concentrated in chemical sediments.
Placer Deposits: Stream placers
● Particles of gold and other heavy minerals can be concentrated in areas
affected by stream currents (remember light particles are preferentially
washed away, concentrating large/heavy particles).
● Good prospect areas include point bars, waterfalls and potholes in the stream
bed, where fast moving water slows suddenly.
Panning
● The sizes of gold particles can range from dust-sized (gold dust), or pea-sized
or larger (nuggets).
● The practice of panning uses the same principle as placer formation (sediment
and water are agitated in the pan and the suspended sediment is decanted
with the water).
● The “pay dirt” is left behind
Chapter 8, Lesson 2
Technological Ages
● Major revolutions in human culture closely follow developments in the use of
geological materials (including metals). This is reflected in the terms
commonly used for technological “ages” (e.g. Stone Age, Copper Age, Bronze
Age, Iron age).
● Although many metals have found wonderful uses in technology, many of
them were originally used for ornamental purposes (as artistic media).
● This is true for both precious metals and base metals.
● Dates of ages used here are on the “earlier side” (each “age” began at different
times in different regions of the Old World).
The Stone age
● Prior to the use of metals, humans relied on materials such as obsidian, chert
and quartzite for the fashioning of tools.
● Increased sophistication of toolmaking is apparent in tool types found at
archeological sites.
Late Stone Age: Early Uses of Native Metals
● At some point stone age humans discovered that native gold was sufficiently
soft and malleable to be fashioned into artistic objects of beauty.
● It is likely that nuggets of placer gold were used for this purpose.
● Obviously, the rarity of native gold would have made such objects extremely
valuable.
● The resistance of gold to corrosion and oxidation would have made gold even
more valuable.
The Copper Age (~ 4,500-3,500 B.C.E))
● Copper was probably the next metal that was used by humans (earliest use
dates back to about 6,000 BC, but widespread use dates to about 4,500 BC))
● Native copper (copper in pure form), which occasionally occurs in large
masses was “cold-worked” to make delicate objects such as hooks and needles
(which were otherwise difficult to make from stone and bone.
Cold-Worked Copper Tools
● Only nobility could afford these luxury items made from metal. Even copper
weapons were probably more for show than for use as tools.
● A major limitation of cold-worked copper was its brittleness.
● Another was the softness of the metal (could not hold a sharp edge for very
long).
● A major improvement to copper technology came when it was discovered that
copper could be annealed when heated, reducing the areas of weakness within
the implements produced by pounding).
● This permitted stronger tools to be made, although such tools were still
“status items” of the rich.
The Copper Age: Discovery of Smelting Methods
● The availability of copper was a major limitation to the use of this metal
(deposits of native copper are extremely rare).
● This was also true for other metals.
● This situation changed with the discovery that copper could be smelted
(separated) from mineral compounds by heating.
● The first copper mineral to be smelted was probably malachite.
Smelting
● It has been speculated that the art of smelting began as result of accidental
“cooking” of metal ores in campfires.
● This is unlikely, owing to two main reasons:
○ The heat generated in a campfire is unlikely to have reached
temperatures necessary to allow metals such as copper to separate from
the ore (the melting point of copper is over 1000 degrees C – well above
the temperature of a run-of-the-mill campfire).
○ The presence of large amounts of oxygen in a campfire would have
readily oxidize any metal that was produced by melting (metal oxides
are brittle and cannot be worked).
Beginning of smelting
● More likely is that the first smelted ore was produced in a pottery kiln.
● The production of pottery preceded the smelting of metal by thousands of
years.
● High temperatures could be achieved in a kiln (due to the prevention of heat
loss to the open air and the increased temperature accomplished by forcing air
into the kiln furnace). Primitive pottery kilns could generate temperatures
over 1,400 degrees C).
● Special kilns were later developed for smelting (pieces of ore were put in direct
contact with charcoal to ensure the highest temperatures possible and to
prevent oxidation of ore).
● The oxygen-starved conditions within a kiln would prevent the combination of
pure metal with oxygen, so metal could be separated in pure form.
● In addition, the presence of fluxes, used to lower the melting point of minerals
within the pottery could have lowered the melting point of the metals that
were inadvertently smelted.
How did ore minerals end up in a pottery kiln ?
● This is obviously open to speculation.
● However, one might picture a potter attempting to beautify his/her pottery by
adding chunks of attractive minerals to the clay.
● For example, the potter might have experimented with the green mineral
malachite (copper ore), or galena (lead ore).
● Beads of molten metal that were produced upon baking would have decreased
the beauty of the article, but an astute potter would have noted that these
beads could be collected and further purified to produce larger bodies of
metal.
The Invention of Bronze
● As supplies of easily smelted copper minerals such as malachite (copper
carbonate) became scarce, it became necessary for copper to be obtained from
sulphide minerals.
● Copper sulphides (especially chalcopyrite) generally occur with sulphides of
other metals such as arsenic (e.g. in arsenopyrite).
● Smelted copper with impurities of arsenic formed the first metal alloy used by
humans- bronze.
Bronze age
● It was later noted that the deliberate addition of impurities (especially arsenic)
could control the properties of the metal.
● The arsenic was later replaced by tin (possibly as a result of high incidence of
death among early bronze workers).
● As an added bonus, tin lowers the melting point of copper, which made it
easier for this metal to be smelted.
● Bronze is quite attractive and is relatively easy to work, making it suitable for
ornamental objects.
Advantages of Bronze
● Perhaps more importantly, bronze is harder than pure copper, and is
therefore much more useful for tools.
● Bronze containing 90 % copper and 10 % tin is twice as hard as pure copper !
Iron Age (began at about 1,200 BC)
● The discovery of iron as a useful medium for tool-making probably also came
about by accident.
● But it would have taken a keen eye to figure out how to process iron.
● In a primitive kiln, smelted iron would not have formed liquid droplets (iron
has a higher melting point than copper)
● Instead, the material formed a spongy solid mass called “bloom.”
● Whereas copper metal naturally separated as a heavy liquid from lighter,
silicate-rich slag, the solid iron bloom retained pockets of impurities (slag).
● At some point, it was discovered that the slag bodies within iron bloom could
be removed by reheating and pounding the bloom on an anvil.
● When the hot bloom was pounded, the slag simply squirted out from the
mass.
● Purification of the metal was accomplished by repeated heating and pounding
of the bloom.
Working With Iron
● Pure iron still has some undesirable qualities:
○ It is softer than bronze
○ It is too soft to hold a sharp edge
○ Iron tends to oxidize (rust)
● The quality of iron implements increased via two main advances in
technology:
○ Steeling
○ Tempering
Steeling
● It was found that the addition of carbon to iron increased the hardness of iron
metal – this iron-carbon alloy (containing less than 1.7 % carbon) is what we
call steel.
● The carbon could have been first introduced to the iron from carbon
monoxide generated in the furnace or from carbon in the furnace fuel.
Tempering
● An effective method of altering the properties of is tempering.
● Tempering involves: the quenching (sudden cooling) of hot metal in water (to
increase hardness) and reheating (to reduce brittleness)
● The development of tempering must have involved lots of trial and error to
produce a to produce strong (but slightly elastic) metal !
● The Japanese are famous for their tempered steel swords.
Casting
● Meanwhile, in China, artisans developed extremely effective furnaces that
were capable of melting iron.
● The iron could then be poured into moulds.
● The cast iron was then reheated to drive off the excess carbon, making the
product more elastic and malleable for final use.
The backbone of the industrial revolution
● Of course, in the years to follow, steelmaking continued to develop,
introducing many varieties of steel (each with different properties).
● Steel, in combination with the increased use of coal as fuel, was the backbone
of the Industrial Revolution, and remains one of the most important metals in
today’s society.
Chapter 8, Lesson 3
Formation of Coal
● Organic matter derived mostly from land plants accumulate in low-energy
environment (like a swamp)
● Decay uses up lots of oxygen, rendering the sediment porewater devoid of
oxygen
● Gentle cooking and pressing upon increasing burial increases carbon content
(due to loss of other elements in gases and fluids)
● Low grade coal (lignite) cooked very little
● High grade coal (anthracite) cooked a lot (close to being a metamorphic rock)
Petroleum (Oil and Natural Gas)
● Petroleum (i.e. oil and natural gas) is derived from the remains of plankton,
which is mostly marine plants (i.e. algae).
● Oil and natural gas, consisting of various hydrocarbon compounds are the
products of the chemical breakdown of these remains in absence of oxygen in
organic-rich mud.
● This mud lithifies into shale.
● We call the rock containing the original organic matter a “source rock.”
Formation of petroleum (oil and gas)
● Oil and gas result from breakdown of organic molecules under conditions of
increasing temperature, from large complex molecules to smaller, shorter
molecules dominated by hydrogen and carbon: a process called “cracking”
● Some gas is produced by decomposition of organic matter by microbes
(biogenic gas)
● Most oil is produced at temperatures between about 60O and 120O C (the oil
window).
● “Thermogenic” gas is produced as oil is broken down to very small molecules
(the smallest being methane)
Migration of Petroleum
● Oil and gas produced in the source rock can migrate into units of permeable
rock, such as sandstone.
● If unimpeded by an impermeable rock unit, the oil and gas will continue to
rise and emerge at the surface (not good, because it can be eaten up by
microbes).
● If the oil and gas encounters a impermeable unit of rock, such as a bed of shale
which can form a seal for the fluids, the oil and gas can accumulate in the
permeable unit (reservoir).
Oil Traps
● A geologic environment that allows for economically significant amounts of oil
and gas to accumulate underground is termed an oil trap.
● Oil and gas is contained in a reservoir (reservoir is made of material that is
permeable to oil and gas- often sandstone)
● “Roof” of trap (“seal” or “caprock”) is made of material that is impermeable to
liquid- prevents upward escape of oil and gas
● Common traps include anticline fold traps, fault-bounded traps, and
stratigraphic traps
○ oil and gas accumulates in a restricted area and
○ the top of the permeable reservoir rock unit is sealed by impermeable
caprock
Recovery of Oil and Gas
● When the cap rock is punctured by drilling, the oil and natural gas, which are
under pressure, migrate from the pore spaces of the reservoir rock to the drill
hole.
● Note: world’s first commercial oil well was drilled in 1858 at Oil Springs,
Ontario (near Sarnia).
● Before methods were developed to control the upward flow of oil in wells,
dangerous gushers took place when pressure was released from oil traps.
Geographic distribution of oil and gas
● Major occurrences of oil and gas mark formerly low-lying regions that were
covered by seas (remember that oil and gas is derived from remains of marine
organisms).
● Organic matter in these regions were buried under thick deposits of sediments
and gently cooked (e.g. Michigan and Appalachian basins in Ontario).
Uses of coal
● Fuel: Canada does not use as much coal as many other countries do for fuel,
but is a very important fuel throughout Asia and remains significant in the
U.S.A
● Coke: Coal that is cooked to remove gases is transformed into a spongy
substance called coke.
● Coke is predominantly burned in blast furnaces to smelt iron from iron ore
because it generates the very high temperatures required for the smelting
process. It is also used in the production of cement (cooking of limestone and
silica).
● Byproducts: Some byproducts from processed coal are also useful. These
include organic substances used to make some plastics, medicines, and
solvents.
● Saccharin, a common low-calorie sweetener is also derived from by products
of coal (coal tar from the production of coke from coal)!
The Versatility of Petroleum
● The most obvious use for petroleum is as fuel.
● In Canada, lots of petroleum fuel is used in heating, transportation, cooking,
and electricity generation.
Distillation of crude oil
● Oil is extracted from the ground as crude oil.
● It is then refined in a distillation tower that is divided into a series of trays.
● The crude oil is boiled to produce vapour.
● The vapour is allowed to cool and condense at different temperatures.
● (note the “naptha” fraction is basically gasoline).
Fractions obtained from crude oil
● Fractions that condense in each tray are extracted and used for different
purposes.
● Smallest (lightest) hydrocarbon molecules are used as gases
● Intermediate hydrocarbon molecules are used in liquid form
● Largest (heaviest) hydrocarbon molecules as used as solids (e.g. tar)
The Versatility of Petroleum
● Solvents, used in paints, lacquers, and printing inks, and cleaners
● Lubricating oils and greases for machinery
● Petroleum (or paraffin) wax used in candy making, candles, packaging,
matches, and polishes
● Petroleum jelly (Vaseline), used in medical products and toiletries
● Asphalt, used to pave roads and airfields and to make roofing materials and
floor coveringe
● Plastics and synthetic rubber, used in packaging, casings, fabrics, bubble gum,
etc.
● …and many more !
Plastic
● Plastics are organic polymers (long chains of smaller carbon-based chains that
have been linked together).
Some desirable qualities of plastics:
● Can be made lightweight or heavy
● Can be very weak or very strong
● Can be moulded into solid pieces or extruded as fibres
● Are excellent insulators
● Various forms range from strong and brittle to weak and elastic
● Waterproof
● Relatively cheap to manufacture
Chapter 9, Lesson 1
Fundamental Sources of Pigments
● Since prehistoric times, minerals as pigments.
● Many minerals have distinctive colours that result from their chemical
compositions.
● We will examine some types of minerals used as pigments.
The Black Streak and Softness of Graphite
● If applied to a surface harder than itself, a mineral can be used as an artistic
medium.
● For example, graphite, which has a hardness of 1, leaves a black mark on
paper.
● …but few minerals are this soft !
● Most minerals must be crushed, powdered, and mixed with other substances
to produce a workable pigment.
● The first paints were probably mixtures of pigment, clays, animal fats and
“filler” minerals.
Earliest Paintings
● The prehistoric artists who produced the earliest known paintings in the caves
of Lascaux, France (15,000 B.C.), used charcoal as well as red and yellow
pigments called red ochre and yellow ochre. They also painted their own
bodies with these pigments.
Two types of ochre
● Red ochre is made from the mineral hematite (iron oxide)
● Yellow ochre is made from the mineral limonite (iron oxyhydroxide)
Ancient Egyptians: Paint
● The Egyptians used pigments for paint as well.
● Among the various artifacts found in Tutankhamun’s tomb was found a small
box containing powders of:
Tomb paintings
● Egyptian artists walls of tombs with a fine layer of plaster, onto which
pigments were applied.
● Painters used primarily black, red, yellow, brown, blue, and green. They mixed
their colors in a binder to make them stick to the dry plaster.
● By applying the colors thinly or thickly, or by mixing them with black and
white pigments, the Egyptian artist achieved a great range of colours and
tones.
Ancient Egyptian Makeup
● The Egyptian also used minerals in their cosmetics.
● Red ochre was applied to the lips
● Eye-makeup or “Kohl” contained various powdered minerals.
○ Stibnite (black)
○ Galena (black)
○ Malachite (green)
○ Azurite (dark blue)
○ Turquoise (uh, turquoise)
○ Lapis Lazuli (deep blue)
● Vermillion, made from the mineral cinnabar was used to paint the face of
Jupiter's statue in Rome red, during significant events.
● It was, and still is, used for inks in Chinese calligraphy.
● Medieval paintings of the Virgin Mary feature a vivid blue colour in her cloak.
● Lapis lazuli (a rock consisting primarily of the mineral lazurite) from
Afghanistan was an important source of this blue pigment (what we call Royal
Blue) used by medieval artists for paintings of the Virgin Mary.
● The Russians used the vivid green mineral dioptase (collected in Siberia) in
their religious icons.
● Minerals continued to be used in cosmetics well into the 16th century.
Elizabeth the First of England used cerussite (lead carbonate) to maintain her
ghostly white complexion
Modern Paints
● The principal of paintmaking is essentially the same as that used in ancient
times.
● Paint consists of two things: pigment and binder.
● Pigment is what gives color to paint (generally sold as a fine powder).
● Binder is what holds the pigment and adheres it to a surface.
● The pigment particles are insoluble and merely form a suspension in the
binder.
● Natural pigments from minerals are present in some paints used by modern
artists (although many have been replaced by synthetic pigments).
● Common natural inorganic pigments include:
Binders
● A variety of materials are used as binders. These include:
○ Beeswax (in encaustic paints)
○ Casein (“kay seen” a milk protein) mixed with borax
○ Egg yolk (in tempera paint)
○ Plaster (pigment added to plaster surface in fresco paintings)
○ Gum arabic (in watercolour paint)
○ Hide glue (in distemper paints)
○ Linseed oil (in oil paints)
○ Acrylic emulsion (in acrylic paints)
● Casein and egg yolk also function as emulsifiers that keep the pigment
particles in suspension
Chapter 9, Lesson 2
Monuments of Stone
● Since antiquity, humans have used geological materials for constructing
dwellings and various monuments for religious purposes.
● In this lecture, we will examine the geological and cultural significance of
some of the more famous types of stone monuments:
○ The Egyptian pyramids
■ Of all the ancient monuments built by humans, the pyramids of
Egypt are arguably the most famous.
■ Egypt hosts 97 pyramids in total.
■ To most people, the pyramids of the Giza plateau are the most
familiar.
■ The earliest Egyptians probably buried their dead in pits, along
with possessions to accompany them to the afterlife.
■ Later on, fancier mud-brick covers (mastabas) were constructed
to cover the graves of members of nobility.
■ Some think the pyramid shape was an important religious
statement for the Egyptians (edges of the pyramid symbolizing
the slanting rays of the sun).
■ Others speculate that sloping sides were intended to help the
king’s soul climb to the sky and join the gods.
■ Still others think that the orientations of the great Giza pyramids
have some connection with the three stars in the belt of Orion.
■ It is conventionally believed to have taken 100,000 labourers
about 20 years to build the Khufu pyramid, using an estimated
2.3 million stone blocks.
■ Others argue that it could have taken as few as 20,000 labourers
to build it in 20 years.
■ Each block weighs an average of about 2.5 tonnes.
■ Crews may have dragged or pushed limestone blocks up
mud-slicked ramps to construct the pyramid.
■ The pyramids are not completely solid.
■ Inside are chambers and connecting tunnels.
■ Chambers were designed to contain the bodies of the pharaoh
and the queen, as well as their possessions.
● Granite was used to make the cap stone (pyramidion) and
to line internal chambers.
● The wite casting was constructed of white limestone
● The bulk of it was made from limestone
Limestone -
● The local fossiliferous limestone quarried for pyramid-building is particularly
interesting because it is made of nummulites.
● Nummulites are giant chambered shells of amoeba-like organisms called
foraminifera.
● These accumulated in huge quantities during the early Cenozoic.
● Foraminifera still live in the sea today, but none reach the sizes attained by
nummulites (averaging about the size of a loonie) !
Sphinx
● The Sphinx looks like a strange human-lion hybrid.
● Some have claimed that the Sphinx represents the pharaoh Khafre in the
leonine form of Ra-Horakhty (Sun God).
● Unfortunately , the builders of the Sphinx left no writing as to its purpose.
Characteristics of the Sphinx
● The Great Sphinx is approximately 73 metres long and 20 metres tall.
● Sits slightly below ground level, surrounded by a trench.
● Body of the Sphinx was carved in place from native limestone bedrock.
● The undulations on the front and sides of the sphinx are from differential
weathering.
● A limestone plaque between the paws of the Sphinx mentions Khafre, but the
context is unknown (much of the limestone surface has flaked off)
● The plaque was installed by pharaoh Thutmosis IV to commemorate the
removal of sand from the monument in 1400 B.C.E..
● Many scholars believe that the face of the Sphinx is that of Khafre himself (but
there is some disagreement on this).
Easter Island
● Located about 3,700 km west of Chile in South Pacific
● The island first became known to the world when it was discovered by Dutch
sea voyager Admiral Jacob Roggeveen on April 5, 1722 (Easter Sunday of that
year).
Easter Island Location
● Easter Island is located at the western end of the Sala y Gomez seamount
chain, representing a chain of volcanoes produced by plate movement over a
stationary mantle hotspot (similar to Hawaii).
Stone Statues
● Easter Island was constructed by basaltic lava and pyroclastic debris (volcanic
ash) sourced from mafic mantle material.
● The most famous features found on Easter Island are the huge statues (Moai)
carved from volcanic ash. Most stand about 5 metres tall and weigh about
20-40 tonnes.
Colonization
● By about 1220 AD, the islanders were building ceremonial stone platforms
called ahu, upon which the famous giant stone statues (Moai) were erected.
● The largest statues weigh up to 80 tonnes !
Representation
● The current interpretation of the function of the Moai is that these statues
were constructed as guardians of the island people.
● The moai were apparently constructed by the ruling class of the island, the
“long ears.”
● The statues were fashioned in the likeness of the person buried beneath the
ahu upon which they stand.
● It is said that once the obsidian pupil was added to the coral eye of a statue,
the dead king was born again inside the statue.
● It is speculated that the statues were carved without legs to prevent the statues
from walking around
Chapter 9, Lesson 3
Concrete
● The construction of large modern structures rely heavily on the use of
concrete- so it is worth explaining what this stuff is !
● Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, rock, water and small amounts of
additives.
● Note that the terms concrete and cement are not synonymous !
Cement
● Cement, which is the abbreviation of the correct name, "portland cement" is a
fine grey powder that looks very much like gray flour.
● The raw materials used for cement production are: Calcite (from limestone)
● Silica (from quartz sand- usually from sandstone)
● Plus some additives, such as:
○ Alumina (from clay in shale)
○ Iron oxide (from iron ore)
Chapter 10, Lesson 1
The concept of the apocalypse
● One of the most powerful subjects in art has always been "the end of time".
● Apocalypse has been painted, written about, drawn about, filmed, sung, and
translated into about every area of the fine arts…
● With the possible exception of architecture (for good reason).
● All cultures of the world have some form of apocalyptic imagery in their myths
and art.
● The term “apocalypse” is from the Greek apokalyptein meaning “uncover” or
“reveal.”
● In their purest form, apocalyptic scenarios emphasize enlightenment of the
human race or dawning of a new age – and hope for the oppressed underdog
But many depict a horrifying prelude to such an event.
● Thus, in modern times, the term is generally used to describe “doomsday” or
“the end of the world as we know it.”
Biblical account of the apocolypse
● In western culture, the basic theme of apocalypse stems from Christian
traditions
● This is most apparent in the Book of Revelation, attributed to St. John the
Apostle.
● The Book of revelation provides a dream-like account of heaven, and of the
ultimate battle between good and evil (in which God triumphs) in events
leading up to the end of the world.
● A few examples…
○ In the Book of Revelation, the Four Horsemen of the apocalypse are
sent as harbingers of the end of the world. They personify
conquest/pestilence, war, famine, and death..
Mass extinctions
● To appreciate what can cause a mass extinction, we will consider some details
of the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction.
● Being the youngest of the “Big Five,” the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction
has the best-preserved evidence for events that led up to, and followed, a
natural apocalypse, and is therefore the best studied.
● The fact that some of the most spectacular land animals in Earth’s history –
the dinosaurs – met their demise at the end of the Cretaceous Period only
adds to the intensity of interest in this particular catastrophe.
● Strangely enough, there are some eerie parallels between the concept of
apocalypse in art and literature and the demise of the dinosaurs.
● There are also a few lessons humankind might learn from these catastrophes
of the past…
What causes Mass Extinctions
● This is a tough one to answer – each mass extinction probably resulted from
multiple factors.…there are some common themes.
● To appreciate some of these, we will look at the most famous of these - the
Cretaceous-Tertiary (also called the end-Cretaceous) mass extinction.
● We will investigate the possible effects of three primary factors:
○ Asteroid impact
○ Volcanism
○ Sea level change
Evidence
● Shocked Quartz in K-T Boundary Clay
● Indicates shock metamorphism
● These structures in quartz grains have only been observed at meteorite impact
sites and nuclear test sites.
● Tiny spherules of glass are also found at the K-T boundary worldwide.
● These are believed to represent rock that was melted from the immense heat
of the impact, flung into the atmosphere as droplets and quickly cooled in the
atmosphere to form beads.
● When these glass beads can be demonstrated to be products of a meteorite
impact, they are called tektites.
● A sharp drop in % tree pollen accompanied by a sharp rise in % fern spores
● Debris ejected into the atmosphere would have caused extreme particulate
pollution that plunged Earth into darkness (and cold) for at least several
months.
● Shutting off of photosynthesis would have led to cascade of death throughout
the biosphere.
Other effects of impact
● The impact couldn’t have hit a worse place !
● Vapourization of rock gypsum (calcium sulphate) at impact site (Yucutan
Peninsula) would have generated lots of sulphur dioxide, lowering global
temperatures for several years.
● Reaction of sulphur dioxide with water in the atmosphere would have
produced severe acid rain (making it hard for marine organisms to produce
calcite skeletons)
● Combustion of nitrogen in the atmosphere (to form nitrogen oxides) would
have further contributed to acid precipitation (as nitric acid).
● Also, the consumption of atmospheric oxygen by the blast would have
significantly reduced ozone levels in the atmosphere.
● So…if you survivors of the freezing may have faced frying !
Effects of impact
● All of these effects combined would have had a disastrous effect on the global
biota for sure
● BUT WAIT! Does this put the question of “what killed the dinosaurs” to rest?
Not quite.
● Two other potential (but maybe less spectacular) contributors to the mass
extinction should be mentioned:
○ Volcanism
○ Sea level change
Volcanism
● Near the end of the Cretaceous Period (but before the asteroid impact), a
plume of mafic magma from the mantle led to series of gigantic eruptions in
India.
● ~ 4 million cubic km of lava erupted over about 2 million years.
● Sulphur dioxide from these eruptions would have cooled global climate
significantly.
● This would have stressed the biosphere even more.
Sea Level
● A major drop in sea level started near the end of the Cretaceous Period and
continued into the beginning of the Tertiary Period (Paleogene Period).
● This removed lots of shallow marine habitat (shallow seas now drained), and
exposed continental shelf areas.
● Less shallow sea = extinction of some shallow marine organisms
● Also… Land areas more arid = extinction of land organisms requiring large
expanses of wetland
● Note also, some of the continents were still fairly close together; lower sea
level creation of land bridges migration across bridges
● Might have led to competition and spread of disease among land animals
Tunguska Event
● Although the Tunguska event was not large enough to affect the global
population, it emphasizes the possibility of impact by large objects.
● At 7:17 AM on the morning of June 30, 1908, a mysterious explosion occurred
in the skies over Siberia.
● Seismic vibrations were recorded by seismographs as much as 1000 km away
from ground zero.
● At 400-500 km, observers reported "deafening bangs" and a fiery cloud on the
horizon.
● About 200 km from the explosion, the object was observed as a brilliant,
sunlike fireball with thunderous noises.
● At a distance of ~60 km, people were thrown to the ground or even knocked
unconscious; windows were broken and crockery knocked off shelves.
● The closest observers were some reindeer herders asleep in their tents about
30 km from the site. They were blown into the air and knocked unconscious.
One man was killed when he was blown into a tree.
Felled Trees
● An expedition led by Professor Leonid Kulik of the Soviet Academy of Science
travelled to the impact site in 1930. Even 22 years after the event the
devastation was immense.
● Within 30-40 kilometres of ground zero almost all of the trees had been
uprooted, burnt, blown flat, forming a radial pattern away from the blast site.
● From observations on devastation and from eyewitness accounts, the
Tunguska explosion was deduced to have occurred due to the breakup of a
large meteorite (about 50 metres in diameter) at an altitude roughly six
kilometres in the atmosphere.
● Energy released was equivalent to 1,000 Hiroshima bombs.
● Particles analyzed from tree resin matched the composition of a stony
meteorite (and rich in iridium).
● Note that a crater did not form due to the explosion of the object in the
atmosphere.
Comet Impact
● So why is a comet the bad guy in Deep Impact ?
● The first real-time observations of a significant body colliding with a planet in
recorded history was Comet Shoemaker Levy 9.
● The comet was discovered in 1993 and was torn apart by tidal stresses before
meeting a spectacular demise in July 1994 when over 20, kilometre-scale
comet fragments crashed into the planet at 60 km/s.
● The pieces of comet were like flies on a planetary windshield
● But in the aftermath, mighty Jupiter bore huge, Earth-sized scars that took
months to fade in its upper atmosphere. Could an event of this scale affect
Earth ?
● Risks - Frequency and size of impacts are inversely proportional.
● In other words, the frequency of a very large impact is less than that of a small
impact (thank goodness)
● However, stations worldwide are currently recording the positions of
near-Earth objects (just in case).
● Chances of catastrophic impacts are low, but real
Deep Impact
● Aspects of the impact crater, the composition of the ejecta, and the behaviour
of the comet resulting from impact were observed (but the impact was not
strong enough to change the comet’s course).
● This mission provided information on the composition/physical properties of
the comet (ejecta contained more rock dust and less water than expected).
● This may ultimately provide clues to how a comet would behave if it impacted
Earth.
● More recently, direct landings on extraterrestrial objects have been made.
Earths polarity
● Convective flow of material in the outer core creates an electric current that, in
turn, creates a magnetic field (similar to an electromagnet).
● So the main idea of the movie is on par with current knowledge (although it is
the flow of convection currents in the liquid outer core, not the core’s spin that
drives the magnetic field).
● Also true that the Earth’s magnetic field fluctuates in intensity and polarity.
● According to Earth's geologic record, our planet's magnetic field weakens and
flips, on average, about once every 200,000 years.
● However, the time between reversals does vary. The last time Earth's magnetic
field flipped was about 780,000 years ago.
Dinos in the eye of the public
● No other extinct group of animals have attracted as much public fascination as
the dinosaurs. Why ?
○ Many were big
○ They look cool
○ They’re dead
Dinosaurs and Myth
● It is very possible that dragon myths were spawned, in part, by early
discoveries of dinosaur remains.
● Superficially, dragons do look a lot like dinosaurs.
● Dragons are typically depicted as large reptilian beings (although with added
accessories such as wings and the ability to breathe fire)
A cross cultural phenomenon
● An interesting aspect of dragon mythology is that the image of the dragon is so
widely distributed over different cultures.
● This may, in part, reflect the widespread distribution of dinosaur remains
(found on all continents)
Dinosaur ancestry
● The most primitive reptile group (which first appeared in the Carboniferous
Period) is what is commonly termed the “stem reptiles” – small, lizard-like
forms that evolved from amphibians.
Changes in Posture
● Stem reptiles (and lizards) have a sprawling posture that limits mobility and
breathing (body is deformed during walking).
● Thecodonts attained a semi-upright posture that allowed for better mobility.
Later forms developed a nearly full upright posture.
● Dinosaurs attained full upright posture (with legs positioned directly beneath
the body, allowing for maximum mobility)
How are dinosaurs classified
● Two major groups of dinosaurs are recognized, based on hip structure.
● There are three bones in the hip (ilium, ischium and pubis).
● Saurichian (“lizard-hipped”) dinosaurs had a backward facing ischium
● And foreward-facing pubis. Both meat-eating and plant-eating forms are
known.
● Ornithischian (“bird-hipped”) dinosaurs had a backward facing ischium
● and pubis. All ornithischians were plant eaters (the backward rotation of the
pubis may have allowed for a bigger stomach).
Oldest known Dinos
● The oldest known dinosaurs are about 228 million years old, from
mid-Triassic rocks in Argentina.
● Earliest dinosaurs were meat-eating saurichians (called theropods).
Plant-eating saurichians (called sauropods) appeared by the Late Triassic and
ornithischians appeared by the Early Jurassic.
Saurischians: Theropods and Sauropods
● Theropods (all meat eaters) -bipedal
● Sauropods (all plant eaters) -quadripedal
● Ornithischian dinosaurs, although all plant-eaters, were extremely diverse in
appearance and had very specialized lifestyles.
● Ornithopods (e.g. hadrosaurs; duck-billed dinosaurs)
Dinosaur Nesting Behaviours
● Fossil nests of dinosaurs have been found all over the world.
● Many of these finds have indicated that dinosaurs were very good parents !
● Many dinosaurs built nests and tended to their young.
Misconceptions
● There are several misconceptions about dinosaurs that have persisted
● to the present day, mostly due to erroneous comparisons with modern-day
lizards (with which they are not directly related). Here are a few of them:
○ 1. Dinosaurs were slow, tail-dragging brutes.
■ The tail actually had a purpose: to provide a counterweight to
the mass at the front (the centre of balance was at the hips) !
Tyrannosaurus probably reduced the size of its front limbs to
offset the huge amount weight at the front of the body in the
head.
○ 2. Dinosaurs had scaly skin (just like lizards).
■ This misconception also stems from comparisons with modern
lizards. Dinosaur skin is rarely preserved. However, skin
impressions found so far indicate that dinosaur skin had a
pebbled texture like bird skin- very different from lizard skin
○ 3. Dinosaurs were dumb.
■ However…some of the smaller theropod dinosaurs such as
Troodon had much higher brain volume to body volume ratios,
well within the range of birds- it is estimated that Troodon may
have been as intelligent as a raccoon.
○ 4. Pterosaurs were flying dinosaurs.
■ This is a very common misconception.
■ Pterosaurs (commonly called “pterodactyls”) were reptiles (and
belonged to the archosaurs) but belong to a different group than
true dinosaurs.
○ 5. If the Loch Ness Monster existed, it would be a dinosaur.
■ Nope ! As far as we know, there are no dinosaurs that actively
■ swam. If Nessie exists, she’s a plesiosaur (a marine reptile as
■ far removed from the dinosaur family tree as we are from
dinosaurs).
○ 6. Dinosaurs were cold-blooded (just like lizards).
■ Lizards gain body heat by basking in the sun (to lesser extent by
digesting food) and lose body heat readily. Little attempt is
made to conserve body heat.
■ Some large dinosaurs may have been cold-blooded, but
generated lots of body heat by bacterial breakdown of food in
their stomachs. In addition eat loss would have been reduced by
their low surface-to-volume ratio.
○ 7. Dinosaurs were dull-coloured
■ Some of these feathered dinosaurs also exhibit long feathers
(despite the arms not being long enough to act as wings).
■ This plumage must have been used for display purposes, and
was probably brightly coloured
○ 8. Dinosaurs were unsuccessful (hence their extinction).
■ Note that dinosaurs walked Earth for about 160 million years.
■ Humans (and their close relatives) have been around for about 5
million years.
■ Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have been around for about
200,000 years (0.2 million years)
Mother of Pearl
● Mother of pearl is a common term for the shiny, iridescent material forming
the inner surface of seashells.
● The material comprising mother of pearl is called nacre.
● Nacre production is widespread among molluscs, the invertebrate group that
includes the bivalves (clams, mussels and oysters), gastropods (snails) and
cephalopods (primarily Nautilus and extinct ammonites)
The mantle: The common characteristics of molluscs
● All molluscs possess:
○ A fleshy foot, a radula (rasping organ), a digestive system, and gills
● …but most importantly, for purposes of this lecture, a mantle (a fleshy
membrane of tissue that surrounds the visceral mass).
● The mantle not only serves to protect delicate internal tissues, but is also
responsible for shell secretion (in forms that have a shell).
○ At the leading edge of growth, the mantle secretes prisms of calcium
carbonate (aragonite or calcite).
○ The mantle then covers the prismatic layer with tablets of aragonite
nacre (this is the mother of pearl layer observed on the shell interior).
○ Note that when shell secretion is not taking place, the mantle separates
from the shell.
○ Overlying the prismatic layer is an organic material called
periostracum. This provides the mollusc protection from dissolution,
and to some extent, aids in camouflage.
○ The ugly exterior of the pearl oyster (and other molluscs) conceals the
beauty within.
○ Don’t judge a book by its cover !
Internal Structure of Shell
● The prismatic and nacreous layers have different optical properties due to
differences in crystal habit. The prismatic layer (composed mostly of blocky
prisms of calcite or aragonite) tends to be weakly translucent to opaque.
● The nacreous layer (composed mostly of plate-like tablets of aragonite) that
forms the interior layer of the shell, is shiny, translucent and often very
colourful.
● The smooth surface of the nacreous layer allows mantle tissue to slide against
the shell without being damaged.
A Closer Look at Nacre
● Nacre is largely, but not entirely, composed of aragonite crystals; films of
organic matter (specifically as the substance conchiolin) and water are also
present.
● The general composition of mother of pearl (and pearls) is as follows:
● Aragonite (82-86 %)
● Tablets of aragonite form the framework of nacre
● Conchiolin (10-14 %)
● This is a complex organic substance (C32H48N2O11) made of polysaccharides
(complex sugars) and protein fibres.
● Water (2-4 %)
● Most of this water occurs in the conchiolin layers.
Structure of Nacre
● This is an edgewise (cross sectional) view of nacre as observed under SEM
(conchiolin has been dissolved in this sample)
● Tablets of aragonite are glued to adjacent tablets with conchiolin.
● Individual tablets can form thicker sheets, with intervening sheets of
conchiolin.
● This is a surface (plan) view of nacre as observed under SEM
● Note the hexagonal shapes of the aragonite tablets.
● The aragonite sheets do not uniformly cover the surface; they partially overlap
one another like shingles.
Lustre
● The quality of lustre in nacre is a function of two major things:
○ Quality of surface reflection: Aragonite tablets behave as mirrors. The
ability of the surface layer to reflect light determines the brilliance of
the lustre.
○ Quality of internal reflection: Aragonite tablets also behave like
windows – they transmit some of the incoming light. Light can be
reflected off crystal surfaces, giving nacre a warm internal glow.
Orient
● The iridescent play of colours in nacre is called orient
● The intensity of orient is dependent on similar factors as those that produce
lustre: the reflection of light off surfaces and the behaviour of light within the
nacre.
● Details of these concepts are impossible to explain without the use of
mathematical equations, so we’ll just stick to the basic ideas !
Orient: Influence of Surface Relief
● One contributor to orient is the splitting of light waves (diffraction) into
individual colours of the spectrum due to the regular arrangement of grooves
and ridges on a surface.
● At certain angles of viewing, waves of certain colours (each reflected at a
specific angle) are reinforced, making those colours more brilliant. This is
called constructive interference.
● The same principle applies to iridescence of the surface of a compact disc
(alternating lines of pits and ridges)
Orient: Influence of Refraction and Reflection
● Individual crystals of aragonite can also act as tiny prisms, refracting light and
dispersing it into the colours of the rainbow.
● This effect is further enhanced by the interaction of outgoing light waves that
have bounced off multiple crystal surfaces within the sheets of nacre
(constructive interference).
Uses of nacre
● Nacre has found its way into many applications.
● A popular practice among some shell collectors is to remove the outer
prismatic layer of a shell to reveal the more attractive nacreous layer.
● It is also a popular material for jewellery, inlays in musical instruments, and
various other ornamental applications.
● Nacre has also been widely used for making buttons.
Ammolite: Fossil Nacre
● A gemstone that has only recently entered the market is ammolite.
● Ammolite, fossil ammonite nacre, is rather rare because under normal
preservational circumstances, aragonite either dissolves or is recrystallized to
the more stable form of calcium carbonate, calcite.
● As you will recall, ammonites are extinct relatives of the Nautilus, squids,
octopuses and cuttlefishes.
● Like Nautilus, ammonites had a chambered shell filled with gas and liquid for
buoyancy regulation.
● Exceptionally well preserved ammonite nacre (ammolite gemstone) occurs in
● the Cretaceous Bearpaw Shale, south of Lethbridge Alberta (about 70 million
years old).
● Ammolite was granted gem status in 1981 by World Jewellery Confederation
● Named official gemstone of the Province of Alberta since 2004.
● Commercially mined south of Lethbridge, Alberta.
Orient in Ammolite
● For reasons still unanswered, the play of colours in ammonite nacre from the
Bearpaw Shale have been greatly enhanced in intensity (this might have to do
with slight deformation of aragonite crystals within the nacreous layers).
● Ammolite is somewhat difficult to work with because it readily splits apart
along planes between aragonite sheets.
● It is also quite soft and is prone to scratching.
● The ammolite must therefore be processed in a different way than most
gemstones.
● In a piece of ammolite jewellery, there is commonly very little ammolite in the
actual setting.
Pearl Oysters vs. Edible Oysters
● Most people know that precious pearls are made by pearl oysters (which, by
the way, are different from the common edible oyster).
● Edible oysters can also produce pearls, but these are porcelaneous, nor
nacreous (edible oysters do not secrete nacre).
Making Pearls
● However, pearls can also be made by many other bivalves (e.g. mussels), as
well as some gastropods (e.g. conchs), and even cephalopods (Nautilus).
● Basically, any mollusc that secretes a shell is capable of producing a pearl, but
high-lustre (nacreous) pearls are limited to molluscs with a nacreous layer.
● The conchs and blue mussels do not secrete nacre, so their pearls are not
nacreous.
Formation of pearls
● No coincidence that the colour and lustre of a given pearl matches the
characteristics of the nacreous layer of its host shell.
● Nacreous pearls, like mother of pearl, are composed of nacre and are built by
the epithelial (surface) cells of mantle tissue.
● Any foreign body that irritates the mantle tissue and cannot be expelled by the
mollusc can form the nucleus of a pearl (the mollusc reduces irritation by
surrounding the irritating body with smooth layers of nacre).
● Rarely do grains of sand form the nucleus of a pearl (oysters are quite efficient
at expelling sediment particles)
Blister Pearls
● The most common type of pearls in nature are blister pearls (pearls adhering
to the nacreous layer of the shell).
● Blister pearls form when an irritant (often a parasite) becomes trapped
between the shell and the mantle tissue.
● The oyster (or other mollusc) simply covers over the irritant with nacre,
forming a blister.
Blister Pearls
● In this remarkable specimen,
● a fish got trapped between the mantle and nacreous surface of a pearl oyster.
The fish has been covered with nacre, forming a blister.
Free Pearls
● Free pearls are formed less readily than blister pearls.
● This is because the irritant must be completely surrounded by nacre-secreting
epithelial cells of the mantle and held away from the nacreous layer of the
shell.
● In the wild, only 1 in 10,000 oysters will contain a pearl.
● Only a small percentage of these pearls will be of gem quality.
● Natural free pearls usually form by the intrusion of a parasite. Movement of a
parasite stimulates an invagination of the epithelium.
● Epithelial tissue completely surrounds the invader, forming a pearl sac in
deeper levels of the mantle.
● Nacre is secreted on all sides of the invader, forming a free pearl.
● Natural free pearls are formed deep within mantle tissue or in the gonad (if
epithelial cells are moved there by the invading parasite).
Properties of Pearls
● The same properties valued in mother of pearl are valued in pearls: lustre,
colour and orient.
● Lustre:
● As for mother of pearl, high reflectivity and internal reflection determine the
lustre of pearls.
● Colour:
● The basic colour of a pearl (body colour) is dependent on pigments in
conchiolin.
● Conchiolin colour varies among various species of pearl oysters.
● Dark pearls tend to have thick layers of dark-coloured conchiolin, whereas
white pearls have thin layers of light-coloured conchiolin).
● Orient:
As in mother of pearl, the orient (iridescence) in a pearl is caused by the
breakup of white light into colours of the spectrum by surface relief and the
refractive/reflective properties of aragonite layers.
● Fossil Pearls
● As the nacreous layer of shells can sometimes be preserved in the fossil
record, so too can pearls (although these are extremely rare).
● These are fossil pearls of pen shells from Eocene (50 million years old)
London Clay – they retain their nacreous lustre due to exceptional conditions
of preservation (most importantly, lack of dissolution)
Cultured Pearl Industry
● The practise of perliculture can be traced back to Mikimoto Kōkichi who
patented the technology in 1916.
● Has greatly increased the availability of pearls to consumers.
● Wild pearl oysters were been nearly driven to extinction in Hawaii and Tahiti
(so perliculture came in the nick of time).
● Populations of wild pearl oysters are also threatened by pollution.
● Some advantages of perliculture include:
○ Better pearl count to oyster ratio
○ Some control over pearl shape
○ Control over pearl size.
● It is, however, a very labour-intensive industry
Oyster Surgery
● Oysters, raised in cages or nets (mostly to prevent predation by other
animals), are anaesthetized so that the oysters relax their adductor muscle and
open their shell.
● They are now ready for tissue implant.
● Epithelial mantle tissue of donor oysters are cut into small strips.
● In each recipient oyster, a slice of mantle tissue, plus a nucleation bead
(generally made from nacre of freshwater clams), is inserted into the gonad
(far removed from nacreous layer of shell).
● A pearl sac forms in the gonad.
● The epithelial mantle tissue continues to secrete nacre and, if all goes well,
covers the bead with nacre to form a free pearl.
● Natural pearls generally have a large amount of nacre, relative to the diameter
of the nucleus.
● Cultured pearls only have a thin rind of nacre surrounding a larger nucleus
(the thickness of the nacreous rind must be at least
● 15 % of the total diameter of the pearl to be worth selling).
Mabé Pearls
● A fairly new type of cultured pearl (technically a blister pearl) is the Mabé
pearl
● Hollow, flat-bottomed, plastic domes are inserted in the space between the
mantle and nacreous layer of the pearl oyster shell. The oyster secretes nacre
on these domes.
● Mabés are cut from the oyster shell and plastic domes removed.
● The hollow interior of each pearl is filled with wax (sometimes coloured to
give the pearl a slight colour tint) for support, and a disc of mother of pearl is
glued to the bottom.
Natural Disasters: Misconceptions
● An important thing to keep in mind about natural disasters associated with
geologic processes is that they are NATURAL.
● Processes such as earthquakes and volcanism have been occurring since Earth
was formed.
● The apparent increase in the degree of destruction by natural disasters largely
reflects a growing human population (with more people in harm’s way) and
greater media coverage.
What is an earthquake
● An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of
energy along faults in Earth’s crust.
● Energy released as vibrations (seismic waves) radiates in all directions from
its source, the focus. The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus is
the epicentre.
Storage of energy
● Rocks on both sides of an existing fault (or other planar feature) are deformed
by tectonic forces.
● Rocks bend and store elastic energy (bulding strain).
Release of energy
● Once frictional forces along the fault are overcome, slippage occurs at the
weakest point (the focus)
● Vibrations (earthquakes) occur when the deformed rock “springs back” to its
original shape (elastic rebound)
Types of Seismic Waves: Body Waves
● Travel through Earth’s interior Two types based on mode of travel: Primary
(P) waves and Secondary (S) waves
● Primary (P) waves
● Push-pull (compress and expand) motion, changing the volume of the
intervening material.
● Secondary (S) waves
● Shake motion at right angles to their direction of travel.
● Take longer to travel than P waves
Recording Seismic waves
● P waves always arrive first, followed by S waves, which in turn, are followed by
L waves.
● Differences in the arrival times of these waves (especially the time difference
between P and S waves) at different recording stations permit one to
determine the distance between the recording station and the earthquake’s
epicentre.
A travel-time graph is used to find the distance to the epicentre
● The time elapsed between the first arrivals of P and S waves can be scaled to
an equivalent distance from the recording station and the earthquake
epicentre.
● Note that the longer the time difference between the first arrival of P waves
and the first arrival of S waves, the greater the distance between the recording
station and the earthquake epicentre.
Locating the epicentre of an earthquake
● A circle with a radius equal to the distance to the epicentre is drawn around
each station
● The point where all three circles intersect is the earthquake epicentre
Earthquakes Belts
● About 95 percent of the energy released by earthquakes is focussed along plate
boundaries plates slide against one another)
Magnitude scale
● Richter magnitude - concept introduced by Charles Richter in 1935
● Richter scale
● Based on the amplitude (wave height) of the largest seismic waves recorded.
● Accounts for the decrease in wave amplitude with increased distance.
Tsunami
● Tsunami (from Japanese “tsu”= harbour and “nami”=wave)
● These destructive waves that are often inappropriately called “tidal waves.”
● Tsunami are important images in Japanese art.
● Result from vertical displacement along a fault located on the ocean floor, a
large undersea landslide triggered by an earthquake, or other disturbances
(e.g. meteorite impact).
● In the open ocean tsunami wave height is usually less than 1 metre.
● In shallower coastal waters the water piles up to heights that occasionally
exceed 30 metres (due to friction generated on seafloor)- wave breaks when it
can no longer support itself.
● Can be very destructive !
2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami
● On Friday, March 11, 2011 at 2:46:23 PM an earthquake of Magnitude 9.0
occurred offshore, approximately 130 km east of Sendai, Japan (and about 375
km northeast of Tokyo).
● Tied for world’s 4th largest earthquake since 1900
● Depth of focus about 13.5 km below Earth’s surface
● The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 23.6 m
high that struck Japan as early as 15 minutes after the quake, in some cases
traveling up to 10 km inland.
Human Impact
● Estimated impact on humans included:
● 15,899 deaths
● 2,778 injured
● 17,339 people missing
● over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed
● Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without
electricity and 1.5 million without water.
Status of Nuclear Crisis
● Breakdown of cooling systems led to overheating of three reactor leading to
meltdown.
● A significant amount of radioactive steam escaped from at least one of the
reactor buildings.
● Thankfully, the surrounding area was evacuated early in the crisis
● (over 140,000 residents).
● The long-term effects of radiation contamination from air, water and soil
remain to be fully ssessed.
Can earthquakes (and tsunami) be predicted ?
● Short-range predictions
● Currently, no reliable method exists for making short-range earthquake
predictions
● Long-range forecasts
● Give the probability of a certain magnitude earthquake occurring on a time
scale of 30 to 100 years, or more. There is some promise in this (based partly
on historical records and rates of creep).
● An important step to reduce damage from tsunami is the installation of
warning systems (remember that it can take hours for tsunami to reach
distant shores)- unfortunately, technology in tsunami-prone areas is lacking
in many cases).
Distribution of Volcanoes
● As with earthquakes, most volcanoes occur along plate boundaries.
● Exceptions are hotspot volcanoes, which do occur within plates (due to
magma generation associated with stationary mantle plumes).
● Mafic magmas:
● Low viscosity (i.e. are “runny”) due to low silica content (about 50%)
● Low volatile content
● Produce volcanoes that tend to erupt relatively gently.
● Typically associated with hotspot volcanoes and divergent plate boundaries
● Intermediate to felsic magmas:
● High viscosity (i.e. are “stiff and gooey”) due to high silica content (about
60-70%).
● High volatile content.
● Produce volcanoes that erupt explosively.
● Typically associated with convergent plate boundaries
Violent Volcanic Activity: Calderas
● The most devastating eruptions are those that are so violent that the top of the
volcano caves in.
● Huge amounts of pyroclastic debris and gases are released through ring
fractures surrounding the summit.
● The crater produced by such collapse is called a caldera.
● Explosive eruptions emit huge quantities of gases and fine-grained debris into
the atmosphere which filter out and reflect a portion of the incoming solar
radiation.
Strange Happenings
● In the middle of the night on August 26, 1986, Some 1,700 people and
thousands of animals living in the valley below Lake Nyos, Cameroon
mysteriously died in their sleep.
● After the disaster, it was noted that Lake Nyos developed a strange orange
colour.
● How might this strange event be explained ?
A Volcanic Connection
● Lake Nyos occupies a crater of a dormant volcano in a failed rift arm that
developed during the opening of the Atlantic Ocean.
● But…the Lake Nyos volcano has been dormant for 400 years.
● The 1986 disaster was not accompanied by the eruption of any lava or
pyroclastic debris.
Gas Time Bombs
● The lake, only about 1 km wide, is exceptionally deep (200 m).
● The upper 50 metres is fresh water- below this level, the water is salty (due to
emanation of sodium-rich volcanic fluids that from the underlying magma
chamber).
● Also quietly accumulating at the bottom of the lake are large quantities of
carbon dioxide (again fed from an underlying magma chamber).
● As long as the lake is undisturbed, the carbon dioxide is confined to the
bottom of the lake.
Disturbance and Lake Overturn
● Carbon dioxide accumulated to the point that it could no longer be contained
at the bottom of the lake, and rapidly escaped to the surface.
● The concentrated carbon dioxide, being denser than air, flowed close to the
ground as a plume and suffocated victims up to 25 km away from the crater.
● Along with the carbon dioxide came lots of lake floor water containing
dissolved reduced iron. It was the oxidation of this iron that gave the lake the
orange colour.
Preventative Measures For the Future
● To prevent future disasters, a lakewater piping system has been installed.
● This allows long-term release of small amounts of carbon dioxide from the
lake bottom (thus reducing the rate of carbon dioxide buildup).
Strange Rock Behaviour: Racetrack Basin
● Within Death Valley, California is a dry desert lake bed, known as the
Racetrack Playa.
● Resting on the lakebed are loose dolostone boulders weighing up to 320 kg.
Some are associated with long furrows.
● Some of the boulders (“sailing stones”) are located hundreds of metres from
the edges of the lake, and some have moved up slight inclines on the lakebed
surface (indicating that gravity is not the sole factor in moving these rocks).
● Until recently, nobody had actually observed the rocks move.
Explanation For Movement of Boulders
● The orientation of the furrows indicate that the boulders generally move in a
northward direction (this is consistent with the prevailing wind direction).
● A few boulders were tagged with GPS trackers to track their movement.
● A mechanism for moving the boulders was finally deduced.
● In the winter, when water is present of the playa, it freezes at night to form a
thin layer of ice.
● When the ice melts, the thin sheets of ice break up and are rafted on a thin
sheet of water.
● The mini ice floes are moved by wind, pushing the rocks across the surface of
the playa (now slick due to the wet mud).
● Once the ice has melted and the water has evaporated, the rocks appear
stranded on the dry surface.
Mimetolith
● At some point in their lives, most people see familiar shapes in natural
geologic features (a product of of pareidolia)
● A mimetolith can be defined as a natural topographic feature, rock outcrop,
rock specimen, mineral specimen, or loose stone with the shape of something
else (e.g., animal, plant, or manufactured item.
● One Japanese museum is devoted entirely to mimetoliths.
Concretions
● Many mimetoliths are concretions – bodies of cemented sediment.
● Concretions are commonly formed in marine sediment with abundant organic
matter.
● In the process of eating the organic matter (containing carbon), certain
bacteria release bicarbonate into the pores of the sediment.
Nucleation of Concretions
● This bicarbonate combines with dissolved calcium in the porewater, to form
crystals of calcite (calcium carbonate), which cement the sediment grains
together.
● This cementation is often localized around a nucleus, such as a fossil, forming
discrete bodies of cemented sediment.
Differential Erosion
● Concretions are more resistant to weathering and erosion than their host
sedimentary rocks within which they grew.
● When the host rock is eroded away, the concretions appear strewn over the
eroded surface.
● Delusional people like to think these concretions are fossils or signs from gods
or extraterrestrials
Bunyan’s Burger (North Coyote Buttes, Northern Arizona)
● This large concretion (about 3 m wide, 1.5 m high) has been exposed by
erosion of the softer sedimentary rock within which it grew.
● It has split and has been preferentially eroded along the bedding planes of
cemented strata.
● …and is probably more nutritious than a Big Mac
Explanation of Crossbedding
● Crossbedding is a sedimentary structure produced by the migration of
bedforms (ripples and dunes) under the influence of a water or wind current.
● Sediment particles transported in a current come to rest on the downcurrent
side of the bedforms, forming laminations at a high angle to the main bedding
surfaces.
Naga Cave, Northern Thailand
● Discovered in 2020
● Features overhanging ledge that resembles head of a snake.
● …and surfaces at the cave entrance that resemble the scaled coils of a snake.
● Due to development of expansion cracks produced by heating from the Sun.
● Cracks further widened by seepage of water through the limestone (to produce
appearance of scales).
Cave Deposits (Speleothems)
● Groundwater can dissolve large quantities carbonate bedrock.
● Dissolution is initially focussed along cracks (e.g. joints) and other planes of
weakness. Over long periods of time, continued dissolution can produce large
underground tunnels.
● Tunnels are drained of water if the water table is lowered- this leaves behind
an empty, air-filled space that we call a cave.
Air-filled Cave
● Once emptied (at least partially) of water, caves can begin to fill up with
sedimentary material: faeces of cave animals, clastic sediment washed in
from openings at the surface, and chemical sediment (usually travertine).
● Cavern features produced by the minerals precipitated from dripping water
are called speleothems (spelaion = cave, them = put or deposit).
●
Stalactites and Stalagmites
● Among the most familiar speleothem features are stalactites and stalagmites.
● Over long periods of time, precipitation of calcite from dripping water
produces icicle-shaped bodies of travertine called stalactites (stalatos=
trickling)
● Calcite precipitation from water on the floor of a cave, produces
upward-oriented mounds called stalagmites (stalagmos = dropping)
● Stalactites and stalagmites can eventually connect, forming columns.
● Walls of the cave can also be covered with sheets of travertine
The stalacpipe
● Located in the Luray Caverns of Virginia.
● Stalactites covering 1.5 acres of the caverns produce mellow tones when
electronically tapped by rubber-tipped mallets.
● The instrument was invented in 1954 by Mr. LeIand W. Sprinkle, a Virginian
mathematician and electronic scientist at the Pentagon.
● The project took 3 years to complete.
● The initial stage involved searching the cavern chambers for stalactites with
tones that matched each note of the musical scale.
● Mallets were wired throughout the caverns and connected to a large
four-manual console.
● When a key is depressed, a tone occurs as the rubber-tipped plunger strikes
the stalactite tuned to concert pitch.
Soil: The foundation for crops
● Soil is a combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and air.
● It is the portion of the regolith (rock and mineral fragments produced by
weathering) that supports the growth of plants
Typical components in a soil that yields good plant growth - Mineral and Organic
Matter
● Mineral matter provides the important inorganic nutrients for plant growth.
In addition, it also provides a substratum for root growth and gives soil
“structure.”
● Organic matter is another source of nutrients. Addition of organic matter
replenishes nutrients taken out of the soil by growing plants.
Typical components in a soil that yields good plant growth - Water and Air
● Water is the transport medium for nutrients (and air) to be taken up by plant
roots.
● Air, the fourth ingredient of soil, is taken up by plant roots and is also
important in supporting important decomposers.
Factors controlling soil formation
● Parent material
● Residual soil – parent material is the underlying bedrock
● Transported soil – forms on parent material that has been carried from
elsewhere and deposited (e.g. most soils in southern Ontario have formed on
glacial sediment).
● Time
● Important in all geologic processes
● Amount of time for soil formation varies for different soils depending on
geologic and climatic conditions
● Climate
● Most influential control of soil formation
● Key factors are temperature and precipitation
● Plants and animals
● Organisms influence the soil’s physical and chemical properties
● Also furnish organic matter to the soil
● Slope
● Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils
● Optimum terrain is a flat-to-undulating upland surface
Influence of slope on soil development
●
The Soil Profile
● Soil forming processes operate from the surface downward.
● Parent material weathers to rubble and smaller particles.
● Organic matter deposited on top of the weathered material.
● Subsoil develops between organic matter on top and weathered parent
material below.
● Develop a soil profile with distinct soil horizons
An idealized soil profile
● O-horizon: mostly loose, partly decayed organic matter (humus)
● A-horizon: mixture of humus (decayed organic amatter) and and mineral
matter.
● E-horizon (not always present): zone of leaching (removal of soluble organic
and mineral matter, and clays, by water percolating from above).
● B-horizon (subsoil): zone of accumulation of clays and ions transported from
above.
● C-horizon (soil base): partly altered parent material (solid rock or loose
sediment).
●
A soil profile showing different horizons
●
● Organic-rich layer (humus)
● Layer of minerals + humus
● Subsoil- iron and clay rich layer
● Weathered parent material (rock or sediment)
Soil Texture
● Soil texture, primarily controlled by the grain size of mineral matter is another
important factor in the growing of crops.
● Clay-rich soils retain lots of water and tend to contain lots of nutrients (e.g.
ions of iron, potassium, sodium and calcium). However, such soil is extremely
sticky when wet and can feel as hard as cement when dry. Therefore clay-rich
soils are generally not good for farming equipment !
● At the opposite extreme, gravel- and sand-rich soils drain very quickly (so
nutrients are quickly lost) and lack cohesion (so erode quickly). So these soils
are not generally desired.
Loam: A happy Medium
● For most crops, the most desired type of soils is loam – a mixture of clay, silt
and sand.
● Loam provides adequate water and nutrient retention while allowing
sufficient drainage, so is a happy medium.
● Still, there can be variations in the relative proportions of clay, sand, and silt
that are favoured by certain crops. For example, potatoes tend to prefer a
sandy loam soil (the soil is sufficiently loose to allow the tubers to develop
without obstruction).
Stressed Out For Flavah
● Many edible plants (and plant products) are prized for their pleasant aroma
and flavour. This is particularly true for culinary herbs.
● Culinary herbs contain distinctively scented, “volatile” or “essential” oils (now
very popular for aromatherapy).
● The intensity of flavour relies heavily on the concentration of essential oils.
● The key to doing this is to provide enough nutrition to the plant that it
remains healthy, but to prevent the plant from becoming too lush.
Growing Your Herbs: A Tip From Cam
● Growing flavourful herbs is daunting to many people.
● However, herbs such as sage and thyme are among the easiest plants to grow.
● Plant your herbs in the poorest sandy soil in your garden (basil is an
exception), then neglect them. Water them enough to keep them alive, but
don’t fertilize them !
● The flavour will be noticeably intense (this is because the essential oils are
more concentrated in a stressed plant).
Soil and Wine
● A similar “stressing” of plants is important for grape-growing (the basis for
winemaking).
● Most of the major wine regions of the world (e.g. France, Italy, California) are
established on well-drained, sandy soils.
● If grape plants are healthy, but are somewhat reduced in their water uptake,
the resulting grapes are concentrated in sugar (necessary for producing
ethanol by later fermentation) and flavour (in part, related to essential oil
content).
● So the resulting wine is very flavourful
Mineral Food Additives: Salt
● Geological materials not only provide the basis for the growing of food, but are
also important in the preservation and manipulation of food products.
● For example, remember that the first preservative used by human, common
salt (halite) is a mineral precipitated from seawater.
● Direct evaporation of seawater supplies us with sea salt, but the majority of
the salt we use comes from salt deposits deposited in ancient seas (salt mined
in Ontario is over 400 million years old).
But Wait – There’s More ! Three Common Ingredients in Your Food
● Gypsum (calcium sulphate): Used as a stiffening agent in baked products such
as bread, cakes, and cake frostings
● Plagioclase feldspar (sodium aluminum silicate)
○ Used as an anti-caking agent in powdered products such as coffee
whiteners.
● Apatite (calcium phosphate) (anti-caking agent and acid regulator)
● Nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate) Of course, used as a raising agent in baked
goods.
The health-conscious might be interested in some tofu
● Tofu is made by extracting proteins (“soy milk”) strained from ground-up
soybeans.
● Kind of like an Asian version of making cheese (except that the protein is from
soybeans vs. milk)
● It’s surprisingly easy to make yourself.
● Minerals play a crucial role in tofu-making.
A Note on Aphrodisiacs
● Interestingly, the notion that certain foods are aphrodisiacs might also relate
to geology.
● A good example is the edible oyster.
● As in land-based organisms, marine organisms ultimately acquire nutrients
from ions that are released into seawater from weathered rocks.
● Oysters just happen to concentrate zinc in their tissues.
● Zinc deficiency would have been relatively common in human populations of
the past, particularly among those who did not regularly eat whole grains or
fresh fruits and vegetables (other prime sources of zinc).
● It is now known that people with zinc deficiencies suffer infertility and libido
loss.
● The “zinc boost” provided from oysters, could have been noticed by people
who were normally deficient in zinc (even sperm count can be improved by
increasing zinc in one’s diet).
● So…the concept of aphrodisiacs might actually be founded on a grain of truth !
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Chapter 1 - Slideshow 1

Three major influences of geology on art:

● But many variations on these basic types of cuts.

Mechanical and Chemical Weathering Work Hand-in-Hand

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