Lymphoid System

Chapter XI
 Lymphoid System
✓ Our body employs several lines of defense.
✓ Defend the body from constant threat of invasion by disease-causing
microorganism (viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites) and other toxic
substances.

Two types of Defense Systems:

1. Inflammatory response
2. Immune response
Inflammatory response
01 02 03
Immediate but mainly Starts within minutes of Effector cells: Phagocytes
localized process tissue damage or entry of a (Neutrophils and macrophages)
microorganism
04 Assisted by other cells including Eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, NK cells, and T cells

To destroy invading microorganisms and foreign antigens by:

✓ Phagocytosis
✓ Releasing substances that are toxic
✓ Release chemical mediators that attracts phagocytes
T cell
 The inflammatory
response turned on by:

✓Chemotaxins,
chemicals that attract
phagocytes
✓The foreign organisms
are detected by the
complement system

Activated phagocytes congregate in the injured area within minutes.

 The complement system
✓ A collection of more than 20 plasma proteins
✓ an enzyme cascade where the enzymes are sequentially activated.
✓ Activated in the presence of microorganisms or foreign substances.
Effects:
✓ Production of chemotaxins
✓ Marking off the bacteria with proteins (opsonins)
✓ Release cytokines and triggering the release of other mediators such
as histamine by mast cells and basophils
Macrophages and other antigen-presenting cells (APCs) attach
parts of the antigens on their surface for presentation to T-
cells.
Signs and symptoms of inflammation
✓ Swelling Fever occurs when
✓ Redness interleukin-1,
✓ Heat (a cytokine) reaches
✓ Pain the hypothalamus.
Scanning electron micrograph
of a neutrophil phagocytosing
anthrax bacilli (orange)
 Immune response
✓ Antigen-specfic (Immune response must be developed for every antigen)
✓ Effector cells : Lymphocytes

3 types of lymphocytes (based on antigen receptors)

✓ B-cells → B-cell antigen receptors (BCR)
✓ T-cells → T-cell antigen receptors (TCR)
✓ NK cells → natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCR)
 T Cells
1. CD3 (cluster of differentiation 3
✓ Responsible for signal transmission
2. CD4 or CD8 markers
✓ CD4+ T-cells can differentiate into
helper T-cells (Th cells)
✓ CD8+ T-cells can differentiate into
cytotoxic T-cells (Tc cells) and
suppressor T-cells (Ts cells)
Types of Immune Responses
Humoral Immunity (Antibody-
1 mediated immunity; AMI) –
primarily the function of B-cells
(plasma cells).
2 Cell-mediated Immunity (CMI) –
primarily the function of T-cells
(cytotoxic T-cells).
Plasma cells synthesized antibodies
(immunoglobulins). Antibodies simply
bind to the antigens that have
triggered their production.
➢ Antigens become harmless
➢ Prevent the pathogen from
invading the cells
➢ Immobilize bacteria and
protozoans
➢ Pinpoint antigens to phagocytes
Eliminate antigens that are inside
the cells by a variety of means
including apoptosis (programmed cell
death)
➢ Virus-infected cells
➢ Cells with intracellular bacteria
➢ Cancer cells
➢ Cells that are foreign to the
body
Development of an Immune Response
Primary immune response:
The entry of a new antigen in to the body.
Secondary immune response:
Subsequent entries of the same antigen.
Primary Immune Response
1) Antigen recognition
2) Lymphocyte activation
3) Effector phase
 1. Antigen Recognition

✓ Antigen-presenting cell
(APC) phagocytose, process
antigens, and display
fragments of the antigen on
their surface for
presentation to naive CD4+
T-cells and naive CD8+ T-
cells.
✓ B-cells often act as APCs
too. Despite the presence
of the antigen on its
surface, A naive B-cells
does not get activated
unless it receives signal
from a Th cells.
1. Antigen Recognition
✓ “professional” APCs are Macrophages, dendritic cells,
and B-cells
✓ Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent of the APCs.
✓ DCs are classified into 2 categories:
1. Myeloid-related dendritic cell (Langerhans cells)
2. Lymphoid-related dendritic cell
2. Lymphocyte stimulation
Naive CD4+ T-cells
differentiate into the following
cell types which:
✓ Th1 cells (cell mediated
immunity)
✓ Th2 cells (humoral
immunity)
✓ Th3 cells (inflammatory
process)
 3. Effector Phase
✓ Th1 cells secrete cytokines that stimulate CD8+ T-cells, and
differentiate into cytotoxic T-cells (Tc cells), memory T-cells, and
suppressor T-cells (Ts cells).
✓ Cytotoxic T-cells: effector cells causes apoptosis of infected cells
or cancerous cells
✓ Memory T-cells: carry image of the antigen and responsible for
effecting secondary immune responses
✓ Th2 cells encounter naive B-cells, release cytokines to active the B-
cells. Activated B-cells then differentiate into plasma cells and
memory B-cells.
✓ Once antigen has been eradicated → cells except for memory cells
undergo apoptosis
 Secondary Immune Response
→ Re-exposure to an antigen
→ Memory B-cells or memory T-cells that differentiated during the
primary immune response are able to immediately recognize the
antigen when they encounter the specific antigen in their memory
and rapidly divide and differentiate into effector cells (plasma cells
and Cytotoxic T-cells)
 Abnormal Immune Responses
→ An overwhelming reaction to an antigen that causes allergic
reactions
→ Anaphylactic shock (fatal)
→ Autoimmune diseases : Effector cells attack the body’s own tissues
and cells
Components of the lymphoid system
Lymphoid tissues (parenchyma consists mainly of lymphocytes)
Lymphoid system
Lymphoid organs (made up of lymphoid tissue)
Lymphoid Tissue
1. Diffuse Lymphoid tissue
o Evenly dispersed
o Lamina propria and submucosa of the gastrointestinal,
respiratory, and genitourinary tracts.
o Loose lymphoid tissue: Where the lymphocytes are few
and far apart
o Dense lymphoid tissue: Where the lymphocytes are
numerous and close to each other
2. Nodular lymphoid tissue
o Clustered lymphocytes form discrete ovoid masses or lumps
called lymphoid nodules.
o Found in some lymphoid organs (spleen and lymph nodes)

Two types of lymphoid nodules

✓ Primary nodule – a nodule where the lymphocytes are idle
or resting.
✓ Secondary nodule – is where the lymphocytes react to an
antigen.
 Thymus
→ Derived from the third branchial
(pharyngeal) pouch.
→ Is the central lymphoid tissue that is tasked
to transform T stem cells into mature, albeit
naive, T cells.
→ Produce cytokines that regulate T-cell
proliferation, maturation, and function
→ Thymocytes : the cells of the T-cells lineage
→ Adult thymus is composed of two pyramidal
lobes fused together.
 Histologic Organization of the Thymus
Capsule – enclosed the two lobes of the
thymus.
Trabeculae – divide the lobes, albeit
incompletely, into lobules of
unequal size.
Septa – thin strands of connective
tissue from the trabeculae.
Cortex – a peripheral, darker-staining
region of thymic lobule
Medulla – a central, lighter-staining
region
Epithelial reticular cells – stellate cells in the stroma of the
thymus and they produce thymic cytokines.
Nurse cell – some envelop multiple young lymphocytes, and
promote proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes.
Outer cortex – where new T stem cells transform into
lymphoblasts and proliferate.
Thymic interdigitating dendritic cells – APCs among the
parenchymal cells in the medulla; These cells help in
preventing autoimmunity by presenting self-antigens to
enable the T-cells to recognize “self” antigens.
Hassall’s corpuscles – the most distinctive feature of the
thymic medulla
Hassall’s corpuscles
 Blood vessels of the Thymus
The thymus has a rich blood
supply that comes from
branches of the
internal thoracic,
anterior intercostal, and
inferior thyroid arteries.
Blood-Thymus Barrier
- Prevents antigens that are carried by the capillaries from getting
into contact with the developing T-cells.

The blood-thymus barrier consists of:

1. Endothelial cells – form a continuous endothelium
2. Epitheloid cells – form a continuous sheet with the help of
desmosomes that tightly bind adjacent epitheloid cells to each
other.
3. Perivascular space separates the endothelium from the layer of
epitheloid cells and contains macrophages and fluid.
 Lymphatic Vessel of the Thymus
The thymus has no afferent lymphatic.

Efferent lymphatic capillaries

– collect lymph that is formed within the thymus.
Lymph Node
→ A bean-shaped organ.
→ Important sites for producing the
lymphocytes needed in mounting an
immune response.
→ Are highly efficient filters for
particulate matter and
microorganisms that are present in
the lymph.
Lymph Node
Hilus – an indented area where
efferent lymphatic vessels leave, and
blood vessels enter and exit the
organs.
Capsule – a dense irregular
connective tissue enclosed the lymph
node.
Peripheral-located cortex
Centrally-located medulla – paler
staining
 Spleen
✓ The largest lymphoid organ
✓ In this organ, the lymphocytes, when activated
by blood-borne antigens, proliferate and
differentiate into different functional types.
✓ It also filters blood
✓ It has an enormous number of macrophages
✓ It removes and destroys damaged and old red
blood cells and platelets from circulating blood
while recycling the iron that is contained in the
RBCs.
White pulp
• It consists of lymphoid nodules that are embedded in
dense lymphoid tissue.
• The white pulp comprises the lymphocyte population
of the spleen
• It also contains numerous macrophages and dendritic
cells (splenic dendritic cells).

Red pulp
• Which forms the greater part of the parenchyma –
consists of numerous large, blood filled sinusoids
(splenic sinusoids) that are separated by strands of
reticular tissue know as splenic cords (of Billroth)
 Blood vessels of the Spleen
The spleen is supplied by the splenic artery, the biggest branch of
the celiac artery.
 Lymph vessels of the spleen
• No afferent lymphatic vessels but has efferent lymphatic vessels
 Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

• Refers to the enormous amount of lymphoid tissue that exists in

the mucosa and submucosa of the gastrointestinal, respiratory,
and genitourinary tracts.

• Important sites for generating the lymphocytes that are needed

in mounting an immune response.
 Tonsils
• Form a ring (Waldeyer’s ring) underneath the epithelium around the
entrances to the respiratory and digestive passages.
• They consist of paired palatine tonsils, lingual tonsils and tubal tonsils, and
an unpaired pharyngeal tonsil.
Tonsils