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Lecture 5
Lecture 5
Lecture 5
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 6 - 1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6 - 2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
dplastic
delastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 3
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 4
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:
Ao
F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).
Chapter 6 - 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
sz > 0 sh< 0
Chapter 6 - 7
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q
y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 8
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 9
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
Chapter 6 -2 - 10
Normal Strain
P 2P P P
s = = stress s= = s=
A 2A A A
d d 2d d
e= = normal strain e= e= =
L L 2L L
Chapter 6 -2 - 11
Stress-Strain Test
Chapter 6 -2 - 12
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Chapter 6 -2 - 13
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Chapter 6 -2 - 14
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
Chapter 6 -2 - 15
Super Plasticity
• A state in which solid crystalline material is
deformed well beyond its usual breaking point,
usually over about 600% during tensile deformation
• The strain rate sensitivity is low at low temperature
(T < 0.5 Tm) but increases at higher temperature.
• This is understandable, as atomic motion is more
vigorous at higher temperature, diffusion is faster.
• High strain rate sensitivity is usually associated with
larger strain to failure.
Chapter 6 -
Super Plasticity
• In a tensile experiment if a random cross section
decreases in diameter, the strain rate at that cross
section increases, with enough strain rate sensitivity
the section becomes harder and no further
reduction leading to failure occurs.
• In fine grained (<10 µm) materials close to Tm very
large strain rate sensitivity and strain to failure (up
to 100-fold elongation) can be observed. This is
called superplasticity. It depends on grain boundary
sliding, rather than dislocation mechanisms.
• Nanocrystalline materials contain many grain
boundaries, superplasticity should be more easily
achieved.
Chapter 6 -
Superplasticity of electrodeposited nc Ni and
nc Al-1420 alloy and Ni3Al by severe plastic deformation
Chapter 6 -2 - 19
Deformations Under Axial Loading
• From Hooke’s Law:
s P
s = Ee e= =
E AE
Chapter 6 -2 - 20
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E
e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 21
Poisson's ratio, n
eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:
eL
n=- e
e
metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Chapter 6 - 22
Mechanical Properties
Chapter 6 - 23
Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test
M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 - 24
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 26
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
Chapter 6 - 27
Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 28
Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt
1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 29
10
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
Chapter 6 - 32
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)
ey
Ur = sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 34
Elastic Strain Recovery
Chapter 6 - 35
• Many metals exhibit nearly linear elastic behavior at low strain
magnitudes.
• Rubbers exhibit Hyper-elastic behavior, and they remain elastic up
to large strain values (often up to 100% strain and beyond).
• For metals, the yield stress usually occurs at .05% - .1% of the
material’s Elastic Modulus.
Chapter 6 -
ultimate strength
(maximum stress)
ultimate failure
initial yield (maximum strain
Chapter 6 -
Loading/unloading
behavior
New yield
stress
Initial
yield
stress
Chapter 6 -
Loading/Unloading
behavior
Chapter 6 -
Loading/Unloading
behavior
Chapter 6 -
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 44
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 45
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 - 46
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
• True stress sT = F Ai s T = s 1 + e
• True Strain eT = ln i o e T = ln1 + e
Chapter 6 - 47
Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0
e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 48
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
xn
– Mean x=
n
1
n 2
x i - x
2
Chapter 6 - 51