Lecture 18

M. Siddikov

January 3, 2020
Outline
Where we are Plan for today
Hamiltonian formulation of classical
mechanics

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Hamiltonian approach
In Hamilton’s approach we should re-
place each pair (qa , q̇a ) → (qa , pa )
Generalized momentum
Note that we can make transition only
∂L over some of the variables
pa =
∂qa
Routhian
hybrid between Lagrangian and
Legendre’s transform
Hamiltonian, include only some
Relation of Hamiltonian H by to Lagrangian coordinates in Legendre’s transform
L:
N
(1), so
X R = R (q1 , p1 , qs , ps , qs+1 , q̇s+1 , ...)
H(p, q) ≡ pa q̇a − L
a=1
 variables 1...s: canonical equations
 variables s + 1...N: Euler-Lagrange
equations
Hamilton’s (Canonical) equations
∂R ∂R
ṗi = − , q̇i = , i ≤ s,
X X
dH = − ṗa dqa + q̇a dpa (1) ∂qi ∂pi
a a  
∂R d ∂R
− = 0, i >s
∂qi dt ∂ q̇i
∂H (p, q) ∂H (p, q)
ṗa = − , q̇a = .
∂qa ∂pa
Hamiltonian approach
Some examples we’ve discussed:
Motion of a single particle:
Generalized momentum
∂L m ~q˙
pa = L= − U(q),
∂qa 2
p2
~p = m~q˙ ⇒ H = + U(q)
2m
Legendre’s transform
Relation of Hamiltonian H by to Lagrangian N-dimensional oscillations near its
L: equilibrium
N
X ∂L mij ẋi ẋj kij xi xj
H(p, q) ≡ pa q̇a − L, pa = L= − , pi = mij ẋj
a=1
∂qa 2 2

−1
pi m̂ p
ij j kij xi xj
Lagrangian in spherical coordinates ⇒H= +
2 2

m 2  So far we have H = T + U, but this

L= ṙ + r 2 θ̇2 + r 2 sin2 θφ̇2 − U(r ), is because q̇ contributes to L only in
2
quadratic form. If this is not so, H 6=
pr = mṙ , pθ = mr 2 θ̇, pφ = mr 2 sin2 θφ̇
! T +U, should use Legendre’s transform
1 p2 pφ2 to get the right answer
H= pr2 + 2θ + 2 2 + U(r )
2m r r sin θ
Hamiltonian approach Assume a lagrangian has a form:
r
2 v2
Generalized momentum L = −mc 1 − 2 , (1)
c
∂L
pa = where c = 3 × 108 m/s=speed of light
∂qa
It is lagrangian of relativistic particle
For v  c, L ≈ const + mv 2 /2
Legendre’s transform For us at this moment is important only
Relation of Hamiltonian H by to mathematical structure; physical reasons
Lagrangian L: why (1) has such form are discussed in FIS-
221.
N
X ∂L momentum:
H(p, q) ≡ pa q̇a − L, pa =
a=1
∂qa ∂L m va
pa = = p
∂va 1 − v 2 /c 2
If q̇ contributes to L only in quadratic
1 − v 2 /c 2 = m2 /(m2 + p 2 /c 2 )
form, then H = T + U, otherwise H 6=
T + U, should use Legendre’s transform to m c2
H =p·v −L= p
get the right answer 1 − v 2 /c 2
= c 2 m2 + p 2 /c 2 6= L
p
 Maupertui’s principle (∼1744)
Hamiltonian formulation
If we restrict variations in configuration
∂L ∂L space to trajectories with constant
pa = , ṗa = energy (H = E = const)
∂ q̇a ∂qa
X
H≡ pa q̇a − L Z X Z Z
S̃ = dt pa q̇a = pa dqa = 2 dt T
a
Hamilton’s (Canonical) equations (∼1833)
Single particle
 case:2
m d~r
⇒ dt = d |r |/ 2T /m
p
∂H (p, q) ∂H (p, q) T =
ṗa = − , q̇a = . 2 dt
∂qa ∂pa
dH(p, q, t) ∂H ∂L
Z √ Z p
= =− S̃ = d|r | 2mT = d|r | 2m(E − U(~r ))
dt ∂t ∂t

Modified Hamilton’s principle Fermat’s principle (XVII century)

Canonical equations might be obtained For free particles T = E = const, so
from condition that functional particle follows the path of the
Z ! shortest time
X
S̃ = dt pa q̇a − H(pa , qa , t) Z t2
a S̃ = 2E dt = 2E (t2 − t1 ) = min
t1
achieves minimum on the trajectory
Hamiltonian formulation→simplectic notations
Derivative of any function f = f (p, q, t) Properties of the Poisson bracket
df ∂f (below ci = const, fi , g are some
= + [H, f ] functions, qa are coordinates, pa are
dt ∂t
momenta)
Poisson bracket [H, f ] [f , g ] = − [g , f ] , [f , c] = 0

X  ∂H ∂f ∂H ∂f

[H, f ] = −
a
∂pa ∂qa ∂qa ∂pa [c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ]

In some books notation {H, f } is used [f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ]

If the quantity f is integral of motion ∂f ∂f
and does not depend explicitly on time, then [f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa
[H, f ] = 0 [qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
Poisson’s theorem [pa , qb ] = δab ,
If f , g are integrals of motion, then [[f , g ] , h]+[[h, f ] , g ]+[[g , h] , f ] = 0
h = [f , g ] is also an integral of motion
Canonical equations - simplectic notations

Hamilton’s (Canonical) equations Properties of the Poisson bracket

...
∂H (p, q)
ṗa = − ,
∂qa ∂f ∂f
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂H (p, q) ∂pa ∂qa
q̇a = .
∂pa ~ in 2N space
∂H/∂η → ∇H
⇓  
IN
q̇a = [H, qa ] , ṗa = [H, pa ] J= =
−IN
Some authors (see e.g. Goldstein from 1 0 0
 

bibliography) use a “joined” notation η (or  0 0 ... 0 

0 0 1
 
η ) for vector in 2N space with components
~ 
=

 −1 0 0
 

 
q1  0 0 0

... 
 ... 
  0 0 −1
 qN  ∂H
η=  p1  ,
 η̇ = [H, η] = J , [η, η] = J [ηa , ηb ] = Jab
  ∂η
 ... 
pN
Canonical equations - simplectic notations

Hamilton’s formalism Properties of the Poisson bracket

...
Notation η (or ~
η ) for vector in 2N space
with components
∂f ∂f

q1
 [f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa
 ... 
 
 qN  ∂H
η=  p1  , η̇ = [H, η] = J ,
Demonstrate that the Possion bracket

∂η
[f , g ] might be written as
 
 ... 
pN  T
∂f ∂g X ∂f ∂g
~ in 2N space [f , g ] = J ≡ Jab
∂H/∂η → ∇H ∂η ∂η ∂ηa
ab
∂ηb
 
IN
J= =
−IN

[η, η] = J [ηa , ηb ] = Jab

Poisson bracket Properties of the Poisson bracket
Derivative of any function f = f (p, q, t) (ci = const, f , g are some functions,
X  ∂f  qa are coordinates, pa are momenta)
df ∂f ∂f
= + q̇a + ṗa =
dt ∂t a
∂qa ∂pa [f , g ] = − [g , f ]
∂f
= + [H, f ]
∂t [f , c] = 0
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ]
Poisson bracket [H, f ]
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ]
X  ∂H ∂f ∂H ∂f

∂f ∂f
[H, f ] = − [f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa ∂qa ∂pa ∂pa ∂qa
a
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
In some books notation {H, f } is used [pa , qb ] = δab ,
If the quantity f is integral of motion
and does not depend explicitly on time, then [[f , g ] , h]+[[h, f ] , g ]+[[g , h] , f ] = 0
[H, f ] = 0

Poisson’s theorem
If f , g are integrals of motion, then
h = [f , g ] is also an integral of motion
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ]
Assuming that qa are generalized
coordinates, pa are corresponding
[f , c] = 0 momenta, and Ma are components of
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] the angular momentum, evaluate the
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] Poisson brackets
∂f ∂f [Ma , pb ], [Ma , qb ], [Ma , Mb ]
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
X
[pa , qb ] = δab , ~ = ~q × ~p
M Ma = abc qb pc
[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0 b,c

abc -”Levi-Civita symbol”:

=0, if any of the two indices coincide
=1, if abc = 123 or any cyclic per-
mutation (312, 231)
=-1, if abc is any anticyclic permuta-
tion of 123 (321, 132, 213)
changes sign if permute two indices
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ] 
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] [Ma , pb ] =
X
a`m [q` , pb ] pm +

[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] `,m
| {z }
=−δ`b
[pa , qb ] = δab , 

+ q` [pm , pb ] = −abc pc

Assuming that qa are generalized coordinates, | {z }
=0
pa are corresponding momenta, and Ma are
components of the angular momentum,
evaluate the Poisson brackets

X
[Ma , qb ] = a`m [q` , qb ] pm +

[Ma , pb ], [Ma , qb ], [Ma , Mb ] | {z }
`,m
=0
X
~ = ~q × ~p Ma =
M abc qb pc

b,c
+ q` [pm , qb ] = −abc qc

| {z }
=δmb

Explicitly: [Mx , px ] = 0, [Mx , py ] =

−pz , ...(nonzero commutator only for
cyclic permutations of x, y , z)
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ] 
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] [Ma , Mb ] =
X
a`m [q` , Mb ] pm +

[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] `,m
| {z }
=`bc qc
[pa , qb ] = δab , 

+ q` [pm , Mb ] =

Assuming that qa are generalized coordinates, | {z }
=mbc pc
pa are corresponding momenta, and Ma are
components of the angular momentum,
evaluate the Poisson brackets = a`m `bc qc pm + a`m mbc q` pc =

[Ma , pb ], [Ma , qb ], [Ma , Mb ] = (a`m `bc + ac` `bm ) qc pm (1)

~ = ~q × ~p Ma =
X Recall “Jacobi identity”
M abc qb pc
b,c x × (y × z) + z × (x × y ) +
+y × (z × x) = 0 ∀x, y , z

[Ma , pb ], = −abc pc , [Ma , qb ] = −abc qc , abc c`m + a`c cmb + amc cm` = 0
to demonstrate that (1) is equivalent to

[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ]
Demonstrate that if function U(r ) is
spherically symmetric, then
[f , c] = 0 [U(r ), Ma ] = 0. Similarly, if the
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] function Q(r ) is invariant with respect
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] to translations r → r + a n, then

[f , qa ] =
∂f
, [f , pa ] = −
∂f
, [p · n, Q(r )] = 0
∂pa ∂qa
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
[pa , qb ] = δab ,
[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0

[Ma , pb ], = −abc pc , [Ma , qb ] = −abc qc ,

[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc
Hamiltonian formulation Demonstrate that if function U(r ) is
[f , g ] = − [g , f ] spherically symmetric, then
[U(r ), Ma ] = 0. Similarly, if the
[f , c] = 0 function Q(r ) is invariant with respect
to translations r → r + a n, then
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ]
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] [p · n, Q(r )] = 0
∂f ∂f
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa [U(r ), Mz ] = [U(r ), qx py − qy px ] =
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0, = [U(r ), qx ] py + qx [U(r ), py ] −
| {z } |{z} | {z }
[pa , qb ] = δab , =0 =x −∂U/∂y

[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0 − qy [U(r ), px ] −px [qy , U(r )] =

|{z} | {z } | {z }
y −∂U/∂x =0

0 xy xy
[Ma , pb ], = −abc pc , [Ma , qb ] = −abc qc , = −U (r ) + U 0 (r ) =0
r r
[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc
X ∂(p · n) ∂Q
[p · n, Q(r )] ≡
a
∂pa ∂ra
= (n · ∇r ) Q(r ) = 0

since by definition Q(r ) = Q(r + a n)

Hamiltonian formulation Infinitesimally small translations r → r +a n:
[f , g ] = − [g , f ] the function changes as Q(r ) → Q(r )+δQ(r ),

∂Q(r )
[f , c] = 0 δQ(r ) = a n · = a n · [p, Q(r )]
∂r
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] = a [p · n, Q(r )]
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ]
Rotations around axis n (angle φ  1):
∂f ∂f
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − , r → r + φn × r
∂pa ∂qa
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0, p → p + φn × p
[pa , qb ] = δab ,
∂Q ∂Q
[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0 δQ(p, r ) = φ (n × p) · + φ (n × r ) ·
∂p ∂r
= φ (n × p) · [Q, r ] − φ (n × r ) · [Q, p]
= φ [Q, n · (p × r )]
[Ma , pb ] = −abc pc , ,
= φ [M · n, Q(p, r )]
[Ma , qb ] = −abc qc
[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc H, M · n, p · n ↔generators of evolution, ro-
tations, translations

dQ/dt = [H, Q], dQ/da = [p · n, Q],

dQ/d φ = [M · n, Q]
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ]
The particle moves in the central field
[f , c] = 0 U(r ). Demonstrate that all
components Ma are integrals of
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ]
motions
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ]
∂f ∂f
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
[pa , qb ] = δab ,
[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0

[Ma , pb ], = −abc pc , [Ma , qb ] = −abc qc ,

[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ]
The particle moves in the central field
U(r ). Demonstrate that all
[f , c] = 0 components Ma are integrals of
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] motions
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] ∂Ma
= 0 ⇒have to show that
∂t
∂f ∂f [H, Ma ] = 0
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa
p2
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
p
H= + U(r ), r= x2 + y2 + z2
2m
[pa , qb ] = δab ,
[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0
 2 X
p , Mz = 2

pa [pa , Mz ]
a
X
= −2 azj pa pj = 0
[Ma , pb ], = −abc pc , [Ma , qb ] = −abc qc , aj
[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc
due to antisymmetry of azj = −jza
Hamiltonian formulation
[f , g ] = − [g , f ]
The particle moves in the central field
U(r ). Demonstrate that all
[f , c] = 0 components Ma are integrals of
[c1 f1 + c2 f2 , g ] = c1 [f1 , g ] + c2 [f2 , g ] motions
[f1 f2 , g ] = [f1 , g ] f2 + f1 [f2 , g ] ∂Ma
= 0 ⇒have to show that
∂t
∂f ∂f [H, Ma ] = 0
[f , qa ] = , [f , pa ] = − ,
∂pa ∂qa
p2
[qa , qb ] = 0, [pa , pb ] = 0,
p
H= + U(r ), r= x2 + y2 + z2
2m
[pa , qb ] = δab ,
[[f , g ] , h] + [[h, f ] , g ] + [[g h] , f ] = 0 [U(r ), Mz ] = [U(r ), qx py − qy px ] =
= [U(r ), qx ] py + qx [U(r ), py ] −
| {z } |{z} | {z }
=0 =x −∂U/∂y
[Ma , pb ], = −abc qc , [Ma , qb ] = −abc pc ,
[Ma , Mb ] = −abc Mc − qy [U(r ), px ] −px [qy , U(r )] =
|{z} | {z } | {z }
y −∂U/∂x =0

0 xy xy
= −U (r ) + U 0 (r ) =0
r r
Canonical transformations of coordinates

Canonical transformation Prove that point transformations of

Transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) is coordinates q → q(Q) are canonical
canonical if it preserves the form of and find the transformation rules for
canonical (Hamilton) equations
canonical momenta p → P.
∂H ∂H
q̇a = , ṗa = −
∂pa ∂qa

The identity transformaiton is canonical

If the transformation is canonical, then the
inverse is also canonical
Superposition of two canonical transfor-
mations is also canonical
Point transformations of coordinates q →
q(Q) are canonical
Canonical transformations of coordinates

Canonical transformation X ∂qa ∂Qc X

Q̇b = Q̇b δbc = Q̇c
Transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) is ∂Qb ∂qa
ab b
canonical if it preserves the form of X ∂H  ∂Qc  ∂H
canonical (Hamilton) equations ⇒ Q̇c = :=
a
∂p a ∂q a ∂P c

Point transformations of coordinates q →

q(Q) are canonical: ∂H X ∂H ∂Qb
ṗa = − = −
∂qa ∂Qb ∂qa
∂H ∂H b | {z }
q̇a = , ṗa = − :=Ṗb
∂pa ∂qa
Apply chain rule: ⇒Equations are canonical (self-
consistent) if pa and Pb are related
as
X ∂qa ∂H 
∂qb

Q̇b = Pa = pb
∂Qb ∂pa ∂Qa
b
X ∂qa ∂Qc
= δbc
b
∂Qb ∂qa Now consider canonical transforms of
more general form

q = q (Q, P) , p = p (Q, P)
Canonical transformations of coordinates

Canonical transformation ∂H ∂H ∂pb ∂H ∂qb

Q̇a = = +
Transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) is ∂Pa ∂pb ∂Pa ∂qb ∂Pa
|{z} |{z}
canonical if it preserves the form of q̇b −ṗb
canonical (Hamilton) equations ∂Qa ∂Qa
Q̇a = ṗb + q̇b
∂pb ∂qb
Point transformations of coordinates q →
q(Q) are canonical    
Assume time-independent transformations ∂qb ∂Qa
⇒ =− ,
( so H = H̃): ∂Pa Q,P ∂pb q,p
   
∂H ∂H ∂Qa ∂pb
ṗa = − , q̇a = =
∂qa ∂pa ∂qb p,q ∂Pa Q,P

∂H ∂H
Ṗa = − , Q̇a = Find the second set of relations from
∂Qa ∂Pa
requirement of covariance of Ṗa
∂H ∂H ∂pb ∂H ∂qb
= +
∂Pa ∂pb ∂Pa ∂qb ∂Pa
Canonical transformations of coordinates

Canonical transformation
   
∂qb ∂Qa
⇒ =− , (1)
Transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) is ∂Pa Q,P ∂pb q,p
canonical if it preserves the form of
   
∂Qa ∂pb
canonical (Hamilton) equations = (2)
∂qb p,q ∂Pa Q,P

Point transformations of coordinates q →

q(Q) are canonical
   
∂Pb ∂qa
⇒ = , (3)
Assume time-independent transformations ∂pa q,p ∂Qb Q,P
( so H = H̃):    
∂Pa ∂pb
=− (4)
∂H ∂H ∂qb p,q ∂Qa Q,P
ṗa = − , q̇a =
∂qa ∂pa
 The last 2 equations are equivalent
∂H ∂H to the first: in terms of matrices
Ṗa = − , Q̇a =
∂Qa ∂Pa
(1) = (4)−1 , (2) = (3)−1
∂H ∂H ∂pb ∂H ∂qb
= +
∂Pa ∂pb ∂Pa ∂qb ∂Pa
Now we’ll analyze more general
transformations which depend on time
Canonical transformations of coordinates
where F (q, Q, t) is some function
X X
Canonical transformation dF = pa dqa − Pa dQa +H̃ dt−H dt
Transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) is
canonical if it preserves the form of ∂F ∂F
canonical (Hamilton) equations ⇒ pa = , Pa = −
∂qa ∂Qa
Point transfromation (coordinates) q → ∂ 2 F (q, Q, t) ∂p ∂P
= =− (1)
q(Q) are canonical ∂q∂Q ∂Q ∂q
Minimal action principle: ∂F
H̃ = H +
! ∂t
Z
Function F (q, Q) is called
X
δS = δ dt pa q̇a − H (p, q, t) =
a generating function, it allows to relate
(implicitly) old and new coordinates
Z !
X
=δ dt Pa Q̇a − H̃ (P, Q, t) = min 4 types: F1 (q, Q, t) , F2 (q, P, t) ,
a
F3 (p, Q, t) ,F4 (p, P, t)
!
Demonstrate that the transformation
X
⇒ pa q̇a − H (p, q, t) =
a
sin p
 
Q = log , P = q cot p
!
X d
Pa Q̇a − H̃ (P, Q, t) + F (q, Q, t) q
a
dt
is canonical
Canonical transformations of coordinates
Canonical transformation ∂F (q, Q, t)
 
p = arcsin q e Q =
Transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) is ∂q
canonical if it preserves the form of
p ∂F (q, Q, t)
P = e −2Q − q 2 = −
canonical (Hamilton) equations ∂Q
X X
dF = pa dqa − Pa dQa + H̃ dt −H dt
∂ 2 F (q, Q, t) ∂p ∂P q eQ
= =− = p
∂F ∂F ∂q∂Q ∂Q ∂q 1 − q 2 e 2Q
⇒ pa = , Pa = −
∂qa ∂Qa
∂ 2 F (q, Q, t) ∂p ∂P from both equations⇒ system is com-
= =− (1) patible, so
∂q∂Q ∂Q ∂q
∂F
Z
∂F (q, Q)  
H̃ = H +
∂t F = dq = q arcsin q e Q
∂q
Note that (1) is one of the two necessary
p
+ e −2Q − q 2
conditions for canonical transform
Demonstrate that the transformation
So far we’ve demonstrated that
sin p
 
Q = log , P = q cot p condition (1) from 2 slides ago is
q fulfilled. Prove that condition (2) is
is canonical also fulfiled (i.e. ∂p/∂P = ∂Q/∂q)