Lecture 13

M. Siddikov

December 19, 2019

Outline
Where we are Plan for today
Systems with variable mass
System with distributed mass
(elements of rigid body dynamics)

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Symon→Marion→Fetter, Walecka, Landau

Introductory remarks Integrals of motion for a closed system:
Up to now we assumed that: Momentum of the system
Number of particles in the system is X X
constant ~ :=
P ~pk = mk ~vk
Mass of each particle is constant k k

All partucles are pointlike (size=0) -universal, valid for elastic and ineastic

Now we will consider how to analyze Angular momentum of the system

slightly different cases:
Mass of the particle might change
X X
~ :=
M ~rk × ~pk = mk ~rk × ~vk
e.g. part of the body is ejected, k k
or another body is absorbed-essentially
-for extended objects should add angular
inelastic process, mechanical energy is
momentum of each rotating body
not conserved.
Lagrangian formalism usually is not (Mechanical) energy of the system
applicable for such systems
Case of distributed mass (rigid body)
when distances between particles ~rik = X m ~v 2 X X
k
E = + Uk (~rk ) + Uik (~ri − ~rk )
const (so the system moves as a whole, 2
k k i <k
with distributed mass)
We will consider the dynamics of -not conserved for inelastic scattering
rigid body in more details in FIS-211 -includes energy of rotation of an extended
(it is part of the program of FIS-211) body
 We will consider a few examples which illustrate how to apply these
laws to analysys of dynamical systems with variable mass
Sometimes in such systems we do not have explícit forces/potentials,
so can’t start with the 2nd law of Newton or Lagrangian approach
 Example problem (Marion, Chapter 9): Initial momentum (time t):
Reactive motion
Motion with variable mass p = mv

Final momentum (time t + dt):

p = (m − dm) (v + dv ) + dm (v − u)
dm
dv = u
m
⇒The object is propelled as a result of
momentum conservation!

~ thrust = −~u dm
F
dt
A rocket moves in free space with
m 
velocity v . In the time interval dt, a ⇒ v = v0 + u ln
0

mass dm is ejected from the rocket m

engine with velocity u with respect to Multistage design .
the rocket ship. Integrate equations of
Stages with burn-
motion of the rocket.
out fuel are ejected
Can use momentum conservation to increase m0 /m
Mechanical energy is not conserved,
inelastic process
Angular momentum
Reactive motion
Motion with variable mass

A rocket ascends in gravitational field

with velocity v . In the time interval dt,
a mass dm is ejected from the rocket
engine with velocity u with respect to
the rocket ship. Integrate equations of
motion of the rocket.
dm/dt = −α = const, α > 0.
 Initial momentum (time t):
Reactive motion
Motion with variable mass p(t) = m v

Final momentum (time t + dt):

p(t+dt) = (m−dm) (v +dv )+dm (v −u)

Fext dt = p(t + dt) − p(t)

mdv − u dm = −mg dt

g m 
0
⇒ v = − (m0 − m) + u ln =
α  m
m0 
= −gt + u ln
m

A rocket ascends in gravitational field

with velocity v . In the time interval dt,
a mass dm is ejected from the rocket
engine with velocity u with respect to
the rocket ship. Integrate equations of
motion of the rocket.
dm/dt = −α = const, α > 0.

Ptot 6= const, system is not closed

Motion with variable mass

The conveyor belt moves with constant

velocity v . The amount of sand falling
on the conveyor belt per unit of time
dm/dt = const. Evaluate the force F
applied to the conveyor belt.
Motion with variable mass
Momentum of belt+sand:

P = (M + m)v

Force:
dP dm
F = =v
dt dt
Supplied power:
The conveyor belt moves with constant
velocity v . The amount of sand falling dm d 
F · v = v2 (M + m)v 2 =

on the conveyor belt per unit of time =
dt dt
dm/dt = const. Evaluate the force F d (M + m)v 2
 
applied to the conveyor belt. =2 ·
dt 2
Momentum is not conserved, external ⇒Mechanical energy is not conserved,
force F the supplied power is twice larger than
Mechanical energy is not conserved,
inelastic process increase of kinetic energy (why ???)
Motion with variable mass

An open-topped car with proper mass

M can move horizontally with a small
coefficient of friction µ. The external
source of water (e.g. rain or water
hose) fills the car with m liters of water
per unit of time. The initial velocity of
the car is v0 . Evaluate the velocity of
the car as a function of time
  Case µ = 0: component Px = const:
Motion with variable mass
. no forces in horizontal direction.

Px = M v0 = (M + λt) v (t) (1)

M
⇒ v (t) = v0
M + λt
 Case µ 6= 0: component Px 6= const
due to friction force
An open-topped car with proper mass
M can move horizontally with a small Ffriction (t) = −µN = −µg (M + λt)
coefficient of friction µ. The external
source of water (e.g. rain or water Change of momentum
hose) fills the car with λ liters of water Z t
dt Ffriction (t) = −µg Mt + λt 2 /2


per unit of time. The initial velocity of ∆Px =
the car is v0 . Evaluate the velocity of 0

the car as a function of time so instead of (1) we get

Can use momentum conservation M v0 + ∆Px = (M + λt) v (t) (2)
Mechanical energy is not conserved,

!
inelastic process Mv0 − µg Mt + λt 2 /2
⇒ v (t) = max ,0
M + λt
The solution is valid only for v (t) > 0
 afterwards friction Ffriction (t) 6= −µN
Motion with variable mass

I will include a few problems in the next homework (in January)

Now we will switch to systems with distributed mass
Distributed mass (rigid body)

Motion of rigid body Rigid body can move “as a whole”, six
Rigid body=system of masses such degrees of freedom:
that distance between any of two F Translations: ~r → ~r + ~a F
points ~rik =const Rotations
Internal forces: ~fik = −~fki , so expect
that internal forces cancel for motion of
the body as a whole
Rigid body=abstraction, all physical
bodies are deformable (elastic)
Discrete case: set of fixed masses
Continuum limit: consider each
element as mass ρ(~r ) dV
ρ (~r )-density of particles in the rest
frame, depends on shape, but does not
depend on time.
Rotations
These equations are valid in any ref-
erence frame, but:
Motion of the system of particles
In lab frame orientation of the body
Dynamical equations we’ve obtained constantly changes, so the distribution
earlier for a system of particles: of mass (density) ρ = ρ (~r , t) is not con-
stant; complicates description.
~ CM
dP ~ (ext)
=F (1) Sometimes it is more convenient to an-
dt alyze (1, 2) in the body’s rest frame
dM~ It is non-inertial rest frame
~ (ext)
=K (2) The mass density ρ = ρ (~r ) does not
dt
depend on time (orinetation)
Should learn how to transform physical
variables
Trivial for scalar quantities (plain sub-
stitution of coord)
For vectors should be careful, orienta-
tion changes
Parametrizations of rotations

Case of elementary rotations

Concept of rotation matrix around axes Ox, Oy , Oz:
Assume that ~v is the vector in the body rest
frame, and ~v 0 is the vector in the laboratory
frame. Then the two vectors are related via the
rotation matrix R̂

R̂ ~v = ~v 0

or in terms of components:

va0 = Rab vb

In general R̂ depends on all angles used to

parametrize rotation
Parametrizations of rotations Replacement θ → −θ: inversion of
Case of elementary rotations around axes matrix
Ri (−θ) = R(θ)
Ox, Oy , Oz:
Product of any two matrices also
gives orthogonal matrix (which corre-
sponds to some rotation)
”Associativity”: for product

of
∀3 matrices, Ri (α) Rj (β) Rk (γ) =


Ri (α) Rj (β) Rk (γ)
Noncommutativity:

Ri (α) Rj (β) 6= Rj (β) Ri (α)

Case θ = 0: trivial rotation (identity matrix) if i 6= j

though if i = j, then
E = Ri (0), (Ri (0))ab = δab
Ri (α) Ri (β) = Ri (β) Ri (α)
Orthogonality: = Ri (α + β)
X
R T (θ)R(θ) = E , Rac (θ)Rbc (θ) = δab
c

-required to keep scalar product a·b of any two vectors

under rotations
Parametrizations of rotations (general case)
Axis-Angle convention Euler angles
Rotation axis ~e (φ, ψ) Rotation⇒superposition of
Rotation angle θ “elementary” rotations around axes
X , Y , Z , e.g.:
 
R θ~ = RZ (α) RX (β) RZ (γ)

we’ll use a shorthand notation θ~ = θ ~e

Group axioms
 
∀~ ~ ∃~γ ,
α, β, R (~ ~ = R (~γ )
α) R β
 
∃E ≡ R ~0 , ∀~
α, E R (~
α) = R (~
α) E = R (~
α)
α, ∃R −1 (~
∀~ α) ≡ R (−~α) , α) R −1 (~
R (~ α) = 1 There are different conventions how
∀~
α , ~ ~γ ,
β, to choose Euler Angles, ZXZ, ZYZ,
XZX, YZY, XYX, YXY, ....
      
R (~
α) R β ~ R (~γ ) = R (~
α) R β~ R (~γ )
F We will stick to ZXZ convention
Parametrizations of rotations

Control question 1
Assume that the rotation matrix R̂ is
parametrized in terms of the Euler angles,
R̂ = RZ (φ) RX (θ) RZ (ψ). Find its
parametrization in axis-angle representation,
θ~ = θ~e .
Parametrizations of rotations

Control question 1
Assume that the rotation matrix R̂ is
parametrized in terms of the Euler angles,
R̂ = RZ (φ) RX (θ) RZ (ψ). Find its
parametrization in axis-angle representation,
θ~ = θ~e .

Rotation axis is eigenvector of rotation matrix:

R̂ ~e = ~e
For any rotation matrix angle θ is given by
 
Tr R̂ = 1 + 2 cos θ
Parametrizations of rotations
These equations ar valid in any refer-
ence frame, but:
Motion of the system of particles
In lab frame orientation of the body
Dynamical equations we’ve obtained constantly changes, so the distribution
earlier for a system of particles: of mass (density) ρ = ρ (~r , t) is not con-
stant; affects relation between M ~
~ and Ω.
~ CM
dP ~ (ext)
=F (1) Sometimes it is more convenient to an-
dt alyze (1, 2) in the body’s rest frame
dM~ It is non-inertial rest frame
~ (ext)
=K (2)
dt The mass density ρ = ρ (~r ) does not
depend on time (orinetation)
Should learn how to transform physical
variables
Trivial for scalar quantities (plain sub-
stitution of coord)
For vectors should be careful, orienta-
tion changes
Rotations

Control question 2
~ is applied to
Assume that the external force F
the rigid body, and is constant in the lab frame.
The orientations of the rigid body is given by
Euler angles φ, θ, ψ, which in general depend on
time t. Evaluate the components of the force F~
in the rest frame of the rigid body (obviously
~ | = const).
|F
Parametrizations of rotations

Control question 2
Assume that the external force F ~ is applied to
the rigid body, and is constant in the lab frame.
The orientations of the rigid body is given by
Euler angles φ, θ, ψ, which in general depend on
time t. Evaluate the components of the force F ~
in the rest frame of the rigid body (obviously
~ | = const).
|F

~ → R̂ −1 (ψ) R̂ −1 (θ) R̂ −1 (φ) F

F ~
Z x Z
Rotation around axis
Now we will learn how to apply the Assume that the body rotates uniformly
general equation which we have seen around some axis with angular velocity
earlier to the case of a simple rotation θ̇. Evaluate the projection of the
around one axis angular momentum M on the rotation
axis
Motion of the system of particles
Dynamical equations we’ve obtained
earlier for a system of particles:
~ CM
dP ~ (ext)
=F (1)
dt
dM~
~ (ext)
=K (2)
dt
Concept of moment of inertia X
Mz = mi ri2 ϕ̇i
Assume that the body rotates uniformly i
around some axis with angular velocity θ̇. ϕi = θ + βi
Evaluate the projection of the angular
momentum M on the rotation axis ϕ̇i = θ̇
!
X
Mz = mi ri2 θ̇ = Iz θ̇
i
X Z
Iz = mi ri2 → 2
ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV
i
2
r⊥ = x 2 + y 2 = r 2 − (r · ez )2
Iz is called moment of inertia about the
axis z
Rotation around axis - moment of inertia
.
Mz = Iz θ̇
Z
2
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV

dM~
~ (ext)
=K (2)
dt

For the mathematical pendulum shown in

the plot, evaluate the moment of inertia I
about axis passing through its suspension
point O. Assume that the mass of the cord
is negligible. Demonstrate that equation
dM
=K
dt
is compatible with equation of motion of
mathematical pendulum obtained earlier.
Rotation around axis - moment of inertia .
Mz = Iz θ̇
Z
2
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV

For the mathematical pendulum shown in

the plot, evaluate the moment of inertia I
about axis passing through its suspension
point O. Assume that the mass of the cord
is negligible. Demonstrate that equation
dM
=K
dt
is compatible with equation of motion of
mathematical pendulum obtained earlier.
Iz = ml 2
Kz = −mgl sin θ
 g 
⇒ ml 2 θ̈ + sin θ = 0
l
Rotation around axis - moment of inertia
.
Mz = Iz θ̇
Z
2
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV

Mathematical pendulum

Iz = ml 2
Kz = −mgl sin θ
 g 
⇒ ml 2 θ̈ + sin θ = 0
l Compound (physical) pendulum
We might have completely different rigid, Z
yet the EOM is exactly the same as for a Iz = 2
dV ρ(r ) r⊥ Mz = Iz θ̇
simple pendulum (only the values of Iz , ` Z
are different).
Kz = dV [~r × ~f ]z = −m g ` sin θ
Similar equation as for the mathematical
pendulum:
 
mg `
⇒ Iz θ̈ + sin θ = 0
Iz
Rotation around axis - Center of percussion
Daily experience: If we hit something
Mz = Iz θ̇ with a stick (bat), we feel by hands a
recoil force, and there are certain “spots”
Z
2
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV in the stick when this recoil is minimal.

The body is pivoted in the point O and is

struck by external force F 0 in the point O 0 ,
located at distance `. Evaluate the force
felt in the point O. Under what condition
the force F = 0 ? (the point O 0 for such
case is called center of percussion)
Rotation around axis - Center of percussion
Mz = Iz θ̇
Z ~ CM
dP
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥2
dV =F ~ (ext)
dt
dM~
=K ~ (ext)
The body is pivoted in the point O and is dt
struck by external force F 0 in the point O 0 , By condition, the point O does not
located at distance `. Evaluate the force move;
felt in the point O. Under what condition
the force F = 0 ? (the point O 0 for such
case is called center of percussion) dMz
⇒ = Iz θ̈ = Kz(ext) = F 0 h0
dt
Center-of-mass motion:
dP
= m h θ̈ = F (ext) = F 0 + F


⇒
dt
m h h0
 
⇒ 1− F0 = F
Iz
In case Iz = m h h0 the force F = 0
Rotations

Motion of the system of particles

Dynamical equations for a system of particles:
~ CM
dP ~ (ext)
=F (1)
dt
dM~
~ (ext)
=K (2)
dt

Up to now we considered general properties

and introduced moment of inertia Iz
Now we plan to discuss some technical tricks:
How to find the position of the center of mass
How to evaluate rapidly the tensor of inertia
around any axis
Center-of-mass (CM) position
Formal definition
P R
~ CM := Pmk~rk ⇒ R dV ρ(~r )~r .
R
k mk dV ρ(~r )

If the body is made of several parts

If the body has a symmetry plane, than with known masses and positions of
the CM lies in that plane center-of-mass, then
If the body has two symmetry planes,
(CM)
than the CM lies on their intersection
P
m ~r
If the body has three symmetry planes
~
RCM = Pk k
mk
with one common point, than the CM
coincides with that point
If the body has a symmetry axis, than the
CM lies on that axis
If the body has a spherical symmetry,
than the CM lies in the center of symmetry If the body B contains cavities C ,
then R~ CM may be found from
-so for symmetric bodies symmetry allows to
simplify evaluation of RCM P (CM)
mk~rk −
P
mk~rk
(CM)
~ CM =
R P PC
mk − C mk
Rotation around axis - moment of inertia

.
Mz = Iz θ̇
Z
2
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV

Assume that the body rotates around axis

which passes at distance a from the center
of mass. Evaluate how the moment of
(a)
inertia Iz is related to the moment of
(CM)
inertia Iz evaluated in the
center-of-mass reference frame.
 .
Rotation around axis - moment of inertia
Mz = Iz θ̇
Z
2
Iz = ρ(~r ) r⊥ dV

Huygens-Steiner/Parallel axis theorem

If the body rotates around axis which
passes at distance a from the center of
(a)
mass, then its moment of inertia Iz is
(CM)
related to the moment of inertia Iz by

(a) (CM) The system consists of two balls of

Iz = Iz + m a2
radius R and mass m connected as
shown in the plot. Evaluate the
moment of inertia around the axis
passing through the common center of
inertia