Electric Power Utilization : EE3029D

Module I
Electric Traction

Presented by
Dr. V. Karthikeyan
Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology Calicut 1
 Requirements of Ideal Traction System
1. High starting tractive effort in order to have rapid acceleration.
2.
effort in order
Self contained and compact locomotive (train unit) so that it may be able to run on
any rout.
3. Equipment capable of withstanding large temporary overloads.
4. Minimum wear on the track.
5. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes, and if
possible the energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply.
6. Equipment required should be minimum, high efficiency, low initial and
maintenance cost.
7. No interference to the communication line running along the track.
8. Easy speed control.
9. It should be pollution free.
 Basic Classification on Traction system
The process of moving any vehicle is called traction . If the electric energy is use in this process is called
electric traction.

Classified broadly into groups namely:

1. Non-electric Traction System

1. Direct steam Engine Drive
2. Direct Internal Combustion Engine Drive
2. Electric Traction System
1. Steam Electric Drive
2. Internal Combustion Engine Electric Drive
3. Battery Electric Drive
4. Electric Traction Drive
Efficiences of Diffèrent Types of Locomotives
S. No. Traction System Efficiency
1. Steam Locomotive 5-7%
2. Gas Turbine Electric Locomotive 10%
3. Diesel Electric Locomotive 25-30%
4. Electric Locomotive with Thermal Power Plant 34-36%
5. Electric Locomotive with Hydro-Electric Power Plant 40-42%
 Why electric traction system ???
 Cheapness : Low operation cost

 Cleanliness: Smoke and gas free

 Maintenance cost : 50% less than other steam engines

 Starting time and speed: Without loss of time.

 High starting torque : Uses of D.C & A.C series motor- very high starting
torque.

 Braking : Regenerative breaking is used which feeds back

energy.

 Saving in high grade coal : Saving of non-renewable energy source.

 Systems of track electrification
1. The DC System
2. The Single Phase AC System
3. The Three Phase AC System
4. The Composite System
i. Single Phase - Three Phase System or Kando System
ii. Single Phase - DC System

The DC System
✓ In this system, D.C. series motors used for getting the necessary motive power, D.C. compound motors are also used for
tramways and trolley buses where regenerative braking can be utilized.
✓ The operating voltage is from 600 V to 750 V for tramway and suburban railways and from 1500 V to 3000 V for main
line service.
✓ The distribution system consists of one contact wire in case of tramways and two contact wires in case of trolley buses.
✓ The spacing of sub-stations depends upon the operating voltage and the traffic density of the route.

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 The DC System
S. No. Operating Voltage in Spacing between Application
Volts Sub-Station in km
1. 600 3 to 5 Tramways, Trolley Bus
2. 1500 to 3000 30 to 40 Main Line Services

Advantages Disadvantages
1. DC series motor has better speed torque 1. This system has high cost of sub-
characteristics and smooth speed control. station due to converting equipments.
2. It offers high starting torque. 2. More number of sub-stations is
required as they are spaced at shorter
3. It has low maintenance cost.
distance.
4. Smaller weight per kW output.
3. Additional equipments like negative
5. Batter speed control. boosters are also required to maintain
6. Efficient braking system. return voltage within specified limit
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 Single Phase AC System

✓ In single phase AC system ac series motors are used for getting necessary motive power.
✓ The voltage employed for distribution network is 15 to 25 kV at 6 2 or 25 Hz, which is stepped
down on locomotive to a low voltage suitable for supplying to single ac series motor.
✓ The spacing of substation is 50 to 80 km.
✓ The change of supply frequency become necessary because of Better performance.
✓ Improves its commutation properties, power factor and efficiency.
✓ Reduces the line reactance and hence the voltage drop.
✓ AC single phase system is invariably adopted for main line service

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 Three Phase AC System

✓ In this system 3-phase induction motor operating at 300 to 3600 V and low frequency are
employed for getting the required motive power
✓ The 3-phase induction motor is Drawbacks:
✓ Simple ✓ Low starting torque

✓ Robust in construction ✓ High starting current

✓ High operating efficiency ✓ Two overhead contact wires

✓ Automatic regenerative braking without required any additional equipment

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 The kando system (single phase to three phase
system)

✓ In this system single phase high voltage (25 kV) at normal supply frequency is used to
distribute power.
✓ The locomotive which carries a phase convertor which converts single phase AC to three-
phase AC. The three-phase power is then fed to three-phase induction motors for getting
necessary motive force.
✓ In this system only one contact wire of overhead system which is overcome the disadvantage
of 3 phase AC system.
✓ This system was adopted in Hungary in 1932. 9
The kando system (single phase to three phase
system)

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The kando system (single phase to three phase
system)

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 Single phase AC to DC system

✓ In this system of track electrification single phase AC 25 kV at normal frequency is fed to overhead
distribution.
✓ The AC locomotive carries transformer to step down high input voltage and rectifying equipments to
convert AC into DC This system is adopted in India for track electrification.
✓ This system becomes most popular because of various salient advantages over other systems
particularly DC system.
✓ This system has got numerous advantages over dc system.
✓ The line current for a given demand of power is reduced on account of high system voltage
✓ On account of high voltage the substations can be spaced at longer distances (50 to 80 km)
whereas the substations are spaced at 12 to 30 km in case of 3000 V DC system and at 5 to 12
km in case of 1500 V DC system.
✓ Since the dc series motors having ideal traction characteristics are employed in this system for
getting the required propelling power, therefore, this system have got the advantages of the dc
system.
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 Single Phase AC - DC System
Overhead conductor:
This is the overhead conductor running along the track
through which high voltage AC (22 to 25 kV) is supplied
from traction substation and fed to the locomotive.
Pantograph:
It is a current collecting device mounted on the roof of
locomotive. It collects the required power from overhead
conductor and feds to locomotive.
Circuit Breaker:
The circuit breaker is a protective device for locomotive
equipments. It is mounted on the roof of locomotive. The
function of circuit breaker is to make the supply ON and
OFF both in normal and faulty condition.
On load Tap changer:
The on-load tap changer is a speed regulating devices of
motors. It regulates motor speed by varying voltage from
input side of the transformer.
Transformer:
The transformer is used to step down the line voltage from
25 kV to 1500 V or required voltage to run the traction
motor.

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Single phase AC to DC system

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 Traction Motors (DC Series Motor)
✓ The traction motor is a dc series motor, four pole

or six pole, forced ventilated machine arranged for

axle mounting on sleeve baring and supported on
the opposite by the resilient suspension unit,
transverse movement is limited by the flanges of
axle.

✓ These motors are axle hung, nose suspended type

and are provided with grease lubricated roller

bearings for armature as well as for suspension.

✓ Special provision has been made in design of the

motors to ensure the locomotive operates

satisfactorily on flooded track, to max. Flood level
of 20 cm , above rail level.

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 Loco Transformer

This is a main transformer of

locomotive.

The 25 KV single phase AC

power supply of OHE is fed to
the winding of regulating
transformer through main
bushing.

The winding is equally divided

into 32 taps. These taps are
connected to tap changer.
 Tap Changer
Use of transformer tap changers: on-load/off-load

✓ The tap changer is directly built on to the transformer. The tapings of the transformers are
brought out and arranged in circular fashion on an insulated contact plate.
✓ There are two rows of contact segments which are aligned on outer and inner circles of the
contact plate.
✓ An arm which is known as selector arm is driven by shaft at the centre of the contact plate.
✓ Two rollers are situated at the edge of the selector arm. These rings are provided in front of
the contact plate.
✓ The centre shaft which extends outside the tap changer casing is driven by an air servomotor.
✓ The design of the air servo motor is such that once the selector arm begins its movement, it
can be stopped only at the required tap (not in between two taps).
✓ The connection between the inner or outer ring to the transformer is being established by
means of a contactor.
 Comparison of DC and AC system for Main line
and Suburban line Railway service
Main Line Railway Service
✓ The essential requirements of main line railway service are :
✓ Higher maximum speed. (Vm)
✓ Minimum cost of track electrification.
Single phase AC system is preferred for main line service because of following features
✓ 25 kV overhead systems reduce conductor section and hence simplified structure design due to high
voltage.
✓ Higher spacing of sub-station reduces number of sub-station and increases flexibility of selecting
cheaper, land Maintenance cost is less due to cheap and efficient equipment of AC system.

Sub-urban Railway Service

The essential requirements of sub-urban railway service are :
✓ Rapid acceleration and retardation rates due to frequent starting and stopping.
✓ Motor performance should not affected by voltage fluctuations.
✓ Less chances of interference in the telecommunication lines running along the track.
The above requirements can be fulfill by DC system and hence invariably adopted for sub-urban services
considering following facts.
✓ For similar conditions the energy consumption in dc system is less as compared with that in AC system.
✓ The DC locomotive and motor coach equipments are lighter in weight, cheaper in initial and maintenance
cost and efficient
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Comparison of DC and AC Traction

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 Types of current collector : Bow Collector
✓ Bow Collector- A bow collector is one of the three main devices
used on tramcars to transfer electric current from the wires above to
the tram below. It has now been largely replaced by the pantograph.

✓ The bow collector is also employed for collecting the current with
tramways.

✓ The bow collector consists of light metal strip or bow 0.6 to 0.9
meter wide pressing against the trolley wire and attached to a
framework mounted on the roof of vehicle.

✓ In order to avoid jumping off the trolley wire at high speeds, it is

desired that the wire be accurately located above the track and
staggered about 15 cm to each side of center line to avoid the
wearing of the groove in the contact strip.

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 Types of current collector : Pantograph
Collector
✓ Pantograph Collector- Main function is to maintain the link
between overhead contact wire and power circuit of the
locomotive at varying speeds in different climate and wind
conditions.

✓ The pantograph is employed in railways for collection of

current where the operating speed is as high as 100 or 130
kmph and the currents to be collected are as large as 2000 or
3000 A.

✓ Pantographs are mounted on the roof of the vehicles and

usually carry sliding shoe for contact with the overhead trolley
wire. Advantages over other types of the collectors.

✓ The contact shoes are usually about 1.2 meter long. There may (i) It can operate in either direction of motion.
be a single shoe or two shoes on each pantograph. (ii) There is no risk of leaving wire junction etc.
(iii) The erection of the overhead network is very simple due
✓ Material used for pantograph is often steel with sometimes,
to absence of points and grooved crossings required for bows.
wearing used plates of copper or bronze inserted.
(iv) Its height can be varied from the drivers cabin by carrying
✓ The pressure varies from 5 to 15 kg. The pantograph is raised out simple operations
or lowered from the driver cab by one of the following methods
or with some modification of it.
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 Typical speed-time curve for Main line service

The Curve drawn between Speed and Time, taking Speed in km/hr on Y-axis and Time in Sec or min on X-
axis is known as speed-time curve.
It’s give complete information of the motion of the train. (Distance=Speed × Time)
Speed time curve mainly consists of
✓ Acceleration.
✓ Free Run or Constant Speed Run.
✓ Coasting.
✓ Retardation or Braking.

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Acceleration
1. Constant Acceleration of Acceleration During Notching
up

✓ Notching up period. (0 to t1)

✓ Current will remain constant.
✓ Supply voltage will be increase.
✓ Tractive effort will remain constant.
✓ Acceleration will be constant.

2. Speed curve Running or Acceleration on

speed curve

✓ Speed curve running period. (t1 to t2)

✓ Voltage will be constant. (Approx.)
✓ Current will be decreasing and become constant.
✓ Acceleration will be decreases and finally become zero.
✓ Tractive effort is equal to resistance to motion of train.
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Free Run or Constant Speed Run

✓ Free run period. (t2 to t3)

✓ The train attains the maximum speed.
✓ During this period the train runs with constant
speed and constant power is drawn.

Coasting

✓ At the end of free running period (t3 to t4), power supply is cut off and the train is
allowed to run under its own momentum.
✓ The speed of train starts decreasing on account of resistance to the motion of train.
✓ The rate of decrease of speed during coasting period is known as coasting retardation.

Retardation or Braking Period

✓ At the end of coasting period (t4 to t5), the brakes are applied to bring the train to rest.
✓ During this period speed decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero. 24
 Typical speed-time curve for Suburban service

Suburban Service

✓ In this service the distance between the stops is

little longer than urban service but smaller than
main line service (between 1 to 8 km).
✓ Free run is not possible.
✓ Coasting is for comparatively longer period.
✓ Acceleration and retardation required are as
high as for urban service

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 Typical speed-time curve for Urban or city
service

Urban Service or City Service

✓ In this service the distance between the stops is

comparatively very short. (say 1 km or so)
✓ Time required for this run is very small.
✓ The acceleration as well as retardation is required
to be high so that high average speed and short
time run is obtained.
✓ Free run is not possible.
✓ Coasting period is also small.

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 Summary and Definitions

Crest Speed
✓ The maximum speed attained by the vehicle during the run is known as crest speed.
Average Speed
✓ The distance covered between two stops divided by the actual time of run is known as
average speed.

Schedule Speed
✓ The ratio of distance covered between two stops and total time of run including time of stop is
known as schedule speed.
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Calculation by trapezoidal speed-time curve

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 Problems - I

1. An electric train has an average speed of 45 kmph on a level track between stops 1500 m
apart. It is accelerated at 1.8 kmphps and is braked at 3 kmphps. Draw the speed – time
curve for the run.

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 Problems - I

2. A train has schedule speed of 60 km per hour between the stops which are 9 km apart.
Determine the crest speed over the run, assuming trapezoidal speed – time curve. The
train accelerates at 3 kmphps and retards at 4.5 kmphps. Duration of stops is 75
seconds.

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 Problems - I

3. An electric train is to have acceleration and braking retardation of 1.2 km/hour/sec and
4.8 km/hour/sec respectively. If the ratio of maximum to average speed is 1.6 and time
for stops 35 seconds, find schedule speed for a run of 3 km. Assume simplified
trapezoidal speed time curve.

4. A suburban electric train has a maximum speed of 80 kmph. The schedule speed
including a station stop of 35 seconds is 50 kmph. If the acceleration is 1.5 kmphps,
find the value of retardation when the average distance between stops is 5 km.

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Calculation by Quadrilateral speed-time curve

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 Mechanics of train movement
T = Torque exerted by Motor, F' = Tractive effort at Pinion
F = Tractive effort at Wheel, d' = Diameter of Pinion
d = Diameter of gear Wheel, D = Diameter of Road Wheel

Co-efficient of adhesion(µ)
Maximum friction force between driving wheel and
track=µW Where, µ=co-efficient of adhesion
between driving wheel and track
W=Weight of train on driving axles
Motion of train without slipping
Depends upon
✓ Friction between wheels and the rail
Co-efficient of adhesion (µ)
track.
✓ Series-Parallel connection of Motor.
✓ Speed of Response of drive.
Co-efficient of Adhesion ✓ Smoothness with which torque can be
controlled.
✓ Nature of motor torque-speed
characteristics. 33
 Starting and speed control of DC traction
Rheostatic Control motors

✓ A series motor can be started by connecting as external resistance in series with the main circuit of motor. At
the starting instant, since the back emf developed by the motor is zero, therefore, the resistance connected in
series with the motor is maximum and is of such a value that the voltage drop across it with full load rated
current is equal to line voltage.

✓ As motor speeds up, the back emf developed by the motor increases, therefore, the external resistance is
gradually reduced in order to maintain the current constant throughout the starting or accelerating period.

✓ In this method there is a considerable loss of energy in the external circuit.

✓ The resistors employed are designed for short-time rating and not for continuous rating as they are required to
carry current only during starting of motors. The motor can, therefore, have only one speed characteristics.

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 Starting and speed control of DC traction
Series-Parallel Control motors
The main disadvantage of wastage of electrical energy in
rheostatic control is partly overcome in this method when
there are two or more motors.
In case of two motors, the motors are first connected in
series with each other and starting and control
resistance.
The additional resistance is gradually cut-out by
controller as the motor attain speeds and finally the
control resistance is totally removed, then each motor has
one half of the line voltage across it.

This is the first running position. In this position for any

given value of armature current, each motor will run at
half of its normal spee.
In the next step the two motors are connected in parallel
and in series with a variable resistance R.

This resistance is gradually cut out as the motors attain the

speed and finally when this resistance is totally removed
from the circuit.
 Starting and speed control of DC traction
motors

Combination of Series-Parallel and

Resistance Control of DC Series
Motors

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 Starting and speed control of DC traction
Field Control motors
✓ As the speed of the motor is inversely
proportional to the flux (constant voltage),
therefore the speed can be varied by varying the
flux.

✓ It can be varied either (i) by connecting a

variable resistance known as diverter in parallel
with the field winding or (ii) by cutting out some
of the field turns.

✓ In both case flux can be only reduced, therefore,

this method is known as field weakening method
and speed above normal can be obtained.

✓ By this method speed can be raised to the extent

of 15 to 30 percent of normal speed owing the
design difficulties arising with traction motor.

✓ This method is no use for starting purpose and by

using field weakening method of speed control
the necessity of changing the gear ratio can be
eliminated.
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 Braking
Generally braking is classified into two types in the traction.

❖ Electrical braking.
 Plugging.
 Rheostatic or dynamic braking.
 Regenerative braking.
❖ Mechanical braking.
 Compressed air brakes
 Vacuum brakes
 Hydraulic brakes
 Plugging

 Plugging is a method of braking used in induction motors.

Plugging involves interchanging the supply to two of the
statorphase windings.

 This method is used in applications which require immediate

stop applications. When the phase supply is reversed, torque
is produced in the opposite direction. This leads to braking of
the electricmotor.

 Motors which are operated this way have a plugging switch.

This switch operates when the stop command is given to the
motor circuit.

 The operation of this switch applies reverses the supply to

two of the windings. When the motor comes to a complete
halt, this reversed supply isdisconnected.
 Dynamic and Regenerative Braking

Regenerative braking takes place whenever the speed of the motor exceeds the synchronous
speed. This baking method is called regenerative baking because here the motor works as
generator and supply itself is given power from the load, i.e. motors.
The main criteria for regenerative braking is that the rotor has to rotate at a speed higher than
synchronous speed, only then the motor will act as a generator and the direction of electric
current flow through the circuit and direction of the torque reverses and braking takes place.
The only disadvantage of this type of braking is that the motor has to run at super
synchronous speed which may damage the motor mechanically and electrically, but
regenerative braking can be done at sub synchronous speed if the variable frequency source is
available.
 Chopper control (DC EMU and AC EMU)
DC EMU(DC Electrical Multiple Unit)

✓ DC supply from overhead conductor is

collected by pantograph and given to
converter.

✓ Inverter is a device which converters DC

to AC one inverter gives 3-phase AC
output to 3-phase traction motor.

✓ Other inverter gives 3-phase output to a

3-phase transformer. The 3-phase supply
can be used for air-conditioning, fans and
compressors.

✓ The transformer output is converted to block diagram of electronic power and

DC by means of a rectifier and this DC is
auxiliary services on DC EMU
used for battery charging control.
.

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 Chopper control (DC EMU and AC EMU)

AC EMU

✓ Single phase AC supply is collected from

overhead conductor by means of pantograph
and it is given to the step down transformer.
The output of transformer is converted to DC
by a rectifier and then given to inverter.

✓ The function of remaining components is

same as that of DC EMU.

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 Metro system
✓ Metro system is underground railway
system. It runs with electric power. The
metro system is best suited for densely
populated cities where local transport is
crucial.

✓ The signaling activities are to be tightly

coordinated. The headway distance is also
crucial if more than one train works on
single track.

✓ The distance of travel of metro train is

comparatively less as compared to normal
train. It is meant for transport within
metropolitan cities. The distance between
stops is also less.

✓ The technology used in comparatively

superior compared to normal train. The
metro system is mainly used by people for
transport and not used as goods carrier
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 Current Problem in Indian Railway System
Over-saturation of the current network : All the major trunk routes of IR network is saturated beyond the
capacity it can handle. These routes are handling more than 150% of the train they can handle. For
example, the Mughalsarai-New Delhi section which has a capacity of about 75 passenger trains per day is
operating about 160 trains per day. In such a scenario, there is no way that the trains can run on time. Same
is the case with Howrah-Mumbai, New Delhi-Chennai and other trunk routes.

Reason: Since independence, successive governments have kept on announcing new trains one after
another, but did not pay slightest attention to the expansion of infrastructure. It was necessary that major
trunk routes are augmented for capacity by tripling and quadrupling of lines, but none of the governments
paid attention to it. When the capacity is much more than a system can handle, delays are norm.

No major upgradation in infrastructure : The delays are often caused by multiple TSRs (Temporary
Speed Restriction) that are put on the railway networks due to damages and infrastructural problems. This
is due to outdated technology, poor maintenance and lackadaisical attitude when it comes to repairing
tracks, catenaries or signals. Rather than concrete work that would last long time, railways often indulge in
short term measures which is a typical sarkari ‘kaam-chalau’ attitude.

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 Current Problem in Indian Railway System
Same track for both freight and passenger trains : In all the countries with dense railway network and
100% punctuality of trains, freight and passenger trains have separate tracks. Due to freights and
passengers running on same track, both the freights and passengers face delays (more so with freights,
which have no fixed timetables and are often held up at same station for several hours). Moreover, if a
goods train is on run, it cannot be stopped at stations which are short in length, and the passenger train
behind it keeps on getting delayed as the freight trains have lesser permissible speed.

Congestion and bottlenecks at junctions : At major junctions (and their outskirts) like Mughalsarai,
Allahabad, Barauni, Lucknow, Gorakhpur, Sealdah, Howrah, etc where tracks from multiple sides converge
or diverge, trains of only one route is generally given green signal, and others are held at the outer. This is
because of the architecture of how the tracks have been laid. In developed railway networks, there are
multiple bypasses, underpasses, overpasses and loops to circumvent this problem. For instance, the tracks at
railway station in Berlin are at 3 levels, where trains from different sides enter/exit at different levels..while
in India, tracks are at ground level and all trains cannot be let in/out simultaneously as it will cause
collision at Crossing points (where tracks going to two different directions cross each other).

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 Current Problem in Indian Railway System
Lack of civic sense in the society : Every now and then, there is a blockade or ‘rail roko’ which disrupts rail
traffic in that route. Even if there is a blockade for 2 hours, it completely throws the network into chaos. Once
a train gets late, it triggers a chain reaction and all trains behind it get delayed. Another issue is frequent chain
pulling on many of the routes in India. When a train is stopped by chain pulling, it leads to atleast 10 minutes
before it can be repaired and train started. In busy routes, if a train gets delayed by half an hour, the trains
behind it also start to accumulate the delay.

What is the solution ?

To be honest, there is NO temporary solution to increase punctuality of trains. Our tracks and network is
oversaturated beyond imagination. The only way possible is massive upgradation of infrastructure :

✓Tripling/Quadrupling of all the trunk routes.

✓Doubling of all major routes which are single.
✓Separate tracks for freight and passengers.
(The government has started various DFC - Dedicated Freight Corridors - connecting major freight
destinations such as Howrah to Ludhiana, New Delhi to Mumbai, Kandla to Kolkata, Chennai to Kolkata, etc.
However, it will take atleast another 10–15 years before they are complete and functional)
✓Constructing major underpasses and overpasses at major railway junctions to solve the problems created by
bottlenecks at these junctions.
✓Improvement in signaling, tracks, bridges and catenaries to prevent derailment and technical problems that
lead to delays.
✓Last and not the least, society must understand their duties and not target Railways in an agitation…or pull
the chain to stop train illegally. 46
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