REAL UNREAL/Deduction

Func- Ability Permission Obligation

tions
Modal CAN – to be able to MAY – to be allowed to Must, should, ought to,
Verbs to be permitted to to be to, to have to, need
Present I can(not) do I may (not) do I (don't) have to do Present-Future
Do you have to do? Could
I am (not) able to do I am (not) allowed to do He has to do May } do
is is (He doesn't have to do Might
are are Does he have to do?)
Can't
I should do Must
I must do Ought to
I ought to do Should
I am to do Can } be doing
is to Could
are to May
I need to do /I need doing Might

Past I could (not) do I might (not) do I had to do Past

Can't
I was(not) able to do I was (not) allowed to do I was to do Must
were were were Ought to
Should
managed to V Can } have done
succeeded in Ving Could
May
Might
Future I will be able to do I will be allowed to do I will have to do
won't won't won't

WILL / WOULD / SHALL / DARE / TO BE BOUND TO

0 %----------------------<50%----------------------->50%-----------------100 %

might - may - could - should - must - can’t - will

 https://www.english-grammar.at/online_exercises/modal-verbs/modal-verbs-index.htm
https://www.english-grammar.at/online_exercises/modal-verbs/m016.htm
https://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/398.htm

Modal Verb + Simple/Continuous/Perfect/Perfect Continuous INFINITIVE

Deduction and speculation (Simple) - https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1/modal-verbs-of-deduction/
https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1/modal-verbs-of-deduction/
https://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/modals-deduction-present
https://elt.oup.com/student/result/engint/a_grammar/unit07/7c_1?cc=lv&selLanguage=lv
https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/B1_present_modals_of_deduction.htm
Modal Forms
Simple Modal Passive Simple Modal
I could swim at the beach. The room should be cleaned once a day.

Continuous Modal Passive Continuous Modal

I could be swimming at the beach right now. The room should be being cleaned now.

Perfect Modal Passive Perfect Modal

I could have swum at the beach yesterday. The room should have been cleaned yesterday.

Perfect Continuous Modal Passive Perfect Continuous Modal

I could have been swimming at the beach instead The room should have been being cleaned but nobody
of working in the office. was there. (Rare form)
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/b1-b2-grammar/modals-deductions-about-past
https://www.esl-lounge.com/student/grammar/4g66-past-modals-exercise.php
https://elt.oup.com/student/oxfordsolutions/intermediate/grammar_05_02?cc=lv&selLanguage=lv

Modal Verb + Perfect INFINITIVE

Must, could, might, may, couldn’t, can’t, may not, and might not are used to show how certain the
speaker is that an action is presently occurring or not occurring. Using must conveys a strong feeling of
certainty; nevertheless, there is still some doubt in the speaker’s mind.
nevertheless, there is still some doubt in the speaker’s mind.
Needn't Have - You didn't know something was unnecessary but you did it.
You needn’t have done the washing up as I was going to do that tomorrow.
When the party was over, I realized that you needn’t have cooked so much food as most of it
was untouched.
Didn't Need To - You knew something was unnecessary and you either did it or not.
It started raining heavily so I didn’t need to water the flowers. (it wasn’t necessary, so I didn’t do
that.)
It was my day off yesterday, that’s why I didn’t need to get up early.(It was not obligatory for me)
https://www.esl-lounge.com/student/grammar/3g7-neednt-have-exercise.php
1. I   (go) to work today but I went as I knew they were really busy on
this new contract.
2. I   (take) any money to the museum - I didn't realise it was free to
enter.
3. Sheila   (got) a taxi to the party. I would have given her a lift in my car.
4. Oh Mike, you   (buy) me anything for my birthday! A simple card
would have been perfectly acceptable.
5. Today was the last day of school and we   (attend) classes in the
afternoon.
6. We went for a lovely walk in the woods yesterday. We took a huge picnic with us but
there was a café there anyway. We   (take) anything!
7. Our boss told us we had an extra three days to finish the project so
we   (work) so hard.
8. You   (say) anything to Carla about the broken vase. She understood
what had happened anyway.

1 didn't need to go.

2 needn't have taken.
3: needn't have got.
4 needn't have bought.
5 didn't need to attend.
6 needn't have taken.
7 didn't need to work.
8 needn't have said.

https://www.liveworksheets.com/worksheets/en/English_as_a_Second_Language_(ESL)/Modal_verbs/
Didn't_need_vs_Needn't_have_ia1096180dn
Present modal continuous tense (will, shall, can, must + be + -ing
verb).
Use:
WOULD SHALL DARE to be bound to

0 %---------------<50%---------------------->50%-------------100 %

might - may - could - can - should - must - can’t - will

 used when you are not sure if the subject is doing an action. However, this action is
possible, necessary or likely.
• used when you are not sure if the subject will be in the middle of doing an action or
is planning to take an action in the future. However, this action is possible, neces-
sary or likely that he is or will.
Examples:
1. You must be joking!
2. We should be hurrying. We're late!
3. I could be living in Vietnam.
4. We should be keeping an eye on his progress at school.
5. She would be regretting this decision.
6. His flashy personality might be ruining his blind date.
7. The young girls must be thinking of their spring dance.
8. The audience will be sneering at his corny jokes.
9. The child may be imbibing his parents’ habits.
10. He shall be demonstrating proper first aid for sprains.
11. Her eyes can be stinging from the smoke.
12. We must be splitting the bill.
13. Person A: What’s all that noise?
Person B: The neighbour’s son is in a rock band. They must be practicing.
14. They aren’t here yet and it’s getting late. They might not be coming.
15. It’s noon. George went to bed at 10:00 last night. He can’t still be sleeping!
16. Sara wasn't at home last night when we went to visit her. She might have been studying at
the library.
17. Naeem wasn't at home last night. He has a lot of exams coming up soon, and he is also
working on a term paper. He must have been studying at the library.
Could, may and might show that a speaker is 50% or less certain that an action is in progress.
Couldn’t and can’t show that the speaker believes strongly that a situation is not taking place. For
example:

18. It’s noon. George went to bed at 10:00 last night. He can’t still be sleeping!

19. Person A: I didn’t hear a sound when I passed by the children’s room earlier.
Person B: They must have been sleeping.
 FORMS FOLLOWING THE MODAL AUXILIARIES
can*
could*** eat simple
may eaten PRESENT/ passive
might eating FUTURE progressive
be
passive
must being eaten progressive
(shall)
should eaten simple
P
ought to eaten passive
A
will** have eating S progressive
been
T passive
would*** being eaten progressive

* no have after can (but possible after can't )

* * will have is perfect, not past (also shall?)
** *could and would can have both present and past meanings (even without have )

http://www.iei.uiuc.edu/structure/structure1/salzmann_index.html

MODAL AUXILIARIES -- meaning -- a general overview

conditionality
probability (guessing) advisability (judging) (if .., unreal)
(a kind of probability)

(how advisable? / past

past nonpast past
nonpast (how sure?) % nonpast (have =
(unknown) how much choice?) (unreal) (unreal)
unreal)
can't can't have
Disbelief 0%
couldn't couldn't have
ability/potential
can could can permission could -- --
>0%
may guessing <50% may have may permission -- -- --
might (maybe / might have might -- might might have
could* maybe not) could* have could* suggestion/option could* have could could have
criticism) (should =
using logic >50%
should advice should have real/unlikely)
should (expectation) should have*
must (conclusion) must have
must necessity had to* --
(did/will offer / willingness / would
will future 100%?? will would would
have) refusal have
*negative = disbelief, not guessing *negative: could / not V.
see information about mustn't vs not have to

MODALITY
is a range of attitudes we express towards the main situation or event of a sentence [..] All modal verbs have
more than one meaning, some can express near synonyms, like ought to and should; other can stand as
antonyms, like must and needn’t. The field of modality is both complex and rich in ways of expressing a range
of communicative functions. (Broughton, 1990:161).

There are 11 modal auxiliary verbs in English (can, may, might, could, would, will, shall, must, should,
ought to). (Leech, 1989: 260 – 261) Had better, used to, need and dare are known as semi-modals. There are
also related modal expressions (be allowed to, be able to, have (got) to, be bound to, be to, would rather, etc.)
that some grammarians call modal equivalents.
 1. Present
You can
Can 2. Past Negative Forms
also use:
3. Future
1. I can speak Chinese
1. I can't speak Swahili.
Can 2. SHIFTS TO "COULD"
2. SHIFTS TO "COULD"
I could speak Chinese when I was a kid.
I couldn't speak Swahili. be able
general
ability 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"
3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"
I will be able to speak Chinese by the time I finish my
I won't be able to speak Swahili.
course.
1. With a burst of adrenaline, people can pick up cars.
1. People can't pick up cars.
can 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"
With a sudden burst of adrenaline, he was able to lift the 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"
car off the child's leg. Even the weight lifter, couldn't lift the
ability
car off the child's leg. be able
during a
specific 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"
event 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"
With a sudden burst of adrenaline, he will be able to
Even three men working together
won't be able to lift the car.
lift the car.
1. I don't have any time. I can't help
1. I have some free time. I can help her now. her  now.

Can 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO"

I had some free time yesterday. I was able to help her at I didn't have time yesterday. I wasn't be able
opportunity that time. able to help her at that time.

3. I'll have some free time tomorrow. I can help her then. 3. I won't have any time later. I can't
help her then.
1. I can't drive Susan's car when she is
1. I can drive Susan's car when she is out of town.
out of town.
2. SHIFTS TO "BE ALLOWED"
can 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ALLOWED"
I was allowed to drive Susan's car while she was out of
I wasn't allowed to drive Susan's car may
town last week.
permission while she was out of town last week.
3. I can drive Susan's car while she is out of town next
3. I can't drive Susan's car while she is
week.
out of town next week.
Can't I have a glass of water?
Can I have a glass of water?
can
Can't you give me a lift to school? could
Can you give me a lift to school?
may
request
(Requests usually refer to the near
(Requests usually refer to the near future.)
future.)
It can't cost more than a dollar or two.
Anyone can become rich and famous if they know the right
can people.
You can't be 45! I thought you were
about 18 years old. could
possibility / Learning a language can be a real challenge.
impossibility
 (This use is usually a generalization
(This use is usually a generalization or an supposition.)
or an supposition.)
1. Present
You can
COULD 2. Past Negative Forms
also use:
3. Future
1. Mary couldn't be the one who stole
the money.
1. John could be the one who stole the money.
could 2. Mary couldn't have been the one
2. John could have been the one who stole the money. might,
who stole the money.
may
possibility
3. John could be charged with the crime when the police
3. Mary couldn't possibly be charged
finish the investigation. 
with the crime after the police examine
the evidence.
could 1. If I had more time, I could travel around the world. 1. Even if I had more time, I couldn't
 travel around the world.

2. If I had had more time, I could have traveled around the 2. Even if I had had more time, I
world. couldn't have traveled around the
conditional
world.
(can, could)
3. If I had more time this winter, I could travel around the
world. 3. Even if I had more time this winter, I
could travel around the world.
1. NO PRESENT FORM
could
2. You could have spent your vacation in Hawaii.  NO NEGATIVE FORMS
suggestion
3. You could spend your vacation in Hawaii.  
I couldn't run more than a mile in my
could I could run ten miles in my twenties.
twenties.
be able
past ability I could speak Chinese when I was a kid.
I couldn't speak Swahili.
Couldn't he come with us?
Could I have something to drink?
could
Couldn't you help me with this for just can,
Could borrow your stapler? a second? may,
polite
might
request
(Requests usually refer to the near future.) (Requests usually refer to the near
fut.)
1. Present
May 2. Past Negative Forms can also
3. Future
1. Jack may not be upset. Perhaps he
1. Jack may be upset. I can't really tell if he is annoyed or
is tired.
tired.
may
2. Jack may not have been upset.
2. Jack may have been upset. I couldn't really tell if he was might
Perhaps he was tired.
possibility annoyed or tired.
3. Jack may not get upset, even if you
3. Jack may get upset if you don't tell him the truth.
tell him the truth
possibility in 1. The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a
certain lot of work to be done. (= Although it was a success, there is still
situations ...)
1. You may not leave the table. You're
1. You may leave the table now that you're finished with not finished with your dinner yet.
your dinner.
may 2. SHIFT TO "BE ALLOWED TO"
2. SHIFT TO "BE ALLOWED TO" You were not allowed to leave the
can
You were allowed to leave the table after you finished your table because you hadn't finished your
permission dinner. dinner.

3. You may leave the table when you finish your dinner.   3. You may not leave the table until
you are finished with your dinner.  
May I borrow your eraser.
may
can,
May I make a phone call. NO NEGATIVE FORM
might
requests
(Requests usually refer to the near future.)
1. Present
Might 2. Past Negative Forms can also
3. Future
1. She might not be on the bus.
She might be walking home.
1. She might be on the bus. I think her car is having problems.
might
2. She might not have taken the
2. She might have taken the bus. I'm not sure how she got to work. could,
bus. She might have walked
possibilit may
home.
y 3. She might take the bus to get home. I don't think Bill will be able
to give her a ride.
3. She might not take the bus.
She might get a ride from Bill.
 1. Even if I entered the contest, I
might 1. If I entered the contest, I might actually win. might not win.

condition 2. If I had entered the contest, I might actually have won. 2. Even if I had entered the
al contest, I might not have won.
(may, 3. If I entered the contest tomorrow, I might actually win.
might) Unfortunately, I can't enter it. 3. Even if I entered the contest
tomorrow, I might not win.
1. NO PRESENT FORM
1. NO PRESENT FORM
might
2. PAST FORM UNCOMMON
2. You might have tried the cheese cake. could
suggesti
on 3. You might not want to eat the
3. You might try the cheesecake.
cheese cake. It's very calorific.
might Might I have something to drink?
request could,
 NEGATIVE FORMS
Might I borrow the stapler? may,
UNCOMMON
can
(British
form) (Requests usually refer to the near future.)
 REMEMBER: "Might not" vs. "Could not"
"Might not" suggests you do not know if something happens. "Could not" suggests that it is impossible for something to happen. 
1. Present
Must 2. Past Negative Forms can also
3. Future
1. That must not be Jerry. He is
1. That must be Jerry. They said he was supposed to have red hair.
tall with bright red hair.
must 2. That must not have been the
2. That must have been the right restaurant. There right restaurant. I guess there is have to
certainty are no other restaurants on this street. another one around here
somewhere.
3. NO FUTURE FORM
3. NO FUTURE FORM
You must not swim in that river. It's full of
crocodiles.

You must not forget to take your malaria  

medication while your are in the tropics.

(Prohibition usually refer to the near future.)

must
1. You must take some time off and get some rest. 1. You mustn't drink so much. It's
strong not good for your health.
recomm
2. SHIFT TO "SHOULD"
end 2. SHIFT TO "SHOULD"
You should have taken some time off last
dation You shouldn't have drunk so
much. That caused the accident. should
week to get some rest. 
(America
ns 3. SHIFT TO "SHOULD"
prefer 3. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" You shouldn't drink at the party.
the form You should take some time off next week to get You are going to be the
"should." some rest.  designated driver.
)
1. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO"
must We don't have to get a permit to
necessit 1. You must have a permit to enter the national enter the national park.
y park.
2. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO"
(America 2. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO" We didn't have to get a permit to have to
ns We had to have a permit to enter the park.
enter the national park.
prefer
the form 3. We must get a permit to enter the park next
"have 3. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO"
week. 
to.") We won't have to get a permit to
enter the national park.
Should  1. Present Negative Forms can also
 2. Past
3. Future
1. Sarah shouldn't smoke so much. It's
not good for her health.
should 1. People with high cholesterol should eat low fat foods.
2. Sarah shouldn't have smoked so
recomm
2. Frank should have eaten low fat foods. That might much. That's what caused her health
en ought to
have prevented his heart attack. problems.
dation
advisabil
ity 3. You really should start eating better. 3. Sarah shouldn't smoke when she
visits Martha next week. Martha hates
when people smoke in her house.
I should be at work before 9:00.

We should return the video before the video rental store

should
closes.
 NO NEGATIVE FORMS be supposed
obligatio
n ("Should" can also express sth. between
recommendation and obligation. "Be supposed to"
expresses a similar idea and can easily be used in the
past or in negative forms.)
1. Susan shouldn't be in
should 1. Susan should be in New York by now.  New York yet.
assumpti
2. Susan should have arrived in New York last week. 2. Susan shouldn't have
on/ ought to,
Let's call her and see what she is up to. arrived in New York until
expectati be supposed
yesterday.
on/
probabilit 3. Susan should be in New York by next week. Her new
y job starts on Monday. 3. Susan shouldn't arrive in
New York until next week.
1. Present
Have to 2. Past Negative Forms Can also
3. Future
1. That has to be Jerry.
They said he was tall 1. SHIFTS TO "MUST"
with bright red hair. That must not have been Jerry we saw. He was supposed to have red hair.
have to
2. That has to have been 2. SHIFTS TO "MUST" must,
the right restaurant. That must not have been the right restaurant. I guess there is another one have got to
certainty
There are no other around here somewhere.
restaurants on this street.
3. NONE
3. NONE
1. She has to read four
books for this literature
1. She doesn't have to read "Grapes of Wrath." It's optional reading for extra
class.
credit.
have to
2. She had to finish the
2. She didn't have to write a critique of "The Scarlet Letter." She had to give a
first book before the must
necessit presentation to her class.
midterm.
y
3. She won't have to take any other literature classes. American Literature 101
3. She will have to finish
is the only required course.
the other books before
the final exam.
1. I don't have to take
any tests. The course is
just for fun.
don't
have to
2. I didn't have to take
the test. The teacher let
choice/
me do a report instead.
no
obligatio
n 3. I won't have to take
the test. It's going to be
for extra credit and I don't
need the points.
REMEMBER: "Do not have to" vs. "Must not"
"Do not have to" suggests that someone is not required to do sth. "Must not" suggests that you are prohibited from doing sth. 
1. Present
Have Got You can
2. Past Negative Forms
to also use:
3. Future
1. People have got to be on time if
they want to get a seat in the 1. SHIFT TO "DON'T HAVE TO"
crowded theater. People don't have to be there on time to get a
seat.
have got to 2. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO"
have to,
You had to be on time if you wanted 2. SHIFT TO "DON'T HAVE TO"
must
necessity to get a seat in the crowded theater. You didn't have to be there on time to get a seat.

3. You have got to be there on time 3. SHIFT TO "DON'T HAVE TO"

tonight if you want to get a seat in the You won't have to be there on time to get a seat.
crowded theater.
Haven't you got to be there by 7:00?

haven't got Haven't you got to finish that project

to today?
Don't you,
have to
future ("Haven't got to" is primarily used to
obligation ask about future obligations. It can be
used in statements, but this is less
common.)
1. Present
You can
Ought to 2. Past Negative Forms
also use:
3. Future
1. Margaret ought to exercise more. 1. Margaret ought not exercise too much. It might
cause injury.
ought to
2. Margaret ought to have
exercised more so she would be 2. Margaret ought not have run the marathon.
recommendatio should
better prepared for the marathon. She wasn't in good shape.
n/
advisability
3. Margaret ought to come to the 3. Margaret ought not stay at home in front of the
fitness center with us tonight. TV. She should go to the fitness center with us.  
1. She ought to have the package
by now.
ought to
2. She ought to have received the "Ought not" is used primarily to express negative
assumption/ should
package yesterday. recommendation.
expectation/
probability
3. She ought to receive the
package tonight.
ought not Margaret ought not exercise too
much.
(Americans
prefer "should (Notice that there is no "to" in the
not".) negative form.)
1. Present
You can
Shall 2. Past Negative Forms
also use:
3. Future
The marketing director shall be The marketing director shall not be replaced
shall
replaced by someone from the after all.
future action
New York office. will
Fred shall not be there. He has a previous
(British form)
Fred shall be there by 8:00. obligation.
I shall take care of everything for
shall
you.
volunteering/ I shall never forget you.
promising will
I shall make the travel
I shall never give up the fight for freedom.
arrangements. There's no need to
(British form)
worry.
Shall Man shall explore the distant Man shall never give up the exploration of the
inevitability regions of the universe. universe.
(British form) We shall overcome oppression. He shall not be held back. 
1. Present
You can
Would 2. Past Negative Forms
also use:
3. Future
1. If I were President, I would cut the
1. If I were President, I would not raise
cost of education.
taxes.
would 2. If I had been President, I would
2. If I had been President, I would not have
have cut the cost of education.
raised taxes.
conditional
3. If I were elected President next
3. If I were President, I would not sign the
year, I would cut the cost of
tax increase next week.
education.
I said I would help you. I said I wouldn't help you.
would

past of will He told me he would be here before He told me he would not be here before
8:00. 8:00.
When I was a kid, I would always go When I was a kid, I wouldn't go into the
would to the beach. water by myself.
used to
repetition in past When he was young, he would When he got older, he would never do his
always do his homework. homework.
1. Present
Had Better 2. Past Negative Forms You can also use:
3. Future
1. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" OR 1. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" OR "OUGHT
"OUGHT TO" TO"
People should unplug toasters before People shouldn't clean toasters without
they clean them. unplugging them first.
had better
2. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" OR 2. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" OR "OUGHT should,
recommen "OUGHT TO" TO" ought to
dation You should have unplugged the You shouldn't have cleaned the toaster
toaster before you tried to clean it. without unplugging it first.

3. You had better unplug the toaster 3. You had better not clean the toaster
before you try to clean it.
The movie had better end soon.
had better
They had better be here before we
start dinner.
desperate hope/
warning
(Desperate hopes and warnings
usually refer to the near future.)
until you unplug it.
They had better not be late.
They had better not forget Tom's birthday
gift.
(Desperate hopes and warnings usually
refer to the near future.)

DEDUCTION
The most definite degree of certainty can be expressed with will and won't, followed by must and can't/couldn't,
should and shouldn't, may and may not, and might/could and mightn't, which express the least definite degree
of certainty.

(1) Present/Future
When we believe that a future state or event is certain to occur, we use will or won't:
I'll be working on this report all afternoon.
We won't be back in until tomorrow.

When we deduce that a future state or event is the most logical or rational outcome, we use must or can't/couldn't:
You must be joking! That's just totally illogical!
You can't be serious! That's just totally illogical!
He couldn't be there now, surely. He always leaves at 4.30.

When we want something to happen, and it is reasonable to expect it to, we use should or shouldn't:
We should be able to go to Spain next holidays if we keep saving at this rate.
It shouldn't take us long to clean up this mess if we all help.

When we wish to express the something will possibly happen, we use may or may not:
We may go to the party - we haven't quite decided yet.
You may not be able to get in if you turn up at the last minute.

When we want to express that something will possibly happen, but we are less certain, we use might/could or
mightn't:
He might be at home, but he usually goes shopping on Saturday morning.
He could be at home, but he usually goes shopping on Saturday morning.
She mightn't be able to come - her mother's very ill.

Note that couldn't is not used in this way, but rather expresses a greater degree of certainty (see must or
can't/couldn't above).

(2) Past
All of these modal verbs can also be used to talk about degrees of certainty in the past. Once more, will or won't
expresses the most certainty, and might/could or mightn't the least certainty.
That will have been Ted you saw - he's seven feet tall.
It won't have been Sue you saw - she's blonde and is five feet tall.

Notice that would and wouldn't can be used in the same way as will and would here:
That would have been Ted you saw - he's seven feet tall.
It wouldn't have been Sue you saw - she's blonde and is five feet tall.

That must have been fun - you love dancing, don't you?
It can't/couldn't have been much fun out on the boat - there were gale-force wind, I hear. (See grammar
definitions).

Where can they be? They should have been here a long time ago.
Where can they be? They shouldn't have taken this long.

She may have dropped by - we were out all morning.

She may not have been able to see properly in the heavy rain.

He might have had an accident!

She mightn't have even known we were going to be here.
Examples Usage
They must be in Spain by now.
Use 'must' plus the verb when you are 100% (or almost 100%)
sure that something is the case.
She must have done well on the test.

She might come this evening.

Use 'might' or 'may' to express an opinion that you think has a

David may invite Jesica to the match.
good possibility of being true.

Jack might have gone to France.

Jane could be at work. Use 'could' to express a possibilty which is one of many. This
form is not as strong as 'might' or 'may'. It is just one of a
Peter could have arrived late. number of possibilities.
Use 'can't' to express an opinion that you are 100% sure is NOT
You can't be serious!
true.

They can't have worked until late.

Notice that the past form remains 'can't have done'