ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-25 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
MATHS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PURE 1 SYLLABUS
CAIE AS LEVEL MATHS

1. Quadratics
1.1. Completing the square
The equation y = ax 2 + bx + c written in the form of
y = p(x + q)2
+ r is called the complete square form
The vertex is (−q, r) .

Example
Example
If kx 2 + 4kx + 3k = 0 , find the inequality in terms of k for
Express 3x 2 + 9x + 5 in the form of p(x + q)2 + r , where which the equation has distinct real roots.
p, q and r are constants and find its vertex Solution:
Solution: Apply b2 − 4ac > 0 for the equation to have two distinct real
roots:
3x 2 + 9x + 5
(4k)2 − 4(k)(3k) > 0
= 3(x 2 + 3) + 5
⟹ 16k 2 − 12k 2 > 0
3 2 3 2
= 3 ((x + ) − ( ) ) + 5
2 2 ⟹ 4k 2 > 0
​ ​

3
2
7 ⟹ k < 0 and k > 0
= 3 (x + ) −
2 4
​ ​

1.4. Quadratic Inequalities

Hence its vertex is (− 32 , − 74 ) .
​ ​

Case 1: Assuming d < β,

1.2. Sketching the Graph
(x − d) (x − β ) < 0 ⟹ d < x < β
y-intercept
(x − d ) (x − β ) > 0 ⟹ x < d or x > β
x -intercept
Vertex (turning point) Case 2: When no x term,

1.3. Discriminant of a Quadratic x2 − c > 0

Expression ⟹ x < − c   or  x >

​ c ​

The discriminant describes the roots for a quadratic x2 − c ≤ 0

equation ax 2 + bc + x = 0
⟹− c≤x≤ c
The discriminant of ax 2 + bx + c is
​ ​

b2 − 4ac Example
If b2 − 4ac = 0 , real and equal (repeated) roots x 2 + 6x + 8 < 0
If b2 − 4ac < 0 , no real roots factorize: x 2 + 6x + 8 = (x + 4)(x + 2)
If b2 − 4ac > 0 , real and distinct roots find roots:

x = -4
x = -2
sketch parabola which touches the x-axis at -4 and -2

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as  x = u → x = u 2
​

∴ x = 19 or 14
​ ​

2. Functions
2.1. Terms
Function: is a relation that uniquely associates one set of
values to another set
Domain: is the set of values that are the inputs of the
function
Range: is the set of values that are the outputs of the
function
Inverse Function: The function which maps the Range back
into its Domain.
Mapping:
Takes a value from the domain and linking it to the
the blue region represents the section of the parabola where
range
the value of the quadratic is < 0
they can be:
therefore, the answer of x 2 + 6x + 8 < 0 is: −4 < x <
one-to-many
−2 many-to-one
one-to-one
1.5. Solving Equations in Quadratic or many-to-many

Form
in cases like x 4 − 5x 2 + 4 = 0 and 6x + x − 1 = ​ 0,
they are not quadratic equations but can be converted
into quadratic equations in some function of x

Example
Solve the equation x 4 − 5x 2 + 4 = 0
Solution:
We let u = x 2 , this gives us: u 2 − 5u + 4 = 0 , which is a
quadratic equation and can be solved

(u − 4)(u − 1) = 0

u = 4, 1

as x 2 = u → x = ± u ​

∴ x = ±2 or ±1

Example
Solve the equation 6x + x − 1 = 0
​

Notations
Solution:
We let u = x , this gives us 6u 2 + u −
​ 1 = 0 , which is a Functios can be either written as f(x), g(x), etc. (e.g.
quadratic equation and can be solved f(x) = 2x + 5 )
(3u − 1)(2u + 1) = 0 Or they can be written as f : x ↦ 2x + 5

1 1 2.2. Find Range

u= ,−
3 2
​ ​

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Find the highest possible y -value and lowest possible

y - f (x ) = 3x + 4
value based on the domain
For Quadratic functions, such as
f (x ) = 3x 2 + 5x − 6 , y = 3x + 4
complete square first to
find vertex and use it to find its
range.
y − 4 = 3x
If coefficient of x 2 is positive, vertex is minimum y−4
If coefficient of x 2 is negative, vertex is maximum x=
3
​

Swap all the x with y ,

2.3. Composition of 2 Functions
x−4
Definition: a function with another function as an input

y=
3
​

fg (x ) ⇒ f (g (x ))
Replace y with f −1 (x ) ,
E.g.
f (x ) = 4x + 5  g (x ) = x 2 − 5
Then
fg (x ) = 4 (x 2 − 5 ) + 5 x−4
f −1 (x ) =
A composite function like fg (x ) can only be
formed when 3
​

the range of g (x ) is within the domain

of f (x ) Example:
Make f (x ) = x 2 + 1 a one-to-one function.
2.4. One-One Functions Solution:

Definition: One x value substitutes to give one y value x 2 + 1,  x ∈ R

One value of x that doesn’t have alternate value of

x which
maps same value of y is 0
∴ We separate the function into two functions

No indices
If function is not one-to-one, restrict the function in a
domain
such that the function is one-to-one under that
domain.
Only one-to-one functions are invertible

x2 + 1,  x ≤ 0 and x2 + 1,  0 ≤ x

2.5. Finding Inverse
Definition: An inverse function shows what the input is
based from
the output e.g. if f (3 ) = 5 then
f −1 (5 ) = 3
. In other words, it reverses the
process. The graph of
y = f (x ) and
y = f −1 (x ) is symmetrical by the line

y = x.
An inverse function has a property such that:

ff −1 (x ) = f −1 f (x ) = x
Make sure that it is a one-to-one function if it is then,

Write f (x ) as y
Make x the subject
Swap every single x with y . By now you should have y as
the subject
Replace y withf −1 (x ) . Read as “The f
inverse of x ”

Example:

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4 [(x − 3 ) − 3 2 ] + 11
2

4 (x − 3 )2 − 25

Part (ii)
Observe given domain, x ≤ 1 .
Substitute highest value of x

g (x ) = 4 (1 − 3 )2 − 25 = −9

Substitute next 3 whole numbers in domain:

x = 0,  −1,  −2           g (x ) = 11,  39,  75

Thus, they are increasing

∴ g (x ) ≥ −9
Part (iii)
Let y = g(x), make x the subject

y = 4 (x − 3 )2 − 25
y + 25 2
= (x − 3 )
4
​

y + 25
x=3+
4
​ ​

Can be simplified more

1
x=3± y + 25
2
​ ​

Positive variant is not possible because x ≤ 1 and using

2.6. Relationship of Function & its positive
variant would give values above 3

Inverse 1
∴x=3− y + 25
2
​ ​

The graph of the inverse of a function is the reflection of a

1
graph
of the function in y =x ∴ g −1 (x ) = 3 − x + 25
2
​ ​

 
Domain of g −1 (x ) = Range
of g (x ) ∴ x ≥ −9
{W12-P11} Question 10:
f (x ) = 4x 2 − 24x + 11, for x∈ R
g (x ) = 4x 2 − 24x + 11, for x ≤ 1 2.7. Translation

1. Express f(x) in the form a (x

2
− b) + c,
hence state Let y = f (x )
coordinates of the vertex of the graph y = f(x)
2. State the range of g
3. Find an expression for g −1 (x) and state its domain

Solution:
Part (i) Shift along x-axis by a units to the right:
f (x − a)
First pull out constant, 4 , from x related terms:

4 (x 2 − 6x ) + 11

Use following formula to simplify the bracket only:

n 2 n 2
(x − ) −( )
2 2
​ ​

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Shift along y-axis by b units upwards: f (x ) + b

Example If a > 1 it will shrink the graph sideways

If 0 < a < 1 it will expand the graph sideways
The graph of y = x 2 + 3x + 2 has been translated 1 unit
left and 3 units upward, find the equation of the resulting Stretches upwards and downwards: af (x )
graph.
Answer:
The translation vector would be [1, 3], so where f(x) =
x 2 + 3x + 2

y = f(x − (−1)) + 3

y = f(x + 1) + 3

y = (x + 1)2 + 3(x + 1) + 2 + 3

y = x 2 + 2x + 1 + 3x + 3 + 2 + 3

∴y = x 2 + 5x + 9

2.8. Stretch
Stretches the graph sideways:f(ax)

If a > 1 it will expand the graph up & downwards

If 0 < a < 1 it will shrink the graph up & downwards

Example

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the graph of y = 5x 2 + 2 is stretched by a factor of 2 along PQ = (x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

the y-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.

for this stretch factor, y = 2f(x) 5= (a − 0)2 + (1 − 4)2 ​

y = 2(5x 2 + 2) 25 = a2 + 9

∴y = 10x 2 + 4 a2 = 16

∴a =4
Example
the graph of y = x 2 + 3x + 2 is stretched by a factor of 1 3.2. Midpoint of a Line Segment
3 ​

along the x-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.

The midpoint between two points (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ) is
for this stretch factor,
​ ​ ​ ​

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
y = f(3x) (  ,  )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

y = (3x)2 + 3(3x) + 2
Example
∴y = 9x 2 + 9x + 2
A line segment joining points P (2, −3) and Q(4, a) has a
2.9. Reflections midpoint M (b, −2) . Find the values of a and b.
Answer:
For reflection of the equation y = f(x) in the x-axis, the
x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
resulting equation is y = −f(x) M =( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

For reflection of the equation y = f(x) in the y-axis, the

resulting equation is y = f(−x) thus

y1 + y2
Example −2 =
​ ​

2
​

−3 + a
Find the reflection of the graph equation y = 2x 2 + 3x + 2 −2 =
2
​

in the y-axis and x-axis and write their equations.

Answer: a − 3 = −4
for the reflection in y-axis, y = f(−x)
∴a = −1
y = 2(−x)2 + 3(−x) + 2
x1 + x2
b=
​ ​

∴ y = 2x 2 − 3x + 2 2
​

for the reflection in x-axis, y = −f(x) 2+4

b=
2
​

2
y = −1(2x + 3 − x + 2)
∴b =3
∴ y = −2x 2 − 3x − 2
3.3. Equation of a Straight Line
3. Coordinate Geometry
Straight line equations are linear equations in the form of
y = mx + c
3.1. Length of a line segment m is the gradient
and c is the y -intercept
The distance between two points (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ) is
​ ​ ​

If a single point A(x 1 , y1 ) on the line with a gradient m is

​ ​

given and the general point is P (x, y) , then the equation

(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
of the line can be written in the form of y − y1 =
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

m(x − x 1 )
Example ​

the distance between points P (0, 4) and Q(a, 1) is 5 units. Example

Find the positive value of a.

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Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3, which 3

m × m1 = −1 and so m1 =
​ ​

2
passes through the point (1,6). Perpendicular general equation:
Solution:
3
y= x+c
A(1, 6)m = 3 2
​

y − 6 = 3(x − 1) Substitute known values

3 = 32 (−1 ) + c and so c = 92
​ ​

y = 3x − 3 + 6 Final perpendicular equation:

∴y = 3x + 3 2y = 3x + 9

Find the point of intersection by equating two equations

Example
2 3x + 9
11 − x=
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the 3 2
​ ​

points (-5, 3) and (-4, 1). 13

Solution: 13 = x
3
​

y2 − y1 1−3
m= = x = 3,   y = 9
​ ​

x2 − x1 −4 − (−5)
​ ​

​ ​

Vector change from (−1, 3 ) to (3, 9 ) is

the vector change
−2
m= from (3, 9 ) to R
1
​

Finding the vector change:

m = −2
C hange in x = 3 − −1 = 4
y = −2x + c
C hange in y = 9 − 3 = 6
Substitute any point in this equation to find the value of c
Thus R
1 = −2(−4) + c x = 3 + 4 = 7 and y = 9 + 6 = 15
1=8+c R = (7, 15 )
c = −7
3.5. Equation of a circle
∴y = −2x − 7
Standard Form: (x − a)2 + (y − b)2   =  r 2
3.4. Special Gradients Centre = (a, b)
Radius = r
Parallel lines: m1 = m2 ​
General form: x 2 + y 2 + ax + by + c = 0
Perpendicular lines: m1 × m2 = −1 ​
Centre = (− a2 ,  − 2b )
​ ​

2 2
The gradient at any point on a curve is the gradient of the Radius
=( a2 ) + ( 2b ) − c 2
​ ​

tangent
to the curve at that point Note: if eqn. of circle is in general form, it’s highly
The gradient of a tangent at the vertex of a curve is equal recommended to convert it into its standard form by
to zero
– stationary point completing
square to easily find center and radius
Tangents on a circle are always perpendicular to its
{S13-P12} Question 7: radius
Point R  is a reflection of the point
(−1, 3 ) in the line If a right-angled triangle is inscribed in a circle, its
3y + 2x = 33 . hypotenuse is the diameter of the circle
Find by calculation the coordinates of R
Solution:
Example
Find the equation of line perpendicular to 3y + 2x = 33
intersecting
point (−1, 3 ) The equation of a circle: x 2
+ y2 + 4x + 2y − 20 = 0 The
2 line
L has the equation 7x + y = 10 intersects the circle at
3y + 2x = 33 ⇔ y = 11 − x point
A and B . The x -coordinate of A is less than the
x -
3
​

coordinate of B .
2
m=−
3
​

1. Find the center and the length of diameter of the circle

2. Find the coordinates of A and B

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Solution:
Example
i. Rearrange the equation to standard form by using
completing square: convert 3π
4 radians into degrees and 45° into radians
​

2 2
x + 4x + y + 2y = 20 Answer:

3π 180
(x + 2 )2 − 4 + (y + 1 )2 − 1 = 20 = ×
4
​ ​

π
⇒ (x + 2 )2 + (y + 1 )2 = 25 3 × 180
=
4
​

∴ its center: (−2, −1 ). Its diameter:

2 × 5  =  10
ii.Do simultaneous equation ∴= 135°
π
(x + 2 )2 + (y + 1 )2 = 25  &  y = −7x + 10 = 45 ×
180
​

Use substitution y = −7x + 10 onto

(x + 2 )2 + ∴ = π4 ​

2
(y + 1 ) = 25 .
4.2. Arc length
(x + 2 )2 + (−7x + 11 )2 = 25
Arc length = rθ ( θ is in radians)
Find x

x 2 + 4x + 4 + 49x 2 − 154x + 121 = 25 Example

50x 2 − 150x + 100 = 0 find the arc length subtended at an angle of π4 radians of a
​

2 circle with radius 4

x − 3x + 2 = 0
Answer:
∴ x = 1  x = 2 Arc length = 4 × π4 ​

∴ Arc Length = π
Put x values back into y = −7x + 10 to find y value:

∴ A (1, 3 )  B (2, −4 )
4.3. Area of a Sector
1 2
A= r θ In Radians
4. Circular Measure 2
​

{S11-P11} Question 9:
4.1. Radians
Radians is an angle measurement (just like degrees)
defined in which the arc length is the same as the radius
is an angle of 1 radian at the center

Triangle OAB is isosceles, OA = OB and ASB is

a
tangent to PST

1. Find the total area of the shaded region in terms of r

and
π
2. When θ = π3 and r = 6 , find the total
perimeter of the
​

shaded region in terms of 3 and π ​

Solution:
Part (i)
Use trigonometric ratios to form the following:

AS = r tan θ

π radians is equal to 180° and 2π radians is equal to 360° Find the area of triangle OAS:
to change from radians to degrees, multiply by 180
π ​

π
to change from degrees to radians, multiply by 180 ​

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r tan θ × r 1
OAS = = r 2 tan θ 5.1.
2 2
​ ​

Use the formula of the sector to find the area of OPS:

1 2
OPS = r θ
2
​

Area of ASP  is OAS − OPS : Example

1 1 1
∴ ASP = r 2 tan θ − r 2 θ = r 2 (tan θ − θ ) Draw the graph of y = 3cos(x − 12 π) − 1
2 2 2
​ ​

Solution:
Multiply final by 2 because BST is the same and shaded is

ASP and BST Draw the graph of y = cos(x)

1 2
Area = 2 × r (tan θ − θ ) =  r 2 (tan θ − θ )
2
​

Part (ii)
Use trigonometric ratios to get the following:

π 6
cos ( ) =
3 AO
​ ​

∴ AO = 12

Finding AP:

AP = AO − r = 12 − 6 = 6

Finding AS:
π
AS = 6 tan ( ) = 6 3
3
​ ​

Finding arc PS:

Arc PS = rθ
π
PS = 6 × = 2π
3
​

Apply the transformation inside the brackets ...(x −

The perimeter of 1 side of the shaded region:
90)..., which translates the graph by
Pe 1 = 6 + 6 3 + 2π
​ ​
(90, 0)

Perimeter of the entire shaded region is double:

2 × Pe 1 = 12 + 12 3 + 4π ​ ​

5. Trigonometry
opposite
sin(θ) = hypotenuse ​

adjacent
cos(θ) = hypotenuse ​

opposite
tan(θ) = adjacent ​

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Apply the transformation which is being multiplied/divided

to the trig function, in this case 3, which should stretch the
graph by a factor of 3 along the y-axis

5.2. Sine Curve

5.3. Cosine Curve

Finally, apply the transformation that is being
added/subtracted to the expression, in this case it is −1 ,
which would translate the graph by (0, −1) .

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To find the other values, draw a graph and draw a

horizontal line for the value given to find the angles at
which the trigonometric function give the value stated. in
the previous example, the graph would look like this

5.4. Tangent Curve

As you can see there are also other points on the graph
5.5. Exact values of Trigonometric which intersect with the horizontal line, these are also
additional solutions
Functions
In the question, a range might be given and you would
have to find all the solutions in that given range.
In this case, to find the other point A we can do 2π − π6 , ​

which equals to 11π 6 ​

Here we are using the property of trigonometry functions

that they are symmetrical, and thus such calculations can
be used to find the angles

5.8. Identities
5.6. When sin, cos and tan are positive sin θ
tan θ ≡
cos θ
​

sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1

Example
cos2 (x)−sin 2 (x) 1
Prove the identity cos(x) ​
+ cos(x) ​
≡ 2 cos(x)
Solution:
sin2 (x) can be written as 1 − cos2 (x) so we obtain
5.7. Finding other Angles from the = cos2 (x)−(1−cos2 (x)) 1
+ cos(x)
cos(x) ​ ​

Principal Angle
2 2
cos (x)−1+cos (x)) 1
= cos(x) ​+ cos(x) ​

2 cos2 (x)−1 1
= + cos(x)
In case of cos(x) = 23 , we know using a calculator or by cos(x) ​ ​

2
2 cos (x)−1+1
​

memory that x = 30° or x = π6 , but this is only the

​
= cos(x) ​

principle angle and there are many more solutions to this. 2 cos2 (x)
= cos(x) ​

= 2 cos(x)

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cos2 (x)−sin2 (x) 1 8 3=x

∴ cos(x) ​ + cos(x) ​ ≡ 2 cos(x) ​

∴x = 8 3 ​

5.9. Inverse Functions

Example
−1
If trig (θ ) = a, then
θ = trig (a)
Where “trig” represents any Trigonometric Function
Inverse trigonometric functions are used to find angle

5.10. Trigonometry with Non Right-

Angled Triangles
In these cases, you can either use the sine rule or the
cosine rule

Example
Find the value of x
Solution:
In this question, we are given two side lengths and the angle
between them
In this case, we shall use the cosine rule a2 = b2 + c 2 −
(2bc ∗ cos(A))
we can write this as x 2
= 4 2 + 4 2 − (2(4)(4)cos(60))
2
x = 16 + 16 − (16)
x 2 = 16
∴x = 4

6. Series
6.1. Binomial Expansion
A neat way of expanding terms with high powers.

(x + y) = ( )x n + ( )x n−1 y + ( )x n−2 y2 + … +
n n n n
0 1 2
​ ​ ​

Find the value of x

( ) = n Cr =
Solution: n n!
r! (n − r )!
​ ​ ​

in this question, we are given two angles and one of the sides, r
where we have to find the length of the other side. n
In summation :  (a + b)n = ∑ ( )an−k bk
a
So we know we should use the sine rule sin(A) b
= sin(B) = ​ ​
n
​ ​

c k
sin(C) ​

k=0
8 x
we can write this as sin(30) = sin(60)
(The summation form is just another way to express

​ ​

cross multiplying it would give us

(a + b)n , it’s not important but some students may
like to
8 sin(60) = x sin(30) see it that way)
8 × 23 = 12 x​

​ ​
This only works when n is a positive integer

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Patterns: thus, the term would be 8 C 3 ​ ⋅ (1)8−3 ⋅ (2x)3

nC
0= ​
n = 1
nC ​
= 56 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 8x 3
1 = C n−1 = n
nC n​ ​
∴ coefficient of x 3 = 448
n
C r = n C n−r
​ ​

To understand these patterns, you may use the 6.2. Arithmetic Progression
Pascal’s triangle
Definition: Sequence where successive terms are gained
from adding same value E.g. 1,3,5,7,9,11…
u n = a + (𝑛 − 1)d
​

Sn = 12 n[2a + (n − 1)d] or Sn = n2 (a + l)
​ ​ ​ ​

u n = the n-th term of the sequence

​

𝑎 = First term of the sequence

n = The 𝑛-th term
In the Pascals triangle for C r
n ​
𝑑 = Main difference
n is the row (starting from 0) Sn = Sum from 1st term to 𝑛-th term
​

r is the position of the value from the left (starting

from 0) Example

Example Find the 120th term of the arithmetic sequence which follows
the following pattern: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 …
Expand the expression (a + b)
5 Answer:
Solution: the first term gives us the value for a = 2
Using the binomial theorem, we get: the common difference is d = 2
thus u 120 = 2 + (120 − 1)2
5 5 5 5 5−4 4 5
​

(a + b) = a + ( )a5−1 b + ( )a5−2 b2 + ( )a5−3 b3 + ( =)a

5 5
b + ( )a5−5 b5
2 + 238
1 2 3 4∴ the 120th term
5 of the arithmetic sequence is = 240
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5a1 b4 + 1a0 b5

Example
∴ (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
Find the sum of the first 20th term of the arithmetic
Example progression with its first term being 7 and its 8th term being
28.
Expand the expression (3x + 2)4 Answer:
Solution: the first term gives us the value for a = 7
Using the binomial theorem, we get:
u 8 = 28 = 7 + (8 − 1)d ​

4 4 4 4
(3x + 2)4 = (3x)4 + ( )(3x)4−1 (2) + ( )(3x)4−2 (2)2 + ( )(3x)4−3 (2)3 + ( )(3x)28 4−4
− 7(2)4
1 2 3 4d =
​ ​ ​ ​

7
​

4 4 3 2
(3x + 2) = 81x + (4)(3x) (2) + (6)(3x) (4) + (4)(3x)(8) + 16 d=3
∴ (3x + 2)4 = 81x 4 + 216x 3 + 216x 2 + 96x + 16 = 20
thus S20 ​

2 (2(7)
​ + (20 − 1)3)

Example S20 = 10(14 + 57)

​

∴ S20 = 710
Find the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of (1 + 2x)8
​

Solution:
To find the coefficient of x 3 , we have to see at which term 6.3. Geometric Progression
3
does the expansion have x
Definition: Sequence where successive terms are gained
from
multiplying the same value E.g. 2,4,8,16,32…
(a + b) = a + ( )an−1 b + ( )an−2 b2 + ( )an−3 b3 ... + bn
n nn n n
1 2 3
​ ​ ​

u n = ar n−1 ​

The pattern we can see here is that in (nr ), r is always the

a (1 − r n )
value of the power of b. As b is 2x in the question, we have to Sn =
(1 − r )
​ ​

make it to the power of 3 and thus, r should be 3

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u n = the n-th term of the sequence It is also important to remember that the differentiation of
a = First term of the sequence constants gives us 0
n = The n-th term e.g.
r = Common Ratio f(x) = 5,  then f ′ (x) = 0
st
Sn = Sum from 1 term to n-th term
​

When ∣r∣ < 1 , Sum to infinity: 7.2. Chain Rule

a dy dy du
S∞ = = ×
1−r
​ ​

dx du dx
​ ​ ​

{W05-P01} Question 6: (f (g (x ))) ′ = f′ (g (x )) × g′ (x )

A small trading company made a profit of 250000 dollars in
the year
2000 . The company considered two different plans,
Example
plan A and plan B , for increasing its profits. Under plan A,
the annual
profit would increase each year by 5% of its value 5
Differentiate y = (x + x 3 )
in the preceding
year. Under plan B , the annual profit would
Solution:
increase each
year by a constant amount of D
Let u = x + x 3 , then find du
dx ​

1. Find for plan A, the profit for the year 2008

2. Find for plan A, the total profit for the 10 years
2000
u = x + x3
to 2009 inclusive du
3. Find for plan B the value of D for which the total profit = 1 + 3x 2
dx
​

for the 10 years 2000 to 2009 inclusive would be the

same for plan A Now y = u5

Solution: dy
= 5u 4
du
​

Part (i)
Increases are exponential ∴ it is a geometric sequence: Multiply them together
2008 is the 9 th term:
dy dy du 4
∴ u 9 = 250000 × 1.05 9−1 = 369000 (3s.f.) = × = (1 + 3x 2 ) × 5 (x + x 3 )
dx du dx
​
​ ​ ​

Part (ii)
Use sum of geometric sequence formula: Another quick way is to:
1. Take the derivative of the “inside”
250000 (1 − 1.05 10 ) 2. Then take the derivative of the “outside”
S10 = = 3140000
1 − 1.05
​ ​

3. Multiply them together

Part (iii) In our case:
Plan B arithmetic; equate 3140000 with sum formula The inside: x + x 3
The outside: u 5
1 So, differentiating will give us
(1 + 3x 2 ) × 5 (x + x 3 )
4
3140000 = (10 ) (2 (250000 ) + (10 − 1 ) D)
2
​

D = 14300 7.3. Finding gradient using

differentiation
7. Differentiation
For y= f(x), f ′ (x) would give you the gradient of the
dy curve/line at point x on the graph
When y = xn , dx = nx n−1
To find the normal of a curve at a point, its gradient is the
​

reciprocal of the gradient of the tangent and multiplied by

1st Derivative =
dx = f′ (x )
dy
-1
​

d2 y
2nd Derivative =
dx2 = f′′ (x )
When you know the gradient of the tangent or normal to a
​

Sometimes negative powers may also be presented in a point on a curve, it is easy to find its formula as you can
question, or there might even be x in the denominator. use y = mx + c and by using the point on the curve, you
For these questions, you have to take the x to the can find the value of c and complete the equation
numerator and change the power sign
1 1
Remember that x can be written as x −1 and xn can be
Example
​ ​

written as x −n and vice versa

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Find the gradient of the tangent of the curve y = 3x 2 at point

x = 2 and the gradient of the normal to that point
Answer:
dy
dx = 6x
​

gradient = 6(2) = 12
∴ gradient of tangent = 12
1
∴ gradient of normal = − 12 ​

7.4. Stationary points, Increasing and

Decreasing Functions
When f ′ (x)
> 0 , it is increasing
When f ′ (x)
< 0 , it is decreasing
When f′(x) = 0 , it is a stationary point

Example
A graph is plotted for the equation y = x 3 + 3x 2 − 9x + 4 ,
find the values of x for which the graph is an increasing
function and values of x for which the graph is a decreasing
function
Answer:
find the derivative first
∴ Gradient is increasing for x< −3 and x > 1 , and
dy
= 3x 2 + 6x − 9
​
gradient is decreasing for −3 < x < 1
dx
The graph is a parabola in a U shape and we need to find the
7.5. Nature of Stationary Point
values of x for which it gives us a positive value. To do this we
find the roots of the derivative d2 y
Find second derivative dx2 ​

2 Substitute x -value of stationary point

3x + 6x − 9 = 0
d2 y
If value +ve → min. point, dx2 >0
x = 1 and x = −3
​

d2 y
dy If value –ve → max. point dx2 <0
Now for the values where dx is positive, knowing that it is a U
​

shaped parabola we know that it is positive for x < −3 and

x>1
We also know that the graph is negative for any x values
between -3 and 1 ( −3 < x < 1)

Example

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Find the stationary points on the equation y = x 3 + 3x 2 and dy

= 12 (5 − 2 (1 ))−2
identify the maximum and minimum stationary point dx
​

Solution: dy 4
We first find its first derivative =
dx 3
​ ​

dy Thus, the gradient is equal to 43 at this point

= 3x 2 + 6x
​
​

dx Part (ii)
Make it equal to 0 to find the stationary points Rate of increase in time can be written as:

dx
3x 2 + 6x = 0
dt
​

x = −2 and x = 0 We know the following:

Corresponding values of y for the values of x are:
dy 4 dy
(−2)3 + 3(−2)2 = 4 =           and          = 0.02
dx 3 dt
​ ​ ​

(0)3 + 3(0)2 = 0 Thus, we can formulate an equation:

The stationary points are (−2, 4) and (0, 0) , find the second dy dy dx
= ÷
derivative now dx dt dt
​ ​ ​

2
d y
dx2 ​ = 6x + 6 Rearranging the formula, we get:
d2 y
for x = −2 ,
= 6(−2) + 6 = −6
dx2 dx dy dy
​

∴ The maximum stationary point is (−2, 4) , as the value is = ÷

dt dt dx
​ ​ ​

negative
d2 y Substitute values into the formula
For x = 0, dx2 ​ = 6(0) + 6 = 6
∴ The minimum stationary point is (0, 0) , as the value is dx 4
positive = 0.02 ÷
dt 3
​ ​

dx 3
7.6. Connected Rates of Change = 0.02 × = 0.015
dt 4
​ ​

dy dy dx dy dy dt
= / or = ×
dx dt dt
​

dx dt dx
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

8. Integration
{W05-P01} Question 6:
The equation of a curve is given by the formula: ax n+1
∫ ax n  dx = +c
n+1
​ ​

6
y=
5 − 2x (ax + b)
n+1
​

∫ (ax + b)  dx =
n
+c
a (n + 1 )
​

1. Calculate the gradient of the curve at the point where

x=1 Integration is the reverse process of differentiation
2. A point with coordinates (x, y) moves along a curve in The "S" shaped symbol is used to mean the integral of,
such a way
that the rate of increase of y has a
and
dx is written at the end of the terms to be integrated,
constant value of 0.02
units per second. Find the rate meaning "with respect to x ". This is the same "dx"
that
of increase of x when x =1 appears in dy
dx . ​

Solution:
Indefinite Integrals: Integrals without limits of integration
Part (i) (the
numbers by the integral sign), don’t forget to include
Differentiate given equation
+c
Definite Integrals: Integrals with limits of integration, no
6 (5 − 2x )−1
need of
putting +c
dy Use coordinates of a point on the curve to find c when
= 6 (5 − 2x )−2 × −2 × −1 integrating a derivative to find equation of the curve.
dx
​

= 12 (5 − 2x )−2
8.1. Example
Now we substitute the given x value:
Find the equation of y in terms of x which passes through the
point (1, 3) , given that dx
dy
​
= 6x 2
d

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Solution: Find the integral of each term to give us:

we need to integrate the derivative to find y in terms of x (Note: it is important to remember that constants like 5 in this
case can also be written as 5x 0 )
y = ∫ 6x 2 dx 4
3x 3+1 4x 2+1 2x 1+
6x 2+1 ∫ (3x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x + 5), dx = [ − +
3+1 2+1 1+1
​ ​ ​

y= +c 2
2+1
​

4
y = 2x 3 + c 3x 4 4x 3 2x 2
=[ − + + 5x ]
4 3 2
​ ​ ​

2
substitute the coordinates the graph passes through to find
the value of c Now substitute the limits and subtract those values

3 = 2(1)3 + c 3(4)4 4(4)3 2(4)2 3(2)4 4(2)3

=[ − + + 5(4)] − [ −
4 3 2 4 3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

c=3−2
256 32
c=1 = [192 − + 16 + 20 ] − [12 − + 4 + 10 ]
3 3
​ ​

∴y = 2x 3 + 1 428 46
=[ ]−[ ]
3 3
​ ​

8.2. Area Under a Curve 382

=
3
​

Area bounded by the curve to the x -axis

This is the most common integrals being used 4
382
Use dx ∴ ∫ (3x 3 ​ − 4x 2 + 2x + 5) dx = 3 ​

2
Make y the subject in the equation then input it into
your
integral
8.3. Area Between Two Curves
b
∫ y dx ​
Area between two curves with respect to x
a Just like finding the area under a curve, this time you
subtract
the first curve by the second curve
Use dx
Make sure both equations have y as the subject
b b b
∫ y1 − y2  dx ​ ​ or ∫ y1 dx − ∫ y2  dx
​ ​ ​ ​

a a a

Area bounded by the curve to the y -axis

Use dy
Make x the subject of the equation and then input it
into
the integral
b
∫ x dy ​

a Area between two curves with respect to y

Make x the subject in both equations then integrate
its
difference
Use dy
b b b
∫ x 1 − x 2 dy quador
​ ​ ​ ∫ x 1 dy − ∫ x 2 dy ​ ​ ​ ​

a a a

Example
4
Find the value of ∫ (3x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x + 5) dx
2
Answer:

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Combine the fractions:

8x − 16
3 ​ =0
(4x + 1 ) 2 ​

⇒ 8x − 16 = 0

⇒x=2
{S19-P01} Question 11: Putting the x -value back to the equation of the curve will give
us:

9
4 (2 ) + 1 + =6
4 (2 ) + 1
​ ​

∴M (2, 6 )
The diagram shows part of the curve: iii. The line passing through M is parallel to the x -axis which
9
y= 4x + 1 + ​

4x+1
and the minimum point
M .
​

​
means its equation is simply:
dy
1. Find expressions for dx and
∫ y dx ​ y=6
2. Find the coordinates of M
3. The shaded region is bounded by the curve, the y -axis We know that: 1. This is an area between two curves 2. It
and the
line through M parallel to the x -axis. Find, ranges from
x = 0 to x = 2 which means our integral will
showing all
necessary working, the area of the shaded be:
region. 2
9
∫ 4x + 1 + − 6 dx
Solution: 4x + 1
​ ​ ​

0 ​

i. Differentiate the equation:

Which simplifies to:
dy 9
( 4x + 1 + )
d 2
= 3

[ 4x + 1 − 6x ]
dx dx 4x + 1 (4x + 1 ) 2 9
​ ​ ​ ​
​

+
​

6 2
​ ​ ​ ​

Use the Chain Rule: 0

d Compute its value

((4x + 1 ) 2 + 9 (4x + 1 )− 2 )
1 1 ​ ​

dx
​

3 2

[ 4x + 1 − 6x ] =
(4x + 1 ) 2 9 ​

4
dy 2 18 +
= − 6 2 3
​ ​ ​ ​

3
dx 4x + 1 (4x + 1 ) 2
​ ​ ​

​
​

4
Integrate the equation: ∴  The area is 
3
​

9
∫ y dx = ∫ 4x + 1 +  dx Note: You can integrate the two equations separately and
4x + 1
​ ​

​
then subtract
the area, you will still get the same answer

Apply the reverse chain rule:

8.4. Volume of Revolution
= ∫ (4x + 1 ) + 9 (4x + 1 )
1
− 12
2
 dx
​ ​

With respect to x
Use dx
Don’t forget to include +c
Make y the subject of the equation of the curve then
2
3
input
πy in the integral
(4x + 1 ) 2 9
∫ y dx =
​

+ 4x + 1 +c
6 2
​ ​ ​ ​

b
∫ πy2  dx ​

ii. Since M is minimum point, find its coordinates by using

a
dy
dx ​ =0
2 18
− 3 = 0
4x + 1
​ ​

(4x + 1 ) 2
​
​

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b b b
π ∫ x 21 − x 22 dy
​ ​ ​ or ∫ πx 21 dy − ∫ πx 22 dy
​ ​ ​ ​

a a a

{W18-P01} Question 10:

With respect to y 1

Use dy
The diagram shows part of the curve
y = 2 (3x − 1 ) 3 ​

2
and the lines x = 3 and x = 3 . The curve and the
line x =
Make x the subject of the equation of the curve and ​

2
input
πx 2 in the integral 3 intersect at the Point A.
​

Find, showing all necessary working, the volume obtained

b
when the shaded
region is rotated 360 ∘ about the x -axis
∫ πx 2  dy
Solution:
​

a
Using the formula for Volume of Revolution:
b
∫ πy2  dx​

We will get:
3 2
∫ π (2 (3x − 1 ) )  dx
− 13 ​

2
3 ​

3
=∫ π (4 (3x − 1 ) )  dx
− 23 ​

2
3 ​

Integrate it:
3
[4π (3x − 1 ) 3 ] 2 = 4
1
8.5. Volume of Revolution Between 2
​

3
​

Curves
8.6. Improper Integrals
With respect to x
Just like a normal Volume of Revolution, this time we It is when the one or both the limits of a definite integral
subtract
two volumes off each other are:
Use dx Positive or negative infinity
Make sure that y is the subject of the equations of the Undefined on the graph
two
curves e.g.
2
b b b ∫ 1
x dx
π ∫ y12 − y22 dx or ∫ πy12 dx − ∫ πy22 dx
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

0
a a a ∞
1
∫ ​

x dx​

4
To calculate these kind of questions, you would have to
consider what would happen when the limits reach near
the actual value (like how it would be if it reaches close to
infinity, meaning a very high number, or how low the value
With respect to y would be if the limit is 0 and how you should think of
Use dy putting a very small value near zero for it)
Make x the subject of the equations of the two curves e.g. if you think about it, for x1 if the limit was 0, then we ​

know that the value of it would be ∞ as the denominator is

so small, in the same case if the limit would be close to ∞,
b b b

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we know that the denominator is way too high and thus he 2

1
actual value would be close to 0 ∴∫ ​

x dx
​ =2 2 ​

0
​

Example Example
2 ∞
1 1
Find the value of ∫ x dx Find the value of ∫ 4 x dx
​
​ ​

0
​

2
​

Solution: Solution:
We know this is an improper integral as the expression is
∞
undefined at the limit 0, so instead of 0 lets take another
1
x− 2
∫
​

variable a, which is a value very close to 0 dx

4
​ ​

2
2
∞
= ∫ x − 2 dx
1 1

=[ ]
​
​

x − 2 +1 ​

4(− 12 + 1)
​ ​

a
2
​

1 2 ∞
=[ 1 ]
x − 2 +1
=[ ]
​

x ​

−2 + 1 2 2
​ ​
​ ​

a
2 As the value of x reaches infinity, the value of
= [2x 2 ]
1
​

x
2 would be close to infinity too, so at the limit ∞, the value
​
​

0 ​

1 should also be ∞ as the limit reaches 2 , here we can just

The value of 2x 2 when limit approaches 2 would be
​

x 2
substitute the value 2 into 2 to give us 2 now when we
​
​

1
2(2) = 2 2
​ ​

2
​

2
subtract both values we get ∞ − 2 ,
​

1
The value of 2x 2 when limit approaches a or zero would be
​

∞
​

1
1
would be 2(a) 2 = 0 , as a is a very small number close to 0
​
∴ ∫ ​

4 x dx​ =∞
2
​

Subtracting these gives us the value of 2 2 − 0

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