COMMUNICATION THEORY
WHAT IS THEORY
● system of ways of looking at things
● a set of related propositions used to
classify and explain aspects of the
universe in which we live(Littlejohn,
1999, p. 21)
HOW THEORY IS CREATED?
● Consist of CONCEPTS, which
categories of things identified with a
term
● PROPOSITIONS are building blocks
of theory, but no proposition by
itself makes a theory.
● An organized set of propositions that
together form a way of explaining or
understanding something.
WHAT MAKES A GOOD THEORY?
(Brinberg & McGrath, 1985)
● FIT -the degree to which the
categories and relations in a theory
explain our experience of events.
● Utility -the circular relation between
theory and practice, when it is
relatively predictable ,then the
theory is showing sustained utility.
WHAT MAKES A GOOD THEORY?
The creation and development of theory is a
human social activity (Krippendorf, 1993).
● As human activity, it is subjectively
determined (create it, test it, and
evaluate it)
● As a social activity, done within
communities of scholarship that
share a way of knowing
and a set of common practices.
BODIES OF THEORY
(Littlejohn, 1999, p. 30)
● Theories Change due to Particular
Periods
● Incremental growth - a process of
adding new theories
● Developmental Growth - a process of
elaborating or improving existing
theories
● Economical Development- standard
theories emerge as the 'canon' of the
community
● Revolution (Kuhn, 1970)- critics
have shown the standard theories to
be lacking in some fundamental way,
or it happens because society itself
changes, new trends emerge , and
old ideas no longer look very
appealing.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
(Littlejohn, 1999, p. 30)
● help us organize and summarize
knowledge
● help us focus on important things
● help clarify what is observed
● tell us how to look, how to observe
● help us predict
HOW TO EVALUATE THEORIES Parsimony-involves logical simplicity.
(Littlejohn, 1999, p. 30) ● If two theories are equally valid,the
● How far does the theory allow me to one with the simplest logical
generalize? explanation is better.
● In what realms of life is theory Openness-theories can be judged according
appropriate? to their openness. This criterion is
● Does the theory stimulate me to especially important in the practical
think of interesting questions? paradigm. It means that a theory is open to
● Does the theory seem to fit my other
experience? possibilities.
● Is the theory open to improvement ● tentative, contextual, and qualified.
and change? The theorist recognizes that his
● Does the theory say a lot in a simple construction is a way of looking
and logical way? rather than a reproduction of reality.
Theoretical Scope-A theory’s scope is its Communication Study: Fruit of Several
comprehensiveness or inclusiveness. Disciplines
● relies on the principle of generality Wilbur Schramm is considered the
or the idea that a theory’s founder of the field of Communication
explanation must be sufficiently Studies.
general to extend beyond a single ● the first individual to identify
observation. himself as a communication scholar
Appropriateness-theory’s epistemological, ● also emphasized the beginnings of
ontological, and axiological assumptions communication study from Europe
appropriate for the theoretical questions to America. Schools of Thought that
addressed and the research methods used? enrich the field were given emphasis
Heuristic Value-Will the theory generate 1. Communication as a field of study
new ideas for research and additional originated in Europe. During the rise
theory? Does it have heuristic value? of Hitler an intellectual migration
Theories within the nomothetic and was experienced that forced scholar
practical ideals differ significantly in this to move from Europe to America.
regard. 2. Existing histories and theories of
Validity-is the truth value of a theory. communication were focused on the
● Validity as a criterion of theory has history of North America and
at least three meanings. Europe.
 3. There are limited studies to
document the effects of media. Most
of the studies are focused on
propaganda, systems theory and
development communication.
4. There is a distinct history of
communication from journalism,
film studies, speech/rhetoric, and
cultural studies. On the other hand,
communication study through its
history is clearer now should be
taught to college students to have
deeper understanding of
COMMUNICATION THEORY AS A
FIELD
ROBERT CRAIG-In 1995 Robert T. Craig
and Karen Tracy published
"Grounded Practical Theory: The case of
Intellectual
Discussion"
● Craig and Tracy argue that the
communication discipline has been
dominated by scientific theory which
is concerned with what is, while
normative theories are centrally
concerned with what ought to be.
This neglect of normative theories
"limits the practical usefulness of
communication studies.
-Communication theory is enormously rich
in the range of ideas that fall within its
nominal scope, and new theoretical work on
communication that has recently been
flourishing.
-Communication theory is enormously rich
in the range of ideas that fall within its
nominal scope, and new theoretical work
on communication that has recently been
flourishing.
-not in a unified theory of communication
but in a dialogical-dialectical disciplinary
matrix, a commonly understood (though
always contestable) set of assumptions that
would enable productive argumentation
across the diverse traditions of
communication theory.
-A disciplinary matrix can be developed
communication.
What is Communication Theory?
refers to single theory, or it can be used to
designate the collective wisdom found in the
entire body of theories related to
communication
BASIC MODEL OF INQUIRY
using a constitutive metamodel of
communication that opens up a conceptual
space in diverse first-order models can
interact.
Roots of Incoherence-explained by
communication theories multidisciplinary
origins and by the particular ways in which
communication scholars have used and
too often mis-used the intellectual fruits
that continue to pour from this
multidisciplinary horn of plenty.
Communication theory is not yet a coherent
field but has the potential to become a
dialogical-dialectical field based on two
principles:
(a) a constitutive metamodel of
communication, and
(b) a conception of communication theory
as meta discursive practice within a
practical discipline. To see where this
approach might take us, I will sketch
seven reconstructed traditions of
communication
theory, arrayed in a matrix that highlights
practically
relevant complementarities and tensions
among them.
7 Traditions of communication
 presence of fire
Symbol-usually designates a complex sign
with many meanings.Including highly
personal ones.
7 Communications Tradition
RHETORICAL TRADITION Signs vs.Symbols
COMMUNICATIONS IS THEORIZE:as a Signs-have clear referent to something in
“Practical Art of Discourse” reality
-useful for explaining why our participation Symbols-symbols are arbitrary,philosopher
in discourse,especially public discourse, is Sussane Langer writes that a symbol is “an
important and how instrument of thought” in that it enables us
-it occurs,and holds forth the possibility that to think about something and to form a
the practice of communication can be concept in the absence of the object itself
cultivated and improved through critical
study and education. ● Most semiotic thinking involves the
Problems of Communication Theorized as: basic idea of “the triad of
Social exigency communication requiring meaning”,which asserts that
collective deliberation and judgment meaning arises from a relationship
Meta discursive Vocabulary such as: among three things:
Art 1. The object (referent)
Method 2. The person(or interpreter)
Communicator 3. The sign
Audience CHARLES SAUNDERS PIERCE(THE
Strategy
Commonplace FIRST MODERN THEORIST OF
Logic SEMIOTICS, MAY HAVE BEEN THE
Emotion ORIGINATOR OF THIS IDEA.)
Plausible when appeals to metadiscursive -Peirce defined semiosis as a relationship
common places such as: among a sign, an object, and a meaning.
Power of words; The sign represents the object, or
Value of informed judgment; referent, in the mind of an interpreter.
Improvability of Practice
Interesting when challenges
metadiscursive
commonplaces such as: addresses how signs relate to their referent
Mere words are not Actions; s, or what signs
Appearance not reality; stand for.
Style is not substance;
Opinion is not truth or the study of relationships among signs .
SEMIOTIC TRADITION OF looks at how signs make a difference in
COMMUNICATION people’s lives , or the
● Semiotics or the study of signs,an practical use and effect s of signs and their
important tradition of thought in impact on social
communication theory. life.
● It includes a host of theories about 1. SEMANTICS-addresses how signs
how signs comes to relate to their referent s, or what
represent,objects,ideas,states,situati signs stand for
ons,feeling and condition outside of 2. SYNTACTICS-or the s tudy of
themselves. relation ships among s igns .
Key Ideas of the Semiotic Tradition 3. PRAGMATICS-looks at how signs
Sign-The basic concept unifying this make a difference in people’s
tradition is the sign,defined as a stimulus lives ,or the practical use and effect s
designating or indicating some other of signs and their impact on social
condition(ex) as when smoke indicates the life.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL TRADITION
● Theories in the phenomenological
tradition assume that people actively
interpret what happens around them
and come to understand the world
by personal experience with it. This
tradition concentrates on the
conscious experience of the person.
● Experience of Information
otherness; dialogue
-the way in which human beings come to
understand the world through direct
experience—the perception of
a phenomenon, whether an object, event, or
condition.
Problems of Social exigency
communication theorized as:
Absence of, or failure to sustain, authentic
human relationship
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
wrote that: “all my knowledge of the world,
even my scientific knowledge, is gained
from my own particular point of view, or
from some experience of the world".
Stanley Deetz-Summarizes three basic
principles of phenomenology.
-First, knowledge is found directly
in conscious experience—we
come to know the world as we
engage it
-Second, the meaning of a thing
consists of the potential of that
thing in one’s life. In other words,
how you relate to an object
determines its mean
ing for you.
-Third assumption is that language
is the vehicle of meaning.
hermeneutic circle-Interpretation
involves going back and forth between
experiencing an event or situation and
assigning meaning to it, moving from the
specific to the general and back to the
specific again,
VARIATIONS OF
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
TRADITION
Classical Phenomenology(Edmund
Husserl)-is primarily associated with
Edmund Husserl,
-the founder of modern phenomenology.
attempted to develop a method for
ascertaining truth through focused
consciousness.
-attempted to develop a method for
ascertaining truth through focused
Consciousness.
Phenomenology of Perception(Maurice
Merleau-Ponty)-human being is a unified
physical and mental
being who creates meaning in the world.
-We know things only through our own
personal relationship to these things.
Hermeneutic Phenomenology(Martin
Heidegger)-is the natural experience that
inevitably occurs
by merely existing in the world.
-For Heidegger, the reality of something is
not known by careful analysis or reduction
but by natural experience, which is created
by the use of language in everyday life.
“Words and language are not wrappings in
which things are packed for the commerce
of those who write and speak. It is in word
and language that things first come into
being and are.”
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIALS
COMMUNICATION THEORY
RHETORIC -Communication is theorized
as the practical art of discourse
(Maguire ,2006).
Problems of communication in the
rhetorical tradition are conceived as social
exigencies
that can be resolved through the artful use
of discourse to persuade audiences (Bitzer,
1968). If, however, the rhetorical tradition
seems plausible and useful because it
appeals to many commonplace beliefs about
communication, it is also interesting
because it challenges other commonplace
beliefs and reveals some of the deepest
paradoxes of communication. It challenges
the commonplaces that mere words are less
important than
actions, that true knowledge is more than
just a matter of opinion and that telling the
plain truth is something other than the
strategic adaptation of a message to an
audience(Craig, 1999).
Sample Theories:
• Dramatism -developed by Kenneth burke
in 1968. Premise: Life is a drama, and it can
Be understood in dramatic terms;
communicators involved in situations are
seen as actors
performing dramatic scenes on the
metaphorical stage of life, key concepts;
identification and guilt; dramatist pentad:
act, scene, agent, agency, purpose.
• Rhetorical Sensitivity - Developed by
Roderick Hart and Colleagues states that
effective communication arises from
sensitivity and care in adjusting what you
say to a listener or audience; 3 general types
of communicators (noble selves, rhetorical
reflectors, and
rhetorically sensitive individuals).
• Communicator Style -by Robert Norton
and colleagues’ states that not only do we
give information, but we also present that
information in a certain form that tells other
how to understand and how to respond to a
message ‘characteristic repeatedly
associated with your communication
constitute your dominant style.
2. SEMIOTICS -Communication is
theorized as intersubjective mediation by
signs and
symbols. Because meanings are in people,
gaps between subjective realities are
bridged through a shared language or sign
system (Maguire ,2006). Communication
theorized in this way explains and cultivates
the use of language and other sign systems
to mediate between different perspectives.
Problems of communication in the semiotic
tradition are primarily problems of
(re)presentation and transmission of
meaning, of gaps between subjectivities that
can be bridged, if only imperfectly, using
shared systems of signs
(Craig,1999).Semiotic communication
theory seems plausible and practical when it
appeals to the commonsense beliefs that
communication is easiest when we share a
common language, that words can mean
different things to different people so
miscommunication is a constant danger,
that meanings are often conveyed indirectly
or by subtle aspects of behavior that may go
unnoticed, and those certain ideas are easier
to express in certain media (Craig, 1999).
Sample Theories:
• General Semantics - Developed by I.A.
Richards improving daily communication by
discovering the ways words distort, obscure,
and complicate understanding between
people; special character of symbols
(Symbols are arbitrary, symbols are
abstract, symbols
are ambiguous, meanings are contextual.
• Symbolic Interactionism – by George
Herbert Mead. The way people relate to
things is determined by what meaning these
things have for them. These things come to
have meant for the person through social
interaction.
According to Macionis, symbolic
interactionism is "a framework for building
theory that
sees society as the product of everyday
interactions of individuals". In other words,
it is a frame of reference to better
understand how individuals interact with
one another to create symbolic worlds, and
in return, how these worlds shape individual
behaviors.
• Langer's Theory of Symbols-Susanne
Langer - All animal life is dominated by
feeling,but human feeling is affected by
conception and symbols-and language,
meaning is the complex relation among the
symbol, the object, and the
person;signification,connotation,denotation
.\
• Birdwhistell on Kinesics Body language,
concerned with abstracting from the
continuous muscular shifts which are
characteristics of living physiological
systems those groupings of movement
which are of significance to the
communication process and
thus to the interactional systems of
particular social groups.
• Ekman and Friesen on Kinesics- Analyzed
nonverbal activity in 3 ways: By origin,
coding, and usage; 5 types of nonverbal
behavior: Emblem, illustrator, adaptor,
regulator,
affect display.
3.PHENOMENOLOGICAL - the reality of something is not known by
Communication is theorized as dialogue.
Authentic human
relationships are sustained, and common
ground is established through the direct
experience of others (Craig, 1999; Griffin,
2003; Maguire, 2006). Although
phenomenology is a very complex term to
define it is about analyzing everyday life
from the viewpoint of its participant.
Therefore, the phenomenological tradition
emphasizes the interpretation of one's own
subjective experiences. Individual
experiences, gain particular importance,
become more authoritative than research
hypotheses or communication axioms.
Psychologists Carl Rogers claims that
Neither the Bible nor the prophets, neither
Freud nor research nor the revelations of
God nor a man can take precedence over my
9own direct experience (Podgorecki, 2004).
Phenomenology, however, is not only
plausible but also interesting from a
practical standpoint because it both upholds
dialogue as an ideal form of communication
and also demonstrates the inherent
difficulty of sustaining dialogue. It
challenges our commonsense faith in the
reliability of techniques for achieving good
communication. It problematizes such
commonsense distinctions as those between
mind and body, facts and values, words, and
things (Craig, 1999).
SAMPLE THEORIES:
• Classical Phenomenology -Edmund
Husserl who founded modern
phenomenology maintained that truth could
only be obtained through direct experience.
Furthermore, it is only through conscious
attention that truth can be discovered but in
order to achieve these biases must be set
aside.
• Social Phenomenology -Developed by
Maurice Merlean-Ponty examines social
relations, especially the use of language in
ordinary life, acknowledges that
experience is inherently social and that
consciousness cannot be divorced from
language.
• Hermeneutic Phenomenology- Developed
by Martin Heidegger examines that
careful analysis or reduction but by natural
experience, which is created by the use of
language in everyday life.
4.CYBERNETICS -Communication is
theorized as information processing, with
the goal of
getting the most information across with the
least amount of interference. Feedback is
the key concept that makes effective
communication possible within a system
(Maguire,2006). This cybernetic tradition
extends to current theories in areas as
diverse as systems and information science,
cognitive science, and artificial intelligence,
functionalist social theory, network analysis,
and the Batesonian school of interpersonal
communication (e.g., Watzlawick, Beavin, &
Jackson,1967).
Communication in the cybernetic tradition
is theorized as information processing and
explains how all kinds of complex systems,
whether living or nonliving, macro or micro,
are able to function, and why they often
malfunction. Epitomizing the transmission
model, cybernetics conceives of
communication problems as breakdowns in
the flow of information resulting from noise,
information overload, or mismatch between
structure and function and, as resources for
solving communication problems offer
various information-processing
technologies and related methods of
systems design and analysis, management,
and, on the “softer” side, therapeutic
intervention (Craig,1999). Cybernetics,
then, is also, interesting, and sometimes
implausible from a commonsense view
because it points out surprising analogies
between living and nonliving systems
challenge commonplace beliefs about the
significance of consciousness and emotion,
and questions our usual distinctions
between mind and matter, form and
content, the real and the artificial (Craig,
1999). In general, then, cybernetics, in
contrast to other traditions of
communication theory cultivates a practical
attitude that appreciates the complexity of
communication problems and questions
many of our usual
assumptions about the differences between
human and nonhuman information-
processing systems (Craig, 1999).
Sample Theories:
• Problematic Integration Theory – was
developed by Austin Babrow in 1992. Is a
theory of communication that addresses the
processes and dynamics of how people
receive, evaluate, and respond to
information and experiences. The premises
of PI are
based on the view that message processing,
specifically the development of probabilistic
and evaluative orientations (our perceptions
of something's likelihood of occurring and
its
value, respectively), is a social and cultural
construction.
• Basic System Theory – Maintains that
systems are structures that one can study
and
see how the parts of the system interact. It is
also possible to improve the system by
manipulating its inputs.
• Information Theory – Originated with
Claude Shannon and focuses on the
transmission of
signals through networks and seeks to
improve that process. It tries to counteract
noise
and facilitate the accurate flow of messages
by quantifying the uncertainty in the
messages and calculating the amount of
redundancy.
• Network theory - is the study of graphs as
a representation of either symmetric
relations
or asymmetric relations between discrete
objects. In computer science and network
science, network theory is a part of graph
theory: a network can be defined as a graph
in
which nodes and/or edges have attributes
(e.g. names).
• General System Theory – Developed by
biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy this branch
of system theory highlights the
commonalities within systems. It seeks to
show us that different fields can be linked if
they share the same system principles.
5.SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL - • Cognitive Dissonance Theory- refers to a
Communication is theorized as expression,
interaction, and influence. Cause-and effect
relationships can be discovered through
careful, systematic observation
(Maguire,2006). Communication problems
in the socio psychological tradition are thus
thought of as situations that call for the
effective manipulation of the causes of
behavior to produce objectively defined and
measured outcomes (Craig, 1999). Socio-
Psychological tradition seems plausible and
practically useful because of it appeals to
our commonsense beliefs and our everyday
practical concerns about the causes and
effects of communication. We readily
believe that our ways of communicating and
our reactions to the communications of
others vary according to our individual
personalities Human nature being what it is,
we are not surprised to learn that our
judgments can be influenced by the
immediate social context and are often
biased in predictable ways by our strong
beliefs, attitudes, and emotional states
(Craig, 1999).
Sample Theories:
• The Hypodermic needle model -(known as
the hypodermic-syringe model,
transmission-belt model, or magic bullet
theory) is a model of communication
suggesting that an intended message is
directly received and wholly accepted by the
receiver. The model was originally rooted in
1930s behaviorism and largely considered
obsolete for a long time, but big data
analytics based customization has led to a
modern revival of the basic idea.
• Social exchange theory- Developed by
Homans, Blau, Thibaut, Kelley, Roloff,
Rusbult, and Bunk. is a sociological and
psychological theory that studies the social
behavior in the interaction of two parties
that implement a cost-benefit analysis to
determine risks and benefits. Social
exchange theory says that if the costs of the
relationship are higher than the rewards,
such as if a lot of effort or money were put
into a relationship and not reciprocated,
then the relationship may be terminated or
abandoned.
situation involving conflicting attitudes,
beliefs, or behaviors that cause arousal
within the individual. The arousal often
produces a feeling of mental or even
physical discomfort either leading the
individual
to alter their own attitudes, beliefs, or
behaviors, or attributions of the situation.
• Expectancy–value theory - has been
developed by John William Atkinson in the
1950s in many different fields including
education, health, communications,
marketing, and economics. Although the
model differs in its meaning and
implications
for each field, the general idea is that there
are expectations as well as values or
beliefs that affect subsequent behavior.
• Communication accommodation theory
(CAT)- is a theory of communication
developed by Howard Giles. This theory
concerns "(1) the behavioral changes that
people make to attune their communication
to their partner, (2) the extent to which
people perceive their partner as
appropriately attuning to them.
• Relational dialectic theory- is an
interpersonal communication theory about
close personal ties and relationships that
highlights the tensions, struggles and
interplay between contrary tendencies. The
theory, proposed respectively by Leslie
Baxter and Barbara Montgomery in 1988,
defines communication patterns between
relationship partners as the result of
endemic dialectical tensions.
6. SOCIO-CULTURAL- Communication is
theorized as the (re)production of social
order.
Reality is socially constructed through
micro -level interaction processes
(Maguire ,2006).
Sociocultural communication theory
represents the “discovery” of
communication, largely
since the 19th century and partly under the
influence of semiotic thought, within the
intellectual traditions of sociology and
anthropology. Communication in these
traditions is typically theorized as a
symbolic process that produces and
reproduces shared sociocultural patterns
(Craig, 1999). Communication problems in
the sociocultural tradition are thought of as
gaps across space (sociocultural diversity
and relativity) and across time(sociocultural
change) that disable interaction by
depleting the stock of shared pattinson
which interaction depends (Craig, 1999).
Sociocultural theory cultivates
communicative
practices that acknowledge cultural diversity
and relativity, value tolerance, and
understanding, and emphasize collective
more than individual responsibility. The
everyday practical discourse of blame and
responsibility, for example, has clearly been
influenced by theoretical discourses on
“society” in the sociocultural tradition
(Bowers & Iwi, 1993).
Sample Theories:
• Face -Negotiation Theory - is a theory
conceived by Stella Ting -Toomey in 1985,
to understand how people from different
cultures manage rapport and
disagreements.
• Cultural Interpretation Theory -by Clifford
Geertz - Involves trying to understand
the actions of a group or culture, observing
and describing.
• Social constructionism - is a theory in
sociology, social ontology, and
communication theory that proposes that
there are certain kinds of facts which, rather
than depending on reality itself, instead of
depending on the shared ways of thinking
about and representing the world that
groups of people develop collaboratively.
The theory centers on the notion that
meanings are developed in coordination
with others rather than separately by
everyone.
• Cultural identity Theory - refers to a
person's sense of belonging to a particular
culture or group. This process involves
learning about and accepting traditions,
heritage, language, religion, ancestry, a
esthetics, thinking patterns, and social
structures of a culture.
7. CRITICAL -Communication is theorized
as discursive reflection. Social justice can be
restored when ideological distortions are
recognized through communication liberal, radical, Marxist, psychoanalytic,
practices that enable critical reflection socialist,existentialist, and postmodern.
(Maguire,2006). For the critical theorist, an Below, we consider two prominent feminist
activity that theories of communication.
merely reproduces existing social order, or • The Patriarchal Universe of Discourse-
even one that produces new social order is Julia Penelope (1990) has developed a
not yet authentic communication. For social critical theory of the patriarchal universe of
order to be based on genuine mutual discourse. For this linguist, language is
understanding (as distinct from strategic central to all human experience. A universe
manipulation, oppressive conformity, or of discourse is a set of linguistic conventions
empty ritual), it recurrently becomes that reflect a particular definition of reality.
necessary for communicators to articulate, The people who accept the language accept
question, and openly discuss their differing its categories of truth. Most language users
assumptions about the objective world, do so without question.
moral norms, and inner experience • Muted Group Theory- Was developed by
(Habermas, 1984, pp. 75- 101; also see Cheris Kramarae in 1981 it states that
Deetz, 1992,1994). For critical muteness is due to the lack of power which
communication theory, the basic “problem besets any group that occupies the low end
of communication” in society arises from of the totem pole; claims that the masculine
material and ideological forces that preclude bias of western society has silenced and
or distort discursive reflection. marginalized women's experiences.
Communication conceived in this way • Standpoint Theory- Developed by Harding
explains how social injustice is perpetuated and Wood in 1980 suggests that research
by ideological distortions and how justice starting from the lives of women, gays, and
can potentially be restored through lesbians, racial minorities, and the poor
communicative practices that enable critical provides a less false view of the world than
reflection or consciousness-raising in order does typical academic research that comes
to unmask those distortions and thereby from an advantaged perspective.
enable political action to liberate the
participants from them (Craig, 1999).
Sample Theories:
• Feminist theory - (Kramarae, 1989, pp. 157
-60) is a generic label for a perspective or
group of theories that explores the meaning
of gender concepts. Feminist theorists argue
that almost all aspects of life can be
understood in terms of gender qualities. The
feminist critique aims to expose the powers
as well as the limits of the gendered division
of the
world.
• Dual Systems Theory -According to Sylvia
Walby (1990), dual systems theory
represents the coming together of Marxist
and radical feminism--in the belief that the
oppression of women results from a
complex articulation of patriarchy and
capitalism.
Other feminist perspectives have been
formulated. For example, Rosemary Tong
(1992) outlines seven feminist perspectives: