07 Chapter 4

CHAPTER-IV
EDUCATIONAL DISPARITIES IN INDIA
Down the ages, education has remained an important component of economic

development across the world. Indian society has also proud history with regard to the
education as the references are available which indicate that in the traditional society
education used to be an integral part of the social life not withstanding having some
religious orientations and deprivation to some sector (Dash, 2000). It is the firm view
of the scholars that education plays an important role in the development of a
community and societies (Mathur, 2001). Historical accounts indicate that the nations
which made appropriate investments in education, particularly at the school level,
developed at a significant higher rate as compared to those nations which neglected
such investments. In the ancient Indian society, the education used to be provided
largely in religious places (Kaur et al. 1998). The formal education system in India
was initiated by British rule. School education at various levels was started largely to
produce supportive skills for the Britishers. The start of formal school education
during this period coupled with some other factor like development of technology
gave chances by and large to all sections of Indian society to get education.
When India attained political independence the overall situation of the education was
not as encouraging as the literacy rate was just about 18 per cent. In order to mitigate
this dismal situation, Indian government initiated a lot of planned efforts with the
view to improve the literacy rate. Despite, all these efforts, the performance of
education system is unfortunately remains unsatisfactory in the developing regions of
India. High drop rate, lower network of primary schools in the rural area, imbalance
teacher-pupil ratio etc. are some of the priorities areas that have affected the overall
performance of education system. The level of these indicators was not the same in
developed and under-developed regions in India which could increase the regional
disparities in terms of education system. This chapter highlighted the status of
education disparities of different regions in India. The results are discussed under the
following heads:
47
4.1 Educational institutions
It could be seen from Table 4.1 that educational institutions has reported positive
growth since the period 1950-51 onwards in India. As per the growth estimates, the
annual growth rate was relatively more consistent with respect to primary schools and
secondary institutions as compared to upper primary and senior secondary
institutions. It is evident from the value of growth rate that secondary and primary
schools has been increased at the rate of 3.94 and 4.56 per cent annum during the
period from 1950-51 to 2015-16. However, the rate of growth of senior secondary
and upper primary institutions worked out to be 21.54 and 46.35 per cent annually in
India during the period 1951-2016. The data indicated that colleges and universities
has shown impressive growth pertaining to period of 1951-2016 and increased at the
rate of 100.90 and 43.32 per cent per annum.
Table 4.1: Educational institutions in India, 1950-51 to 2015-16

(In thousands number) (In absolute number)
Year Primary Upper Secondary Senior Total College University Total higher
Primary Secondary schools education
institutes
1950-51 210 14 NA 7 231 578 27 605
1960-61 330 50 NA 17 397 1819 45 1864
1970-71 408 91 NA 37 536 3277 82 3359
1980-81 495 119 NA 52 665 6963 110 7073
1990-91 561 152 NA 80 792 5748 184 5932
2000-01 639 206 88 38 971 10152 254 10406
2005-06 773 289 106 54 1221 16982 350 17332
2006-07 785 306 112 57 1260 19812 371 20183
2007-08 788 325 114 59 1286 23099 406 23505
2008-09 779 366 122 64 1331 27882 440 28322
2009-10 820 394 122 72 1408 25938 436 26374
2010-11 749 448 131 72 1399 32974 621 33595
2011-12 714 479 128 84 1406 34852 642 35494
2012-13 854 578 219 122 1773 35525 667 36192
2013-14 859 422 134 104 1518 36634 723 37357
2014-15 847 425 135 109 1517 38498 760 39258
2015-16* 841 430 140 113 1522 39071 799 39870
Growth
4.56 46.35 3.94 21.54 8.48 100.90 43.32 98.33
rate (%)
NA: Not Available
Note: * Figures related to School Education are provisional.
From 1950-51 to 1990-91, figures for Senior Secondary include the number of secondary Institutions too.
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India / National Institute of
Educational Planning & Administration, New Delhi.
48
Graphically, the trends with respect to growth of total schools and higher education
institutes is depicted in Figure-4.1. The rate of growth was much higher in case of
higher education institutes (98.33 per cent per annum) as compared to schools (8.48
per cent per annum). The line graphs with respect to number of schools and higher
education institutes are sloping upwards from left right which showed positive growth
of education institutions from the period 1950-51 onwards in India.
Figure-4.1 Trends in educational institutes in India, 1950-51 to 2015-

16
50000 2000
45000 1800
40000 1600
35000 1400
30000 1200
25000 1000
20000 800
15000 600
10000 400
5000 200
0 0
Total higher education institutes Total schools
4.2 Student enrolment at different level of education in India

The results presented in Table 4.2 have shown positive growth with respect to
enrolment of students at different level of education in India since the period 1950-51
onwards. As per the growth estimates, the annual growth rate was the highest in case
of higher education (129.55%). The estimates of growth rate indicated that the
enrollment has been increased at the rate of 15.07 per cent per annum at school level
education and 129.55 per cent per annum at higher education level during the period
from 1950-51 to 2015-16. However, the rate of growth with respect to enrolment at
primary, upper primary, secondary and senior secondary worked out to be 8.67, 31.52,
7.05 and 23.43 per cent annually in India during the period 1951-2016.
49
Graphically, the trends with respect to enrolment at different level of education are
presented in Figure-4.2. The line graphs with respect to enrolment at different level of
education are sloping upwards from left right which showed positive growth of
education institutions from the period 1950-51 onwards in India.
Table 4.2: Student enrolment at different level of education in India, 1950-51 to

2015-16 (In lakh)
Primary Upper Primary Secondary ( Senior Secondary All Higher
Year
(I-V) (VI-VIII) IX-X) ( XI-XII) schools Education
1950-51 192 31 NA 15 238 4
1960-61 350 67 NA 34 451 10
1970-71 570 133 NA 76 779 33
1980-81 738 207 NA 110 1055 48
2000-01 1138 428 190 99 1855 86
2005-06 1321 522 250 134 2227 143
2006-07 1337 545 259 141 2282 156
2007-08 1355 573 282 163 2373 172
2008-09 1353 584 295 169 2401 185
2009-10 1336 595 307 178 2416 207
2010-11 1347 619 318 195 2479 275
2011-12 1398 630 341 210 2579 292
2012-13* 1348 650 346 200 2544 301
2013-14* 1324 664 373 223 2584 323
2014-15* 1305 672 383 235 2595 342
2015-16* 1291 676 391 247 2605 346
Growth
8.67 31.52 7.05 23.43 15.07 129.55
rate
NA: Not Available
Note: *Figures related to School Education are provisional
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India / National Institute of Educational
Planning & Administration, New Delhi.
50
Figure-4.2 Student enrollment at different level of education in
India, 1950-51 to 2015-16
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Primary (I-V) Upper Primary (VI-VIII)

Secondary ( IX-X) Senior Secondary ( XI-XII)
All schools Higher Education
4.3 Status of female’s enrolment as compared to males at different level of

education in India
As per the estimates given in Table 4.3, it is clearly indicated that the female
enrolment rate against their male counterparts has improved over the period of 1980-
81 to 2015-16. Against 1000 males, the number of females has increased from 528 in
the year 1980-81 to 932 in the year 2015-16. Similarly, this ratio has increased from
375 to 955 in case upper primary and 333 to 955 in case of senior secondary, and 485
to 930 in case of all educational institutions, respectively during 1980-81 to 2015-16.
This implies that the female enrolment rate as compared to male counterparts has
improved considerably over the period of time. The rate of growth with respect to
female enrolment as against 1000 males at primary, upper primary, secondary, senior
secondary, higher education and all institutions worked out to be 2.13, 4.30, 3.17,
5.18, 3.73 and 2.55 per cent per annum in India during the period 1980-81 to 2015-16.
51
Table 4.3: Status of female’s enrolment as compared to males at different level of
education in India, 1980-81 to 2015-16 (Females per thousand males)
Period Primary Upper Secondary Senior Higher All
Primary Secondary Education institutions
1980-81 528 375 NA 333 NA 485
1983-84 563 435 NA 286 NA 504
1986-87 582 478 NA 364 NA 540
1989-90 621 500 NA 353 NA 565
1992-93 689 543 NA 389 NA 622
1995-96 699 588 NA 500 NA 655
2000-01 752 634 611 625 NA 707
2005-06 807 717 652 636 600 755
2006-07 814 727 640 667 500 755
2007-08 920 868 750 692 600 860
2008-09 907 875 786 733 571 858
2009-10 926 879 800 750 600 870
2010-11 921 883 839 765 765 883
2011-12 939 937 886 900 800 920
2012-13* 936 938 853 842 810 911
2013-14* 934 955 889 900 826 922
2014-15* 940 955 919 952 840 933
2015-16* 932 955 921 955 846 930
Growth rate 2.13 4.30 3.17 5.18 3.73 2.55
NA: Not Available
The bar diagram (Figure-4.3) shows that the height of bars pertaining to the female
enrolment as compared to males at different level of education has increased in each
succeeding periods i.e. 1980-81, 2000-01, 2010-11 and 2015-16. Though, the males
dominated over females in terms of enrolment, but the female enrollment has
remarkably improved over the last few decades in India.
52
Figure-4.3 Status of females enrollment as compared to males
at different level of education in India, 1980-81 to 2015-16
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Primary Upper Secondary Senior Higher All
Primary Secondary education institutions
1980-81 2000-01 2010-11 2015-16*
4.4 Number of teachers at different level of school education in India

The perusal of Table 4.4 shows that the absolute number of teachers has shown
increasing trends at different level of education in India since the period 1950-51
onwards. The estimates of growth rate indicated that the number of teachers has been
increased at the rate of 8.01 per cent per annum at school level education. However,
the annual rate of growth with respect to number of teachers at primary, upper
primary, secondary and senior secondary worked out to be 5.82, 44.50, 2.82 and 8.94
per cent India during the period 1951-2016.
Graphically, the trends with respect to teachers at different level of education are
presented in Figure-4.4. The line graphs with respect to teachers at different level of
education are sloping upwards from left to right which showed positive growth for the
period 1950-51 onwards in India.
53
Table 4.4: Number of teachers at different level of school education, India, 1950-51
to 2015-16 (In thousands)
Year Primary Upper Primary Secondary Senior Secondary All schools

(I-V) (VI-VIII) ( IX-X) ( XI-XII)
1950-51 538 86 NA 127 751
1960-61 742 345 NA 296 1383
1970-71 1060 638 NA 629 2327
1980-81 1363 851 NA 926 3140
1990-91 1616 1073 NA 1334 4023
2000-01 1896 1326 1006 756 4984
2005-06 2184 1671 1123 1032 6010
2006-07 2323 1717 1173 1075 6288
2007-08 2315 1780 1175 952 6222
2008-09 2229 1899 1194 1024 6346
2009-10 2217 1778 1185 1145 6325
2010-11 2099 1887 1247 1262 6495
2011-12 2254 2057 1162 1303 6776
2012-13* 2656 2427 1247 1799 8129
2013-14* 2684 2513 1286 1785 8268
2014-15* 2670 2560 1347 1985 8562
2015-16* 2606 2612 1432 2042 8692
Growth rate 5.82 44.50 2.82 8.94 8.01
NA: Not Available
54
Figure-4.4 Number of teachers at different level of school
education, India, 1950-51 to 2015-16
10000
9000 Primary (I-V)
8000
7000
6000 Upper Primary
5000 (VI-VIII)
4000 Secondary ( IX-X)
3000
2000
1000 Senior Secondary
0 ( XI-XII)
1960-61
1980-81
2000-01
1950-51
1970-71
1990-91
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13*
2013-14*
2014-15*
2015-16*
All schools
4.5 Education statistics at a glance

Based on the recent data, the various estimates pertaining to the various aspects of
Indian education has worked out and presented in Table 4.5. Presently, 1522346
recognized schools have been operating in India. The distribution of recognized
institutions according to different level of education reveals that more than half i.e.
55.21 per cent of the total educational institutions in India are primary schools, while
the upper primary, secondary and senior secondary constituted 28.22, 9.17 and 7.40
per cent share in total schools. Among the total higher education institutions (51793),
colleges occupied the highest share (75.44%), followed by stand-alone institutions
(23.02%) and universities (1.54%). Agency wise most of the schools i.e. about 72 per
cent are government schools, 6 per cent are government aided schools and remaining
about 22 per cent are private schools in India (Figure-4.5).
Total enrolment figured out about 2952 lakh, out of which primary education constituted
the highest share (43.74%). Similarly, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and
higher education constituted about 23, 13, 8 and 12 per cent share in total enrolment in
Indian education institutions, respectively. Gross enrolment rate came to be the highest in
primary schools (99.37%) and lowest in higher education (24.38%). It is worked out as
93.79, 80.69 and 56.58 per cent in case of upper primary, secondary and Sr. secondary
level. The proportion of males (52%) is marginally higher than that of females (48%) in
55
total enrolment. Category-wise, the share of SC, ST and general category estimated to be
19, 9 and 72 per cent in total enrolment in India (Figure-4.5).
Table 4.5: Education statistics at a glance, India, 2015-16

Particulars Units Figures
Total schools Number 1522346
Primary % 55.21
Recognized schools Upper Primary % 28.22
Secondary % 9.17
Senior Secondary % 7.40
Total institutions Number 51793
Higher education Universities % 1.54
institutions Colleges % 75.44
Stand-alone institutions % 23.02
Total enrolment Lakh 2952
Primary % 43.74
Upper Primary % 22.90
Total enrolment
Secondary % 13.26
Sr. Secondary % 8.38
Higher Education % 11.72
Primary % 99.37
Gross enrolment rate Secondary % 80.69
(GER) Sr. Secondary % 56.58
Higher % 24.38
All level % 67.69
Primary % 23
Upper Primary % 17
Pupil Teacher Ratio Secondary % 27
Senior Secondary % 37
Higher Education % 24
Primary % 4.13
Drop-out rate Secondary % 17.06
Senior Secondary % NA
Higher Education % NA
Primary Ratio 1.03
Upper Primary Ratio 1.11
Secondary Ratio 1.03
Gender disparity
Sr. Secondary Ratio 1.00
Higher Ratio 0.92
All level Ratio 1.02
Expenditure on education Rs crores 502929
State share % 75.64
Expenditure
Centre share % 24.36
Expenditure (% to GDP) % 4.04
Source: Education Statistics at Glance, India, 2015-16.
56
It is evident that Gross enrolment rate (GER) reported to be decreased with increase in
education level. Gender disparity index has worked out on the basis of the GER in
order to ignore the population effect. Except higher education, the value of gender
disparity index is more the unity which reflects the better situation of females as
compared to males with regard to education enrolment in India.
An ideal and justified pupil-teacher ratio is an important factor of quality education in

India. As per estimates, the pupil teacher ratio worked out to 23, 17, 27, 37 and 24 at
primary, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and higher education level.
Drop-out rate reflecting the weakness of the education system and it is observed to
vary with education level. It was the lowest at primary and upper primary level (about
4%) and highest at secondary level (17.06%).
Private Un-
aided Reconginzed schools in India
22%
Government
Aided
6%
Government
72%
Gender-wise share in enrolled Enrolment of student by

student, India category, India
SC
19%
Female
48% Others
72% ST
Male 9%
52%
Figure-4.5 Education statistics at a glance, India, 2015-16
57
Total expenditure outlay on education estimated to the tune of Rs 502929 crores for
the financial year 2015-16 which is about four per cent of the total GDP of the
country. Out of the total expenditure on education, nearly one-fourth was contributed
by the centre and remaining 75.64 per cent was the state share, respectively.
Since independence, national figures and estimates on various aspects of education

system (educational institutions, enrollments, teachers etc.) have shown very
impressive growth rates in India. The status and extent of education system is
however, observed to be varied across different regions of the country. In this regard,
regional disparity measures with respect to various aspects of education have been
worked out and interpret in the following section:
4.6 Regional distribution of educational institution in India

Region wise distribution of educational institutions at different level of education is
given in Table 4.6. The analysis shows that northern region leading the country in
terms of number of educational institutions with regard to primary, upper primary,
senior secondary, university and colleges, while the distribution of secondary, stand-
alone institutions and higher education institutions came out to be the highest in
southern region of the country. Against the total national figure, northern region
constituted about 31.75 per cent share in primary schools, 33.19 per cent share in
upper primary schools, 43.51 per cent share in senior secondary schools, 36.92 per
cent share in universities and 33.36 per cent share in colleges. Similarly southern
states occupied 31.33, 39.81 and 33.26 per cent share in total secondary, stand alone
and higher education institutions of the country. Hence, northern and southern states
on India emerged as highly competitive regions of the country in terms of distribution
of educational institutions in India. These two regions together, constituted more than
half of the total educational institutions of the country. The distribution of educational
institutions is directly proportional to the size of population i.e. higher is the
population; higher is the number of educational institutions. In-depth overview of the
estimates indicated that the distribution of educational institutions was the least in
north-eastern states of India, while the distribution of educational institutions was
moderately concentrated in western, eastern and central regions of India.
58
4.7 Regional disparity with respect to distribution of educational institutions in
India
Regional disparity has been examined on the basis of regional disparity index and the
estimates of disparity index with regard to different level of education of different
regions of the country are presented in Table 4.7. At primary level, the value of
disparity index was the highest in northern region (5.81), followed by western region
(2.72), eastern region (2.53), southern (1.91) and north-eastern region (1.85) of India.
Among different regions of the country, the value of disparity index ranged between
0.98-5.86 at upper primary level, 1.56-5.01 at secondary level, 0.57-5.68 at senior
secondary level, 0.78-3.49 at university level, 0.43-5.38 at college level, 0.21-9.15 in
favor of standalone institutions and 0.38-5.94 in favor of higher education level,
respectively. The value of disparity index was reported to be consistently low in
north-eastern region of the country at all level of education. It was the highest in
northern states at upper primary (5.86), senior secondary (5.68) and college level
(5.38), while the western regions have attained the maximum value of disparity index
with regard to secondary (5.01), universities (3.49), stand-alone institutions (9.15) and
higher educational institutions (5.94), respectively.
In concluding remarks, northern states have been leading the country in terms of
distribution of educational institutions. Southern states are competing with northern
states in this respect. The degree of regional disparity noticed to be very high in
northern and western region of the country. North-eastern states emerged as
consistently deprived region in terms of distribution of educational distribution.
Regional disparity index was also the lowest in favors of all educational level as
compared to all other regions in India.
59
Table 4.6: Region-wise recognized educational institutions in India
Regions Primary Upper Secondary Senior University Colleges Stand-Alone Higher
Primary Secondary Institutions Education
Institutions
In absolute number
Northern
266893 142605 34302 49013 295 13036 2686 16017
states
Western
66200 59349 21060 15485 104 6659 2818 9581
states
Southern
131633 61692 43724 19263 183 12295 4746 17224
States
Eastern
184878 80755 19823 13344 91 3230 945 4266
states
Central
121419 61948 9258 11918 65 2966 545 3576
India
North-
eastern 69523 23275 11372 3614 61 885 183 1129
states
INDIA 840546 429624 139539 112637 799 39071 11923 51793
% share to total
Northern
31.75 33.19 24.58 43.51 36.92 33.36 22.53 30.93
states
Western
7.88 13.81 15.09 13.75 13.02 17.04 23.63 18.50
states
Southern
15.66 14.36 31.33 17.10 22.90 31.47 39.81 33.26
States
Eastern
21.99 18.80 14.21 11.85 11.39 8.27 7.93 8.24
states
Central
14.45 14.42 6.63 10.58 8.14 7.59 4.57 6.90
India
North-
eastern 8.27 5.42 8.15 3.21 7.63 2.27 1.53 2.18
states
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: National Institute of Educational Planning & Administration, New Delhi
60
Table 4.7: Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of educational
institutions in India
Regions Primary Upper Secondary Senior University Colleges Stand-Alone Higher
Primary Secondary Institutions Education
Institutions
Northern
5.81 5.86 2.74 5.68 2.84 5.38 2.55 4.66
states
Western
2.72 3.76 5.01 3.76 3.49 5.13 9.15 5.94
states
Southern
1.91 2.43 4.15 2.14 2.76 3.43 4.83 3.68
States
Eastern
2.53 2.42 2.15 2.39 1.04 0.91 1.16 0.95
states
Central
4.69 5.37 2.19 2.69 1.86 2.81 2.24 2.66
India
North-
eastern 1.85 0.98 1.56 0.57 0.78 0.43 0.21 0.38
states
Source: Computed on the basis of the data compiled from National Institute of Educational Planning &
Administration, New Delhi
4.8 Region-wise enrollment in school level educational institution in India

Region wise level of enrolment in educational institutions at different level of
education is given in Table 4.8. The analysis shows that the extent of enrolment at all
level of school education was the highest in northern region of the country. Out of the
total enrolment, northern region constituted about 33 per cent share in total schools in
India. Similarly, this region alone constituted nearly 34, 31, 32 and 38 per cent in the
total enrolment at primary, upper primary, secondary and senior secondary schools,
respectively. Based on percent distribution of enrolment, three regions namely,
eastern, southern and western region of India are also competing with northern states
and occupied 23.63, 17.25 and 13.29 per cent share in total enrolment at all school
level education, respectively. Region-wise comparison indicated that northern region
has been leading the country in terms of extent of enrolment, while it was fairly low
in north-eastern and central states of India.
4.9 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment in school level educational

Regional disparity index with regard to enrolment at different level of school
education of different regions are presented in Table 4.9. The value of disparity index
61
at all level of school education worked out to be the highest in northern region.
Among different regions of the country, the value of disparity index with respect to
enrolment ranged between 0.91-6.23 at primary level, 0.79-5.20 at upper primary
level, 0.77-5.46 at secondary level, 0.53-6.52 at senior secondary level and 0.82-5.87
at all school level, respectively. The value of disparity index was reported to be
consistently low in north-eastern region of the country at all level of education.
Table 4.8: Region-wise enrolment in school education, India

Regions Primary Upper High/Secondary Intermediate/ Total school
Schools Primary Schools Senior Secondary level
Schools Schools
In absolute number
Northern states 43294768 20849529 12631345 9445520 86221162
Western states 15852676 9565074 5488023 3738138 34643911
Southern States 20527338 11855176 7508853 5071324 44962691
Eastern states 32866462 16324509 8457032 3930475 61578478
Central India 10903861 6355463 3567427 1833362 22660113
North-eastern
5677679 2643976 1492372 716578 10530605
states
INDIA 129122784 67593727 39145052 24735397 260596960
% share to total
Northern states 33.53 30.85 32.27 38.19 33.09
Western states 12.28 14.15 14.02 15.11 13.29
Southern States 15.90 17.54 19.18 20.50 17.25
Eastern states 25.45 24.15 21.60 15.89 23.63
Central India 8.44 9.40 9.11 7.41 8.70
North-eastern
4.40 3.91 3.81 2.90 4.04
states
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
The analysis concluded that northern states have been leading the country in terms of
enrolment in school level education. Three regions namely, eastern, southern and
western region of India are competing with northern states in this respect. The degree
of regional disparity noticed to be very high in northern, western and eastern region of
62
the country. North-eastern states emerged as consistently deprived region in terms of
distribution of educational distribution. Regional disparity index was also the lowest
in this region in favor of enrolment at school educational level as compared to all
other regions in India.
Table 4.9: Regional disparity index with respect to enrolment in school education
in India
Regions Primary Upper High/Secondary Intermediate/ Total school
Schools Primary Schools Senior Secondary level
Schools Schools
Northern
6.23 5.20 5.46 6.52 5.87
states
Western
3.51 4.04 4.15 4.80 3.85
states
Southern
1.77 1.95 2.12 2.44 1.91
States
Eastern
4.34 3.64 2.97 2.22 3.65
states
Central
2.91 3.17 2.87 2.09 2.89
India
North-
eastern 0.91 0.79 0.77 0.53 0.82
states
Source: Computed on the basis of the data compiled from Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Government of India / National Institute of Educational Planning & Administration, New Delhi.
4.10 Region-wise enrollment at graduate level in India

Region wise level of enrolment in educational institutions at graduate level of
education is given in Table 4.10. The analysis shows that the extent of enrolment at
under-graduate and certificate courses was the highest in northern region of the
country, while southern region leading the country in terms of enrolment diploma
courses. Out of the total enrolment, northern region constituted about 35.30 and 37.48
per cent share in total enrolment at under graduate and certificate courses, while
southern region alone constituted nearly 36 per cent in the total enrolment in diploma
courses, respectively. Based on percent distribution of enrolment at graduate level,
two regions namely, southern and northern of India emerged as highly competitive
regions of the country. These two regions together, constituted more than 60 per cent
share in the total enrolment at graduate level of the country. In-depth overview of the
63
estimates indicated that the share of enrolment was the least in north-eastern states of
India, while the level of enrolment was moderately concentrated in western, eastern
and central regions of India.
Table 4.10: Region-wise enrolment at graduate level, India

Region Under graduate Diploma Certificate
In absolute number
Northern states 9592757 625257 63810
Western states 4009667 539345 38918
Southern States 7072165 898021 41083
Eastern states 4143268 210271 18979
Central India 1566649 207193 3201
North-eastern states 787840 27607 4254
INDIA 27172346 2507694 170245
% share to total
Northern states 35.30 24.93 37.48
Western states 14.76 21.51 22.86
Southern States 26.03 35.81 24.13
Eastern states 15.25 8.39 11.15
Central India 5.77 8.26 1.88
North-eastern states 2.90 1.10 2.50
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India /National Institute
of Educational Planning & Administration, New Delhi.
4.11 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment in school level educational

Regional disparity index with regard to enrolment at graduate level of education of
different regions are presented in Table 4.11. At under graduate level, the value of
disparity index was the highest in northern region (6.02), followed by western region
(4.61), southern (3.06), central region (2.38), eastern region (1.95), and north-eastern
region (0.72) of India. However, the value of disparity index with respect to diploma
courses came out to be the highest in western region (6.55), followed by southern
(6.03), central region (3.22), northern region (2.77), eastern region (1.71), and north-
eastern region (0.13), similarly, the value of disparity index with respect to certificate
courses came out to be the highest in northern region (8.92), followed by western
64
(8.01), southern region (6.59), eastern region (2.90), central (0.88) and north-eastern
region (0.57), respectively.
Table 4.11: Regional disparity index with respect to enrolment at graduate level
in India
Regions Under graduate Diploma Certificate

Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from National Institute of Educational
In concluding remarks, northern states have been leading the country in terms of
extent of enrolment at graduate level of educational institutions. Southern and western
states are competing with northern states in this respect. The degree of regional
disparity noticed to be very high in northern states followed by western and southern
region of the country. North-eastern states emerged as consistently deprived region in
terms of enrolment and regional disparity index was also the lowest in this region as
compared to all other regions in India.
4.12 Region-wise enrollment at higher level of education in India

Region wise level of enrolment in educational institutions at higher level of education
is given in Table 4.12. The analysis shows that the extent of enrolment at integrated
courses and PG diploma was the highest in northern region and central region of the
country, while southern region leading the country in terms of enrolment at post
graduate, M.Phil. and PhD level. Northern and central region constituted 42.41 and
45.12 per cent share in total enrolment integrated courses and PG diploma courses,
while southern region alone constituted nearly 34, 56, and 37 per cent in the total
65
enrolment at post graduate, M.Phil. and PhD level, respectively. Based on percent
distribution of enrolment over different regions of the country, the per cent share of
enrolment has ranged between 3.46-42.41 in favour of integrated courses, 1.86-42.41
per cent in case of PG diploma, 2.89-34.00 per cent in favour of post graduate, 1.68-
55.67 per cent in favour of M.Phil. and 3.99-36.60 per cent in case of PhD. Again, the
north-east states are lying at the last in terms of enrolment except PhD level.
Table 4.12: Region-wise enrolment at higher level of education, India

Regions Integrated PG diploma Post M Phil PhD
course graduate
In absolute number
Northern states 60174 43720 1167904 6634 40463
Western states 18081 27242 576467 3525 12424
Southern States 31685 33532 1310073 18576 42937
Eastern states 20288 9697 414683 2237 10460
Central India 6730 97171 272871 1837 4682
North-eastern states 4912 4010 111440 562 6335
INDIA 141870 215372 3853438 33371 117301
% share to total
Northern states 42.41 20.30 30.31 19.88 34.50
Western states 12.74 12.65 14.96 10.56 10.59
Southern States 22.33 15.57 34.00 55.67 36.60
Eastern states 14.30 4.50 10.76 6.70 8.92
Central India 4.74 45.12 7.08 5.50 3.99
North-eastern states 3.46 1.86 2.89 1.68 5.40
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from National Institute of Educational Planning &
Administration, New Delhi.
4.13 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment at higher level educational

Regional disparity index with regard to enrolment at higher level of education of
different regions are presented in Table 4.13. In case of integrated courses, the value
of disparity index was the highest in northern region (4.34), followed by western
66
region (3.44), eastern region (2.91), southern (2.27), central region (1.95) and north-
eastern region (0.89). However, the disparity index with respect to PG diploma is very
high in central India (20.84). Similarly, western region leading the country in terms
of value of disparity index with respect to post graduate level, while southern region
have attained the highest value of disparity index in favor of M.Phil. (17.98) and PhD
(5.81) level of education, respectively.
Table 4.13: Regional disparity index with respect to enrolment in higher education,
India
Regions Integrated PG Post M Phil Ph.D
course diploma graduate
Northern states 4.34 2.32 3.55 2.10 3.54
Western states 3.44 3.79 4.84 3.33 3.22
Southern States 2.27 2.93 4.40 17.98 5.81
Eastern states 2.91 0.59 1.74 1.69 1.28
Central India 1.95 20.84 3.01 2.13 1.63
Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Government of India / National Institute of Educational Planning & Administration, New Delhi.
It may be concluded that northern states have been leading the country in terms of
extent of enrolment at integrated courses and PG diploma level of education, while
southern region leading the country in terms of enrolment at post graduate, M.Phil.
and PhD level. At graduate level of educational institutions. The degree of regional
disparity noticed to be widely distributed as northern states attained highest value of
disparity index in favor of integrated courses, while the disparity index is very high in
central India (20.84) in favor of PG diploma. Similarly, western region leading the
country in terms of value of disparity index with respect to post graduate level, while
southern region have attained the highest value of disparity index in favor of M.Phil.
(17.98) and PhD (5.81) level of education, respectively. North-eastern states emerged
as consistently deprived region in terms of enrolment at higher level education. The
regional disparity index was also the lowest in this region as compared to all other
regions in India.
67
4.14 Region-wise enrollment in stand-alone institutions in India
The results presented in Table 4.14 shows that the southern region of the country is
also leading in terms of number of enrolment in all stand-alone institutions. The
extent of enrolment was the highest in southern region and occupied about 41 per cent
share to the total enrolment in all stand-alone intuitions. Similarly, northern, western
and eastern states are the next best states in terms of enrolment in all stand-alone
institutions and occupied 27.52, 18.36 and 10.32 per cent share to the total enrolment,
while central India and north-eastern states are fairly poor in terms of enrolment. At
different level of education, the level of enrolment in polytechnics and nursing was
the highest in southern states.
Table 4.14: Region-wise enrolment in stand-alone institutions, India

Regions Polytechnics PGDM Nursing Teacher Institute All Stand
Training under Alone
Ministries Institutions
In absolute number
Northern states 412401 11814 66169 63877 5572 559833
Western states 282781 12443 13826 60145 4256 373451
Southern States 668662 5608 102910 56693 3680 837553
Eastern states 150938 2670 19916 31019 5334 209877
Central India 16035 372 10272 8112 1865 36656
North-eastern
8226 136 2324 5513 582 16781
states
INDIA 1539043 33043 215417 225359 21289 2034151
% share to total
Northern states 26.80 35.75 30.72 28.34 26.17 27.52
Western states 18.37 37.66 6.42 26.69 19.99 18.36
Southern States 43.45 16.97 47.77 25.16 17.29 41.17
Eastern states 9.81 8.08 9.25 13.76 25.06 10.32
Central India 1.04 1.13 4.77 3.60 8.76 1.80
North-eastern
0.53 0.41 1.08 2.45 2.73 0.82
states
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from National Institute of Educational Planning &
This region alone occupied 43.45 and 47.77 per cent share to total enrolment in
polytechnics and nursing in India. Against the total national, figure, the share of
68
enrolment was the highest in 37.66 per cent in western states in case of PGDM,
whereas the northern states are leading the country in term of enrolment in teacher
training (28.34%) and institutes under ministries (26.17%), respectively.
4.15 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment in stand-alone institutions in

India
Regional disparity index with regard to enrolment in stand-alone institutions of
different regions in India are presented in Table 4.15. In case of all stand-alone
institutions, the value of disparity index was the highest in western region (7.45),
followed by southern region (6.98), northern region (3.39), eastern (2.14), central
region (0.86) and north-eastern region (0.15). However, the value of disparity index
was the highest in western states with respect to enrolment in polytechnics (8.90),
PGDM (12.24) and teacher training (10.62), while the corresponding figure came out
to be the highest in southern region and eastern region in case of enrolment in nursing
(6.87) and institutes under ministries (9.29), respectively.
Table 4.15: Regional disparity index with respect to enrolment in stand-alone

institutions, India
Regions Polytechnics PGDM Nursing Teacher Institute All Stand
Training under Alone
Ministries Institutions
Northern states 2.85 7.76 6.36 6.17 3.33 3.39
Western states 8.90 12.24 2.12 10.62 5.27 7.45
Southern States 8.45 3.35 6.87 3.17 3.84 6.98
Eastern states 2.16 2.59 2.02 2.82 9.29 2.14
Central India 0.73 0.54 2.92 0.57 4.51 0.86
North-eastern
0.11 0.14 0.12 0.52 0.61 0.15
states
It can be concluded that the southern states of India have been leading the country in
terms of enrolment in all stand alone institutions. Western and northern states are
following the northern states in terms of enrolment. Central and north-eastern states of
India are fairly poor in terms of enrolment in stand-alone institutions. The degree of
69
regional disparity in with regard to enrolment noticed to be widely distributed in
western states as this region attained highest value of disparity index. Southern,
western and eastern states are following the northern region in terms of regional
disparity and it is consistently lower in central and north-eastern states of the country.
4.16 Region-wise and management-wise enrolment in schools in India

Government educational institutions overtake private institutions in terms of total
enrolment in India. It could be seen from Table 4.16 that government institutions
occupied 55.53 per cent share in the total enrolment in India, while corresponding
share calculated 44.47 per cent in case of private institutions. Region-wise, maximum
number of enrolment in government school has been reported in eastern states.
Table 4.16: Region-wise and management-wise enrolment in schools, India

Region Government Private Total
In absolute number
Northern states 36170803 49488633 85659436
Western states 12359411 22204837 34564248
Southern States 20071807 24511709 44583516
Eastern states 52229585 7186981 59416566
Central India 14733893 7918524 22652417
North-eastern states 7136799 2950694 10087493
INDIA 142702298 (55.53) 114261378 (44.47) 256963676
% share to total
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note: Figures in brackets are the percent to total enrolment
70
Out of the total enrolment in government schools (142702298), the eastern region
occupied highest share i.e. 36.60 per cent, followed by northern region (25.35%),
southern region (14.07%), central India (10.32%), western region (8.66%) and north-
eastern region (5.00%). Northern region is leading the country in case of enrolment in
private institutions. Out of the total enrolment in private schools (114261378),
northern region occupied highest share i.e. 43.31 per cent, followed by southern
region (21.45%), western region (19.43%), central India (6.93%), eastern region
(6.29%) and north-eastern region (2.58 %). Again, on an aggregate basis, the share of
enrolment was the highest in northern region (33.34%), followed by eastern region
(23.12 %), southern region (17.35%), western region (13.45%), central India (8.82%)
and north-eastern states (3.93%), respectively.
4.17 Regional disparity index with respect to management-wise enrolment in

schools, India
Table 4.17 shows the degree of disparity was the highest in eastern region in case of
enrolment in government schools, as the value of regional disparity index worked out to
be the highest in favor of this region (6.62), while the value of regional disparity index
varied between 1.13-3.79, in all other regions. However, the value of region disparity
reported to highest in northern states (8.69) with respect to enrolment in private schools.
On an overall basis, the value of disparity index was maximum in northern region (5.95),
followed by western region (3.90), eastern region (3.70), central region (2.93), southern
region (1.94) and north-eastern states (0.78), respectively
Table 4.17: Regional disparity index with respect to management-wise enrolment

in schools, India (%)
Regions Government Private Total
Administration, New Delhi
71
On the whole, it is concluded that eastern states has been leading the country in terms
of total enrolment in government schools. Northern, southern and central region are
following the northern region in this regard. Northern region of the country has been
leading in terms of distribution of private schools and hence, the level of enrolment in
private school came out to be the maximum in this region. Southern and western
states are also competitive states in terms of enrolment in private schools. Regional
disparity index revealed that regional disparity with respect to enrolment in
government schools was the highest in eastern states and the respective figure came
out to the highest in northern region in case of private schools. North-eastern states
are lagged very behind in the context of distribution of enrolment in both
governments as well as in private schools.
4.18 Regional distribution of teachers at different level of school education in

India
The perusal of Table 4.18 shows that the concentration of teachers turned out to be the
maximum in northern region. The northern region occupied 31.39 per cent share in
the total teachers, presently working in the total schools in India. The southern,
eastern and western regions are the next important regions which accounted for 20.62,
18.45 and 13.13 per cent share in the total teachers, respectively. The concentration of
teachers reported to be relatively low in central India and north-eastern states of India.
With regard to different level of education, the concentration of teachers observed to
be the highest in elementary level. The number of teachers decreased with increase in
education level. Northern region leading the country in terms of teachers at primary,
upper primary and senior secondary level and constituted about 33, 28 and 38 per cent
share to total teachers in India. Like-wise southern states occupied highest share
(34.03%) in total teachers available at secondary level of education in India. The
concentration with regard to distribution of teachers reported to be moderately high in
southern, eastern and western states of the country, while it was very low in central
India and north-eastern states of India.
72
Table 4.18: Regional distribution of teachers at different level of school
education, India
Regions Primary Upper Secondary Senior All schools
Primary Secondary
In absolute number
Northern states 863792 742352 340520 781787 2728451
Western states 196679 464332 202861 277425 1141297
Southern States 416325 420657 487201 468084 1792267
Eastern states 601213 535564 192201 274855 1603833
Central India 323990 278516 71144 160028 833678
North-eastern states 204121 170926 137664 79685 592396
INDIA 2606120 2612347 1431591 2041864 8691922
% share to total
Northern states 33.14 28.42 23.79 38.29 31.39
Western states 7.55 17.77 14.17 13.59 13.13
Southern States 15.97 16.10 34.03 22.92 20.62
Eastern states 23.07 20.50 13.43 13.46 18.45
Central India 12.43 10.66 4.97 7.84 9.59
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Office of Registrar General of India.
4.19 Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of teachers at

different level of school education
Regional disparity index with regard to distribution of teachers at different level of
school education are presented in Table 4.19. In case of all schools, the value of
regional disparity index was the highest in northern region (3.99), followed by
western region (3.78), eastern region (2.91), central (2.81), southern (2.33), eastern
region (2.01) and north-eastern region (1.25). Northern region is leading the country
in terms of regional disparity of teacher’s availability in case of primary education.
Like-wise, regional distribution was more uneven in western states in case of teachers
available at upper primary (4.83) and secondary level, while southern states are
73
leading in case of senior secondary level as the regional disparity index was the
highest as compared to all other regions in India.
Table 4.19: Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of number of

teachers at different level of school education, India
Primary Secondary
Northern states 6.55 4.38 2.46 3.46 3.99
Western states 2.60 4.83 5.18 4.01 3.78
Southern States 1.97 2.39 3.91 4.49 2.33
Eastern states 4.09 3.85 1.65 3.77 2.01
Central India 3.32 3.65 1.54 1.99 2.81

Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from various issues of Office of Registrar General of India.
On the whole, it may be concluded that concentration of teachers reported to be the

maximum in northern states, followed by southern and eastern states of the country.
The regional distribution with regard to teacher’s availability noticed to be very
uneven in northern and western state, while it was moderately high in central India
and southern region of the country. North-eastern states emerged as consistently
deprived region in terms of distribution of teachers at all level of education. The
regional disparity index was also the lowest in this region as compared to all other
regions in India.
4.20 Region-wise gross enrolment rate (GER) at different level of education

Table 4.20 reveals that the national figure with regard to gross enrolment rate (GER)
estimated to the tune of 99.21 per cent in case primary level, whereas it was 92.81,
80.51, 56.16 and 24.50 per cent in case of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary
and higher level of education, respectively. Region-wise, the GER was the maximum
in north-eastern states in the case of primary (114.50%), upper primary (120.97 and
secondary (94.80%) level of education, while corresponding figure worked out to the
highest in northern region in case of senior secondary (71.22%) and higher (32.38%)
74
level of education. Across the different region of the country, the GER ranged
between 92.63-114.10 per cent in case of primary education, while the respective
figures varied between 89.12-120.97, 78.80-94.80, 49.63-71.22 and 16.78-32.38 per
cent in favor of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and higher level of
education, respectively.
The penetration of education facilities to weaker section of the society especially to

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes is equally important for overall economic
growth of the country. Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes together constituted
about one-fourth share in the total population of the country. Therefore, it is very
important to determine the gross enrolment rate of SC and ST population. The
national figure with regard to GER in case of SC population estimated to the tune of
110.90 per cent in case primary level, whereas it was 102.40, 85.32, 56.34 and 19.90
per cent in case of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and higher level of
education, respectively. It is evident that the GER was the maximum in north-eastern
states in the case of all level of education. Across the different region of the country,
the GER with respect to SC ranged between 92.63-140.87 per cent in case of primary
education, while the respective figures varied between 89.98-160.75, 93.50-134.23,
43.76-82.38 and 12.18-53.57 per cent in favor of upper primary, secondary, senior
secondary and higher level of education, respectively.
Similarly, the national figure with regard to GER in case of ST population estimated
to the tune of 106.74 per cent in case primary level, whereas it was 96.71, 74.53,
43.12 and 14.20 per cent in case of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and
higher level of education, respectively. Region-wise, the GER was the maximum in
north-eastern states in the case of upper primary (120.68%) and secondary (93.16%)
level of education, while corresponding figure worked out to the highest in northern
region in case of senior secondary (72.07%) and higher (25.14%) level of education.
The GER was the highest in eastern states with regard to primary level of education
(127.06%), respectively. Across the different regions of the country, the GER with
respect to ST ranged between 84.54-127.06 per cent in case of primary education,
while the respective figures varied between 86.72-120.68, 74.38-93.16, 37.52-72.07
and 8.95-25.14 per cent in favour of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and
higher level of education, respectively.
75
Table 4.20: Region-wise gross enrolment rate (GER) at different level of
education, India
Regions Primary Upper Secondary Senior Higher
Primary Secondary education
Gross Enrolment Rate (Overall)
Northern states 95.77 93.59 85.41 71.22 32.38
Western states 92.42 92.76 85.96 51.42 18.60
Southern States 92.63 89.12 90.03 70.56 31.23
Eastern states 106.09 102.47 78.80 45.16 16.78
Central India 97.25 98.18 86.21 49.63 17.35
INDIA 99.21 92.81 80.01 56.16 24.50
Gross Enrolment Rate (SC)
Northern states 92.14 89.98 83.50 60.45 21.47
Western states 98.39 99.81 113.44 62.05 26.06
Southern States 100.79 92.16 91.40 70.04 28.27
Eastern states 117.28 113.87 83.87 43.76 12.18
Central India 102.83 106.55 93.52 48.99 15.10
INDIA 110.90 102.40 85.32 56.84 19.90
Gross Enrolment Rate (ST)
Northern states 100.14 86.72 84.94 72.07 25.14
Western states 84.54 91.74 90.30 46.69 13.82
Southern States 102.44 90.64 86.32 66.40 20.85
Eastern states 127.06 107.66 74.38 47.15 10.43
Central India 96.17 95.71 74.85 37.52 8.95
INDIA 106.74 96.71 74.53 43.12 14.20
In nutshell, it is evident that GER have negative relationship with education level. The
GER observed to be declined with increase in education level. North-eastern states
have been leading the country in terms of gross enrolment rate. In case of primary
76
education, north-eastern states and eastern states of the country has maintained higher
GER than national figure. Likewise, north, north-east, east and central region of the
country has attained higher level of GER than that of national figure at upper primary
level. Except eastern states all other regions of the country have been overtaking the
national figure in case of secondary education. However north and south region of the
country have crossed the national figure on account of GER at senior secondary and
higher level, respectively.
4.21 Regional disparity index of gross enrolment rate (GER) at different level
of education, India
It could be seen from Table 4.21 that the degree of disparity with respect to GER
observed to be varied with education level. Region-wise, the value of disparity index
with respect to GER was the maximum in central India in the case of upper primary
(2.99) and secondary (4.69) level of education, while corresponding figure worked out
to the highest in western region in case of primary (2.05), senior secondary (8.32) and
higher (11.65) level of education, respectively. Across the different regions of the
country, the value of regional disparity index ranged between 0.67-2.05 in case of
primary education, while the respective figures varied between 0.88-2.99, 1.30-4.69,
2.03-8.32 and 3.50-11.65 in favor of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and
higher level of education, respectively.
Similarly, regional disparity index with respect to GER of SC category, was the
maximum in western states in the case of primary (4.39) and secondary (6.90) level of
education, while the same was worked out to be the highest in north-eastern region in
case of upper primary (6.38) and higher level of education (16.69), respectively.
Regional disparity index turned out to be the maximum in central region with regard
to senior secondary level (10.43). Across the different regions of the country, the
value of regional disparity index with respect to SC category, ranged between 1.53-
4.39 in case of primary education, while the respective figures varied between 0.96-
6.38, 2.25-6.90, 2.47-10.43 and 1.87-16.69 in favor of upper primary, secondary,
senior secondary and higher level of education, respectively.
Like-wise, regional disparity index with respect to GER of ST category, was the
maximum in eastern states in the case of primary (3.94) and upper primary (4.27)
77
level of education, while the same was worked out to be the highest in central region
in case of secondary (9.45) and senior secondary level of education (17.14),
respectively. Regional disparity index turned out to be the maximum in north with
regard to higher education level (9.73).
Table 4.21: Regional disparity index of gross enrolment rate (GER) at different
level of education, India
Regional disparity Index (Overall)
Northern states 1.03 2.00 1.89 2.03 4.10
Western states 2.05 1.79 2.99 8.32 11.65
Southern States 1.82 0.88 1.68 3.78 5.75
Eastern states 0.67 1.43 1.30 6.21 3.50
Central India 2.02 2.99 4.69 6.23 9.17
Regional disparity Index (SC)
Northern states 3.36 2.43 2.25 2.47 3.17
Western states 4.39 2.17 6.90 5.89 1.92
Southern States 1.53 0.96 2.37 4.73 4.17
Eastern states 1.62 2.29 2.89 6.90 4.61
Central India 3.38 4.59 6.00 10.43 1.87
Regional disparity Index (ST)
Northern states 1.63 2.64 4.27 5.85 9.73
Western states 3.53 1.43 4.44 7.90 7.21
Southern States 2.82 1.69 3.68 5.44 9.06
Eastern states 3.94 4.27 5.12 8.92 3.23
Central India 1.92 2.84 9.45 17.14 2.77
Across the different regions of the country, the value of regional disparity index with
respect to SC category, ranged between 1.29-3.94 in case of primary education, while
78
the respective figures varied between 1.43-4.27, 2.35-9.45, 3.27-17.14 and 2.77-9.73
in favor of upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and higher level of education,
respectively.
Based on the value of regional disparity index, it is evident that the regional
distribution with respect to gross enrolment rate observed to be more consistent at
primary and upper primary level, but it is more inconsistent and widely varied across
the different regions of the country in case of secondary, senior secondary and higher
level of education.
4.22 Region-wise gender disparity index (GDI) at different level of education

Gender disparity index is the term that refers to the comparison of the gross enrolment
rate of males and females irrespective of the population effect. It is ratio of gross
enrolment rate of females to males. The results pertaining to the GDI estimates with
regard to different regions are presented in Table 4.22. National figure with respect to
GDI at primary, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and higher level
estimated to the tune of 1.03, 1.10, 1.02, 1.01 and 0.92. The value of GDI indicated
that the GER of females turned out to slightly better than males corresponding to their
respective population at primary, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary.
However, the males dominated over females in case of GER at higher level of
education. Corresponding to the respective population, the GER of females noticed to
be better than their male counterparts. The GDI was the highest in northern states
(1.04) in case of primary level. The value of GDI worked out to be the highest in
eastern region in favor of upper primary (1.12) and secondary education (1.13), while
western region leading the country in terms of GDI in the case of senior secondary
(1.24) and higher level of education, respectively
Similar pattern was seen in case of SC and ST category. In case SC category, the
value of GDI ranged between 0.99-1.03, 0.99-1.09, 1.01-1.11, 0.94-1.18 and 0.72-
1.112 at primary, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary and higher level of
education across the different regions of the country, while the corresponding figures
were 0.96-1.01, 0.98-1.07, 0.96-1.10, 0.94-1.11 and 0.89-1.11, respectively in favor of
ST population.
79
Table 4.22: Region-wise gender disparity index (GDI) at different level of
education, India
Gender Disparity Index (Overall)
Northern states 1.04 1.09 0.99 1.00 1.10
Western states 1.02 1.04 0.99 1.24 1.27
Southern States 1.00 1.01 1.04 1.16 1.18
Eastern states 1.02 1.12 1.13 1.06 0.85
Central India 0.99 1.05 1.02 0.96 0.89
INDIA 1.03 1.10 1.02 1.01 0.92
Gender Disparity Index (SC)
Northern states 1.04 1.11 1.02 1.08 1.06
Western states 0.99 0.99 1.02 1.18 1.12
Southern States 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.16 1.05
Eastern states 1.00 1.09 1.11 1.02 0.76
Central India 1.00 1.05 1.01 0.94 0.85
INDIA 1.03 1.10 1.04 1.04 0.91
Gender Disparity Index (ST)
Northern states 1.00 1.05 0.98 0.94 0.89
Western states 1.01 1.03 0.96 1.11 0.91
Southern States 0.98 0.98 1.02 1.09 1.11
Eastern states 0.99 1.07 1.10 1.02 0.86
Central India 0.96 1.01 1.07 1.00 0.86
INDIA 0.98 1.03 1.02 0.97 0.83
Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from various issues of Office of Registrar
General of India.
Overview of GDI estimates indicated that the GER observed to be slightly better in
females as compared to males at level of education corresponding to their respective
population. Females leading the males in terms of GER in north, west and southern
80
region of the country in case of higher level of education, while females lagged
behind in eastern, central and north-east region of the country in the case of higher
education. Hence, it can be said the females are highly competitive with their male
counterparts in terms of GER at all level of education.
4.23 Region-wise pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) at different level of education

An ideal and favorable pupil-teacher ratio is an important factor of quality education.
The results pertaining to regional distribution teachers as against students i.e. PTR is
presented in Table 4.23. At national level, the PTR estimates worked out to be 23, 17,
27, 37, 21 and 16 at primary, upper primary, secondary, higher education level and
universities level. Except university level, PTR was the highest in eastern region in
case of all education level. The estimates of pupil-teacher ratio with respect to
primary, upper primary, secondary and senior secondary was the lowest in north-east
region of the country, while in case of higher level and university level, it was the
lowest in southern region, respectively. As per estimates, the PTR ranged between 13-
26, 8-21, 16-47, 19-30, 13-40 and 12-23 in case of primary, upper primary, secondary,
senior secondary, higher level and university level.
Regional disparity with regard to PTR turned out to be the highest in eastern region in
case of primary (7.43), upper primary (6.80), secondary (11.46) and higher education
level (8.97). However, it was highest in central region in the case of senior secondary
(11.97) and university level (15.37). The value of disparity index came out to be the
lowest in central India in case of primary (1.00), upper primary (2.02) and higher
level of education (1.72). Similarly, north-eastern states have been reported lowest
disparity index in case of secondary (4.07) and senior secondary level of education
(4.22), respectively.
The forgoing analysis revealed, the pupil teacher ratio was unjustified in eastern
region, particularly at secondary, senior secondary and higher level of education. This
ratio emerged as fairly efficient in all other regions, moderately good in south, west
and north region, while it was much better in north-east region, respectively.
81
Table 4.23: Region-wise pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) at different level of education,
India
Regions Primary Upper Secondary Senior Higher University &
Primary Secondary level its Constituent
Units
Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR)
Northern states 19 14 22 32 22 17
Western states 21 15 23 27 21 17
Southern states 17 13 16 32 13 12
Eastern states 26 21 47 60 40 17
Central India 20 18 36 33 21 23
North-eastern states 13 8 16 19 21 13
INDIA 23 17 27 37 21 16
Region disparity Index
Northern states 5.17 5.88 6.82 8.77 2.78 2.73
Western states 3.49 2.49 7.47 8.98 4.97 6.72
Southern States 4.39 3.82 4.85 9.24 1.84 3.29
Eastern states 7.43 6.80 11.46 5.71 8.97 7.10
Central India 1.00 2.02 5.89 11.97 1.72 15.37
North-eastern states 4.81 4.17 4.07 4.22 3.37 4.08
Government of India fixed the ideal pupil-teacher ratio under act of Right to Free and
Compulsory Education (RTE) being implanted in the year 2009. According to this
act, an ideal PTR should not be more than 30 and 35 at primary and upper secondary
level. Under the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) framework
stipulates that the PTR at secondary level should be 30:1. According to Unified
District Information System for Education (UDISE) the PTR for elementary schools
and for secondary schools should be 24 27 at national level. The PTR in most of the
States and UTs is found to be satisfactory. However, since some schools have lesser
teachers than the required number, it is clear that while there are sufficient teachers,
the main issue is their correct deployment (Website:http://pib.nic.in/newsite/Print
Release. aspx?relid=158326).
82
4.24 Regional distribution of drinking water facilities at different level of
education
Table 4.24 shows that majority of the school in India i.e. 96.81 per cent have the
access of drinking water facility. The proportion of the schools having drinking water
facility at national level worked out to be 96.72 in case of primary schools, 98.11 per
cent in case of upper primary schools, 98.89 per cent in case secondary and 99.24 per
cent in case of senior secondary school, respectively.
The per cent share of schools having drinking water facilities was the highest in
western region (99.94%), while it was more or less same south (98.42%) and north
(98.23%) region of the country. It was also good in Central India (97.72%) and
eastern region (96.46%), while the north-east region is still very poor in terms of
drinking water facilities, respectively.
Table 4.24: Region-wise percent distribution of drinking water facilities at

different level of education, India
Primary Secondary
Percent schools with drinking water facilities
Northern states 98.27 98.73 99.29 99.50 98.23
Western states 99.93 99.96 99.99 99.98 99.94
Southern States 98.19 99.36 99.50 99.24 98.42
Eastern states 96.39 98.25 98.81 97.46 96.46
Central India 97.83 98.34 98.55 99.20 97.72
INDIA 96.72 98.11 98.89 99.24 96.81
Regional disparity Index with respect to distribution of drinking water facilities
Northern states 0.30 0.20 0.11 0.08 0.30
Western states 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02
Southern States 0.43 0.15 0.11 0.13 0.37
Eastern states 0.78 0.40 0.31 0.53 0.74
Central India 0.89 0.81 0.01 0.09 0.97
83
The degree of regional disparity is very low in almost all the region. The value of
disparity index worked out to negligible in western states and marginally high in
north-east and central region of the country.
The results clearly indicated that access of drinking water facility observed to be
better in all regions except north-east region. It is also evident that this facility is still
not spread over all the schools and hence, need attention and sincere efforts to extend
drinking water facility to all schools.
4.25 Regional distribution of schools with girl’s toilet facilities at different level
of education
Table 4.25 shows that majority of the school in India i.e. 97.12 per cent have the girl’s
toilet facility. The proportion of the schools having girl’s toilet facility at national
level worked out to be 97.62 in case of primary schools, 98.45 per cent in case of
upper primary schools, 98.57 per cent in case secondary and 98.99 per cent in case of
senior secondary school, respectively. The per cent share of schools having girl’s
toilet facility was the highest in western region (99.87%), followed by south region
(99.72%). However, it was more or less same north (98.99%) and central region
(9791%) of the country. The East (95.74%) and North-east region (95.82%) is
relatively poor in terms of girl’s toilet facility.
The degree of regional disparity is very low in almost all the region. The value of
disparity index worked out to be negligible in western and eastern states of India and
marginally high in east, central and north-east region of the country.
The results clearly indicated that access of drinking water facility observed to be
better in all regions except east and north-east region. It is also evident that this
facility is still not spread over all the schools and hence, need attention and sincere
efforts to extend girl’s toilet facility to all schools.
84
Table 4.25: Region-wise percent distribution of schools with girl’s toilet facilities
at different level of education, India
Primary Secondary
Percent schools with girl’s toilet facilities
Northern states 98.96 99.53 99.62 99.71 98.99
Western states 99.86 99.95 99.95 99.94 99.87
Southern States 99.77 99.95 99.95 99.42 99.72
Eastern states 95.64 97.50 96.88 96.00 95.74
Central India 98.07 98.63 97.76 98.93 97.91
INDIA 97.62 98.45 98.57 98.99 97.12
Regional disparity Index with respect to distribution of schools with girl’s toilet
facilities
Northern states 0.20 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.19
Western states 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.05
Southern States 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.20 0.05
Eastern states 1.02 0.30 0.56 0.72 0.97
Central India 0.84 0.77 0.20 0.19 0.91
4.26 Region-wise status of funds allocated and expenditure incurred under

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), India, 2016-17
In India, education is always an important component in budget estimates. This sector
requires foremost attention in central and state budget on account of providing
education in better and effective manner. Table 4.26 represents the status of funds
allocated and expenditure incurred under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in India
during the year 2016-17. As per estimates, the extent of total funds released during the
financial year 2016-17was Rs 7424869 lakhs. Out of the total funds, the per cent share
of central and state government estimated to the tune of 29.17 and 70.83 per cent,
respectively. The figures of total funds released in north, west, south, east, central and
north-east region in absolute terms came to be Rs 3035311, Rs 495634, Rs 956669,
Rs 1813620, Rs 757428 and Rs 366209 lakhs, respectively.
85
Table 4.26: Region-wise status of funds allocated and expenditure incurred
under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), India, 2016-17
Regions Allocation of funds Total Expenditure
Central State share Total fund expenditure as percentage
share released to total funds
(Rs lakhs)
907000 2128311 3035311
Northern states 2256442 74.34
(29.88) (70.12) (100.00)
140348 355286 495634
Western states 314615 63.48
(28.32) (71.68) (100.00)
253546 703122 956669
Southern States 546980 57.18
(26.50) (73.50) (100.00)
474242 1339377 1813620
Eastern states 1100683 60.69
(26.15) (73.85) (100.00)
213718 543710 757428
Central India 437143 57.71
(28.22) (71.78) (100.00)
North-eastern 176890 189318 366209
229961 62.80
states (48.30) (51.70) (100.00)
2165745 5259124 7424869
INDIA 4885825 65.80
(29.17%) (70.83%) (100.00%)
% share to total
Northern states 41.88 40.47 40.88 46.18 -
Western states 6.48 6.76 6.68 6.44 -
Southern States 11.71 13.37 12.88 11.20 -
Eastern states 21.90 25.47 24.43 22.53 -
Central India 9.87 10.34 10.20 8.95 -
North-eastern
8.17 3.60 4.93 4.71 -
states
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 -
Note: Figures in the brackets are the percent to total funds released
Source: Office of Registrar General of India and Annual work Plan and Budget 2016-17
Except north-east region, the share of state government in total funds varied between
70.12 per cent to 73.85 per cent, while the central share in total funds ranged between
86
26.15 to 29.88 per cent, respectively. In case of north-east region, state share is
marginally high (51.70%) than that of central share (48.30%). Hence, the
concentration of central share was the highest in north-eastern states and contribution
of state in total funds worked out to be the highest in eastern states. The per cent share
of expenditure in total funds came out to the highest in north region (74.34%),
followed by western region (63.48%), north-east region (62.80%), eastern region
(60.69%), central region (57.71%) and southern region (57.18%), while it was only
65.80 per cent at national level, respectively. Results have shown the amount of funds
allocated on education in the year 2016-17 was the highest in northern region and
occupied 40.88 per cent share in the total funds in India. Eastern, southern and central
regions following the northern region and constituted 24.43, 12.88 and 10.20 per cent
share in total funds. Western and north-eastern states are relatively deprived states in
terms of funds allocation on education as compared to other states and occupied only
6.68 and 4.71 per cent share in the total funds allocation, respectively. Similar pattern
has been observed in case of expenditure pattern.
Table 4.27: Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of funds

allocated and expenditure incurred under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), India,
2016-17
Allocation of funds
Total
Regions Central State Total fund
expenditure
share share released
Northern states 7.51 8.59 8.26 9.70
Western states 1.75 1.81 1.79 1.81
Southern States 1.51 1.62 1.57 1.31
Eastern states 4.72 5.14 4.95 4.97
Central India 3.11 2.58 2.74 1.40
North-eastern states 1.23 0.45 0.67 0.65
Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from annual work plan and Budget 2016-17.
The results with respect to regional disparity measures are given in Table 4.27. The
value of disparity index came out to be the highest in northern region in favor of total
funds released (8.26) and funds incurred (9.70) on education during the financial year
87
2016-17. The degree of disparity is reported to moderately high in east and central
region and fairly high in western and southern region, while it was the least in north-
east region of the country.
Overall, it may be concluded that northern region of the country are more benefiting
in terms of allocation of funds on education. This region is also leading the country in
terms of share of expenditure in the total funds released and regional disparity
measures as well. It is reported that level of expenditure as against the funds released
was inappropriate in all the regions and hence, it should be fully utilized.
4.28 Region-wise allocation and utilization of funds sanctioned under Mid-Day

Meal Scheme in India
Mid-day meal scheme was initiated under the National Programme of Nutritional
Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) in the year 1995. Later on it was
implemented on all states and union territories in the year 2001. The main objectives
of this scheme are to provide nutritional support to primary stage children. Region-
wise allocation and utilization of funds sanctioned under Mid-Day Meal Scheme in
India is given in Table 4.28.
As per estimates, the total funds sanctioned during the financial year 2016-17was Rs
947891 lakhs, out of which only 92.53 was used under mid meal scheme in India. The
figures of total funds sanctioned in north, west, south, east, central and north-east
region in absolute terms came to be Rs 204578, Rs 115062, Rs 151190, Rs 271675,
Rs 99751 and Rs 34839 lakhs, respectively. Out of these total sanctioned funds, the
share of funds came out to be the highest in central region (105.07%), followed by
south (102.40%), west (101.29%), north (97.28%), east (89.60%) and north-east
(44.57%), respectively. Eastern region of the country occupied the highest share both
in the total funds sanctioned (31.99%) as well as in total funds utilized (30.97%) in
the country. Other regions like north, west, south, central and north-east regions of the
country constituted 22.19, 11.98, 15.58, 10.02 and 8.25 per cent share in total funds
sanctioned under mid-day meal scheme in India.
Based on the value of regional disparity index (Table 4.29), the degree of disparity
with regard to total funds sanctioned and disbursed under mid day meal scheme
88
turned out to be the highest in eastern region of the country. The value of RDI was
4.26 and 4.12 in case of funds released and funds utilized in eastern states. The
corresponding figures are 3.37 and 3.99 in case of western region, 3.37 and 3.51 in
case of northern region, 2.73 and 3.33 in favour of central 1.87 and 2.07 in favour of
southern region, while it was least i.e. 1.84 and 0.41 in north-east region of the
country.
Table 4.28: Region-wise allocation and utilization of funds sanctioned under

Mid-Day Meal Scheme, India, 2016-17
Regions Central Assistance Utilization* Percentage of
Released/Sanctioned Fund Utilization
(Rs lakhs)
Northern states 210301 204578 97.28
Western states 113596 115062* 101.29
Southern States 147641 151190* 102.40
Eastern states 303216 271675 89.60
Central India 94938 99751* 105.07
North-eastern states 78169 34839 44.57
INDIA 947861 877096 92.53
% share to total
Northern states 22.19 23.32 -
Western states 11.98 13.12 -
Southern States 15.58 17.24 -
Eastern states 31.99 30.97 -
Central India 10.02 11.37 -
North-eastern states 8.25 3.97 -
INDIA 100.00 100.00 -
Note:* The figures more than funds sanctioned include the unspent funds carry over from last year un-
utilized funds.
Source: Office of Registrar General of India. Annual work plan and Budget 2016-17.
89
Table 4.29: Regional disparity index (RDI) with respect to distribution of funds
allocated and utilization of funds sanctioned under Mid-Day Meal Scheme,
India, 2016-17
Regions Central Assistance Utilization
Released/Sanctioned
Northern states 3.37 3.51
Western states 3.37 3.99
Southern States 1.87 2.07
Eastern states 4.26 4.12
Central India 2.73 3.33
North-eastern states 1.84 0.41
Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from various issues of annual work plan and Budget 2016-17.
Overall, in absolute terms, the amount of funds allocated and disbursed under mid day
meal scheme was the highest in eastern states, followed by northern states. In spite of
highest central assistance, the proportion of funds utilized was still very low in eastern
states (89.60%). North-eastern region are again the neglected region in terms of
central assistance under mid day meal scheme. This region occupied only 8.25 per
cent share in total funds sanctioned during the year 2016-17.
4.30 Regional distribution of teacher’s availability in India

Region-wise distribution of teacher’s availability in India is presented in Table 4.30.
As per the estimates, total sanctioned posts in India are 5181791 and against these
posts only 4274206 teachers are presently working and there is a shortfall of 907585
teachers. Region-wise, the maximum number of sanctioned in northern region
(1467811), followed by eastern region (1468605), southern region (772397), central
region (605064), western (535961) and north-east region (331953). As against the
total sanctioned posts, the number of working teachers is only 1183753 in northern
region, while corresponding figures in case of western, southern, eastern, central and
north-east region of the country estimated as 497030, 702724, 1105327, 498113 and
287259 only. The shortfall of teachers as against the total sanctioned post in
percentage terms worked out to be 19.35, 7.26, 24.74, 17.68 and 13.46 per cent in
north, west, south, east, central and north-east region of the country, respectively.
90
Table 4.30: Region-wise teacher’s availability in India, 2016-17
Regions Sanctioned posts Working Gap
In absolute number
Northern states 1467811 1183753 284058 (19.35)
Western states 535961 497030 38931 (7.26)
Southern States 772397 702724 69673 (9.02)
Eastern states 1468605 1105327 363278 (24.74)
Central India 605064 498113 106951 (17.68)
North-eastern states 331953 287259 44694 (13.46)
INDIA 5181791 4274206 907585 (17.51)
% share to total
Central India 11.68 11.65 11.78
INDIA 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note: Estimates includes teachers under state and SSA scheme
*Figures in the brackets are the working posts as a percentage to the total sanctioned posts
Source: Office of Registrar General of India.
As indicated by the value of disparity index given in Table 4.31, the degree of
regional disparity was the highest in northern region in case of total sanctioned posts
of teachers in India. The value of RDI worked out to be 2.81, 1.63, 3.66, 1.65 and
1.20 in west, south, east, central and north-east region of the country. Similar pattern
was observed in case of working posts while, the disparity was found to be the highest
in eastern region (9.28) in case of shortfall of posts.
91
Table 4.31: Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of teacher’s
availability under State & SSA in India
Regions Sanctioned posts Working Gap
Source: Computed on the basis of data compiled from Office of Registrar General of India.
On the whole, it can be concluded, that two regions i.e. north and east region of the
country are highly competitive regions in terms of total sanctioned posts of teachers in
India. The shortfall of working posts as against the total sanctioned posts is also very
high in these two regions. However, eastern states are slightly dominated over
northern states in terms of total sanctioned and working posts of teachers in India. The
regional distribution of total sanctioned posts of teachers reported to be relatively
more uneven in northern and eastern states than that of all regions of the country.
Conclusion
Education is an important indicator of economic development of developing countries
like India. It is taken as an important part of national policy of the country. Since
independence, national figures and estimates on various aspects of education system
(educational institutions, enrollments, teachers etc.) have shown very impressive
growth rates in India. The status and extent of education system is however, observed
to be varied across different regions of the country.
The findings of the study revealed that the northern and southern states of the country
emerged as highly competitive regions in terms of distribution of educational
institutions in India. These two regions together, constituted more than half of the
total educational institutions of the country. In-depth overview of the estimates
indicated that the distribution of educational institutions was the least in north-eastern
states of India, while the distribution of educational institutions was moderately high
in western, eastern and central regions of India. However, the degree of regional
92
disparity noticed to be very high in northern and western region of the country. North-
eastern states emerged as consistently deprived region in terms of distribution of
educational distribution.
The study brought out that northern states have been leading the country in terms of
enrolment in school level education. Out of the total enrolment, northern region
constituted about 33 per cent share in total schools in India. Similarly, this region
constituted the highest share i.e. 35.30, 37.48, 42.41 and 45.12 per cent per cent share
in total enrolment at under graduate, certificate courses, integrated courses and PG
diploma courses, whereas, southern region alone constituted nearly 34, 56, and 37 per
cent in the total enrolment at post graduate, M.Phil. and PhD level, respectively.
Based on percent distribution of enrolment two regions namely, southern and northern
of India emerged as highly competitive regions of the country. The degree of regional
disparity noticed to be very high in northern states followed by western and southern
region of the country.
The degree of regional disparity noticed to be widely distributed as northern states

attained highest value of disparity index in favor of integrated courses, while the
disparity index is very high in central India (20.84) in favor of PG diploma. Similarly,
western region leading the country in terms of value of disparity index with respect to
post graduate level, while southern region have attained the highest value of disparity
index in favor of M.Phil. (17.98) and PhD (5.81) level of education, respectively.
North-eastern states emerged as consistently deprived region in terms of enrolment at
higher level education. The regional disparity index was also the lowest in this region
as compared to all other regions in India.
It is evident that the southern states of India have been leading the country in terms of
enrolment in all stand-alone institutions. Western and northern states are following the
northern states in terms of enrolment. Central and north-eastern states of India are
fairly poor in terms of enrolment in stand-alone institutions. The degree of regional
disparity in with regard to enrolment noticed to be widely distributed in western states
as this region attained highest value of disparity index. Southern, western and eastern
states are following the northern region in terms of regional disparity and it is
consistently lower in central and north-eastern states of the country.
93
The analysis revealed that the government institutions occupied 55.53 per cent share
in the total enrolment in India. Region-wise, maximum number of enrolment in
government school has been reported in eastern states. Northern region of the country
has been leading the country in terms of distribution of private schools and hence, the
level of enrolment in private school came out to be the maximum in this region.
Southern and western states are also competitive states in terms of enrolment in
private schools. Regional disparity index revealed that regional disparity with respect
to enrolment in government schools was the highest in eastern states and the
respective figure came out to be the highest in northern region in case of private
schools. North-eastern states are lagged very behind in the context of distribution of
enrolment in both private as well as in private schools.
The concentration of teachers turned out to be the maximum in northern region. The
northern region occupied 31.39 per cent share in the total teachers, presently working
in the total schools in India. The regional distribution with regard to teacher’s
availability noticed to be very uneven in northern and western state, while it was
moderately high in central India and southern region of the country. North-eastern
states emerged as consistently deprived region in terms of distribution of teachers at
all level of education.
The GER observed to be declined with increase in education level. North-eastern

states have been leading the country in terms of gross enrolment rate (GER). In case
of primary education, north-eastern states and eastern states of the country has
maintained higher GER than national figure. The value of GDI indicated that the
GER of females turned out to slightly better than males corresponding to their
respective population at primary, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary.
However, the males dominated over females in case of GER at higher level of
education.
An ideal and favorable pupil-teacher ratio is an important factor of quality education.

The results revealed, the pupil teacher ratio was unjustified in eastern region,
particularly at secondary, senior secondary and higher level of education. This ratio
emerged as fairly efficient in all other regions, moderately good in south, west and
north region, while it was much better in north-east region, respectively.
94
The results showed that the majority of the school in India i.e. 96.81 per cent has the
access of drinking water facility. The per cent share of schools having drinking water
facilities was the highest in western region (99.94%), while the north-east region is
still very poor in terms of drinking water facilities, respectively. Majority of the
school in India i.e. 97.12 per cent have the girl’s toilet facility.
In India, education is always an important component in budget estimates. This sector

requires foremost attention in central and state budget on account of providing
education in better and effective manner. Results have shown the amount of funds
allocated on education in the year 2016-17 was the highest in northern region and
occupied 40.88 per cent share in the total funds in India. Overall, it may be concluded
that northern region of the country are more benefiting in terms of allocation of funds
on education. This region is also leading the country in terms of share of expenditure
in the total funds released and regional disparity measures as well. It is reported that
level of expenditure as against the funds released was inappropriate in all the regions
and hence, it should be fully utilized.
In absolute terms, the amount of funds allocated and disbursed under mid-day meal
scheme was the highest in eastern states, followed by northern states. In spite of
highest central assistance, the proportion of funds utilized was still very low in eastern
states (89.60%). North-eastern region are again the neglected region in terms of
central assistance under mid-day meal scheme. This region occupied only 8.25 per
cent share in total funds sanctioned during the year 2016-17.
The shortfall of teachers as against the total sanctioned post in percentage terms
worked out to be 19.35, 7.26, 24.74, 17.68 and 13.46 per cent in north, west, south,
east, central and north-east region of the country, respectively. It can be concluded,
that two regions i.e. north and east region of the country are highly competitive
regions in terms of total sanctioned posts of teachers in India. The shortfall of
working posts as against the total sanctioned posts is also very high in these two
regions. However, eastern states are slightly dominated over northern states in terms
of total sanctioned and working posts of teachers in India. The regional distribution of
total sanctioned posts of teachers reported to be relatively more uneven in northern
and eastern states than that of all regions of the country.
95

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CHAPTER-IV

EDUCATIONAL DISPARITIES IN INDIA

Down the ages, education has remained an important component of economic

Table 4.1: Educational institutions in India, 1950-51 to 2015-16

Figure-4.1 Trends in educational institutes in India, 1950-51 to 2015-

Total higher education institutes Total schools

4.2 Student enrolment at different level of education in India

Table 4.2: Student enrolment at different level of education in India, 1950-51 to

Primary (I-V) Upper Primary (VI-VIII)

4.3 Status of female’s enrolment as compared to males at different level of

4.4 Number of teachers at different level of school education in India

Year Primary Upper Primary Secondary Senior Secondary All schools

4.5 Education statistics at a glance

Table 4.5: Education statistics at a glance, India, 2015-16

An ideal and justified pupil-teacher ratio is an important factor of quality education in

Gender-wise share in enrolled Enrolment of student by

Figure-4.5 Education statistics at a glance, India, 2015-16

Since independence, national figures and estimates on various aspects of education

4.6 Regional distribution of educational institution in India

4.8 Region-wise enrollment in school level educational institution in India

4.9 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment in school level educational

Table 4.8: Region-wise enrolment in school education, India

4.10 Region-wise enrollment at graduate level in India

Table 4.10: Region-wise enrolment at graduate level, India

4.11 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment in school level educational

Regions Under graduate Diploma Certificate

Northern states 6.02 2.77 8.92

Western states 4.61 6.58 8.01

Southern States 3.06 6.03 6.59

Eastern states 1.95 1.71 2.90

Central India 2.38 3.22 0.88

North-eastern states 0.52 0.13 0.57

4.12 Region-wise enrollment at higher level of education in India

Table 4.12: Region-wise enrolment at higher level of education, India

4.13 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment at higher level educational

Table 4.14: Region-wise enrolment in stand-alone institutions, India

4.15 Regional disparity with respect to enrolment in stand-alone institutions in

Table 4.15: Regional disparity index with respect to enrolment in stand-alone

4.16 Region-wise and management-wise enrolment in schools in India

Table 4.16: Region-wise and management-wise enrolment in schools, India

4.17 Regional disparity index with respect to management-wise enrolment in

Table 4.17: Regional disparity index with respect to management-wise enrolment

4.18 Regional distribution of teachers at different level of school education in

4.19 Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of teachers at

Table 4.19: Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of number of

Northern states 6.55 4.38 2.46 3.46 3.99

Western states 2.60 4.83 5.18 4.01 3.78

Southern States 1.97 2.39 3.91 4.49 2.33

Eastern states 4.09 3.85 1.65 3.77 2.01

Central India 3.32 3.65 1.54 1.99 2.81

North-eastern states 1.62 1.14 1.78 0.60 1.25

On the whole, it may be concluded that concentration of teachers reported to be the

4.20 Region-wise gross enrolment rate (GER) at different level of education

The penetration of education facilities to weaker section of the society especially to

4.22 Region-wise gender disparity index (GDI) at different level of education

4.23 Region-wise pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) at different level of education

Table 4.24: Region-wise percent distribution of drinking water facilities at

4.26 Region-wise status of funds allocated and expenditure incurred under

Table 4.27: Regional disparity index with respect to distribution of funds

4.28 Region-wise allocation and utilization of funds sanctioned under Mid-Day

Table 4.28: Region-wise allocation and utilization of funds sanctioned under

4.30 Regional distribution of teacher’s availability in India