1

Geneal
ogi
esof‘
Sci
ent
if
icHi
stor
y’i
nrel
ati
ont
othei
dea
‘
Sci
ences’
dur
i he18thand19thCent
ngt ury

Dev
tanuRaha

Pr
esi
dencyUni
ver
sit
y

PG1,
HIST19

Reg-
18306110003

26/
10/
18

Wor
dCount-
2488
 2

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Ar
ist
otl
ehaddecl
aredt
hatmani
sar
ati
onal
ani
mal
,thatset
shi
m apar
tfr
om ot
herani
mal
s,but
Lar
ryBr
iskmanhasputi
tri
ght
lyt
hat“
menl
ookascapabl
eofact
ingandt
hinki
ngi
rr
ati
onal
l
yasof
1
act
ingandt
hinki
ngr
ati
onal
l
y,aseasi
l
ymov
edbypassi
onandpr
ejudi
ce.
..
.”.Af
tert
heFr
ench
r
evol
uti
on,
afundament
alchangeoccur
redi
nthei
ntel
l
ect
ual
andacademi
ccl
i
mat
eoft
hewest
,
dr
ivenbyenl
i
ght
enmentandchangi
ngsoci
o-pol
i
tical
str
uct
ure.I
nthi
snewepoch,
rat
ional
i
ty,
as
cl
aimedbymanyschol
ars,
rei
gnssupr
emenat
ural
sci
ence.Wi
thi
ndi
ver
set
heor
ies,
rul
esand
2
met
hodsofempi
ri
cal
sci
enceencapsul
atedt
hef
undament
alr
ulesf
orr
ati
onal
i
typar
adi
gm.

Dur
ingt
hesameage,
int
hef
iel
dofhi
stor
ywr
it
ingt
oo,
schol
arst
endedt
oquest
ionwhat'
obj
ect
ive'
hi
stor
ical
knowl
edgemeansandwhet
hert
her
eisanyobj
ect
iveper
cept
ionof'
tr
uth'
thati
sfr
ee
f
rom phi
l
osophi
cal
andmet
aphy
sical
assumpt
ionsorpr
e-concept
ionsofear
li
erhi
stor
iogr
aphy
.
Bey
ondmemor
iesandt
rav
ell
er’
stal
es,
schol
arsnowengagedt
hemsel
vesi
nseeki
ngt
het
rut
hin
3
accor
dancewi
thr
ati
onal
andempi
ri
cal
rul
est
oachi
eveasci
ent
if
icv
ali
dit
y. AsBer
li
nhasar
gued,
manyschol
arsat
tempt
edt
oassi
mil
atehi
stor
ywi
thoneoft
henat
ural
sci
ences,
whi
chwasal
most
domi
nat
ingt
hesev
ent
eent
handei
ght
eent
h-cent
uryWest
ernacademi
a,duei
tsr
ichmet
hodol
ogy
.
I
nat
tempt
ingt
odecl
arehi
stor
yas'
sci
ent
if
ic'
disci
pli
ne,
peopl
efoundt
hissubj
ectt
obedi
ff
erent
ly
sci
ence,
thati
sindeedobj
ect
iveandnotamer
ebr
anchofl
i
ter
atur
eorembodi
mentofper
sonal
v
i on4.
si Schol
arsf
oundt
hatsi
mil
art
onat
ural
sci
ence,
Hist
orysuccessf
ull
yappl
i
est
hemet
hodsof
i
dent
if
ying,
discov
eri
ngandi
nfer
ri
ngf
rom f
act
s.Fr
om t
heday
sofBossuetandVi
co,
hist
ori
cal
school
swer
einsear
chofsomebasi
cpr
inci
plet
hathasbeenf
oll
owedbyhumanbei
ngsf
rom t
he
begi
nni
ngofhumanci
vi
li
zat
ion,
whi
chhar
dlychangeswi
tht
ime.I
nthi
shumanenv
ironment
,
schol
arsbel
i
eved,
man'
scol
l
ect
iveact
ivi
tyandt
hei
rint
erpl
aycanbeexpl
ainedandunder
stoodi
n
pur
elymechani
sti
cter
m byf
indi
ngaser
iesofnat
ural
laws.

Hi
stor
ywasusual
l
yconsi
der
edt
obeapoet
icwi
thi
nast
ruct
ureacademi
cst
udi
es,
thatder
ives
f
rom medi
eval
theol
ogyofhi
gherdi
dact
icl
i
ter
atur
e. I
twasonl
yaf
terNi
ebuhrandRanke
est
abl
i
shedt
hedi
sci
pli
neofanequal
rankwi
thphi
l
osophy
,thatHi
stor
ybecamecl
oset
ost
ri
ct
sci
ence.Si
ncet
heEngl
i
shmeani
ngof'
sci
ence'
isamani
fest
ati
onofenl
i
ght
enmentandcl
oset
o
nat
ural
sci
enceandi
tsmet
hodol
ogi
es,
weof
tenf
ail
tounder
standt
heconceptoft
erm sci
ence
'
Wissenschaf
t'whi
chhasadi
ff
erentmeani
ngi
nGer
many
.'Wi
ssenschaf
t'i
nGer
manyandal
soi
n
al
lcont
inent
alEur
oper
efer
stomet
hodol
ogi
cal
l
yst
ri
ctf
orm ofi
nqui
ri
eswhi
chdemand

1
Lar ryBriskman,“Rati
onal
it
y,Sci
enceandHist
ory,
"inCompaniontotheHist
oryofSci
ence,edit
edbyR.C.Olby
,G.N.
Cant or,J.R.R.Christ
ieandM.J.S.Hodge,(
Routl
edge,1990),
166.
2
Ibid.,
3
IsaiahBer li
n,“
HistoryandTheor
y:TheConceptofSci
entif
icHist
ory
,”Hi
stor
yandTheory,
Vol.1,
No1(1960):
103
4
Ibid,104.
 3
5
pr
ofessi
onal
trai
ning”
. Thus,
all
subj
ectr
elat
est
ohumanact
ivi
tycanbest
udi
ed'
sci
ent
if
ical
l
y'or
i
napr
ofessi
onal
manner
.

I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttodef
ineexact
lywhatconst
it
utessci
enceandhowi
sitdi
ff
erentf
rom '
non-
sci
ent
if
ic'
di
sci
pli
nes.Asdi
scussedabov
e,dur
ingt
hesev
ent
eent
handei
ght
eent
hcent
urysev
eral
hist
ori
ans
at
tempt
edt
oref
ormt
hei
deaofhi
stor
ywr
it
inganddi
stancedt
hemsel
vesf
rom t
hel
oosedef
ini
ti
on
ofhumani
sti
csci
enceandi
ncl
i
nedt
othemet
hodol
ogi
cal
accur
acyofnat
ural
sci
ence.Thus,
a
changi
ngshi
fti
nthecul
tofHi
stor
ywr
it
ingemer
gedt
hatemphasi
zedmor
eonmaki
ngHi
stor
y
'
sci
ent
if
ic'
int
ermsofpr
esent
ingt
hepastashi
stor
y.Thi
spaperai
mst
oexami
net
hegeneal
ogi
cal
r
oot
soft
hosesocal
l
ed‘
sci
ent
if
ichi
stor
y’i
nrel
ati
ont
otheev
olv
ingi
deasofsci
ence.

TheMaki
ngof'
Sci
ent
if
icHi
stor
y'

Dur
i he18thcent
ngt ury
,enl
i
ght
enmentgr
adual
l
ycr
eat
edadi
sti
nct
ionbet
ween'
Erudi
ts'
orschol
arl
y
6
knowl
edgeand'
aut
eur
s'orr
oughl
ytr
ansl
atedasar
ti
sts.Al
though'
Erudi
ts'waspai
dmor
e
at
tent
ionbecausemanyhi
stor
ianspr
omot
edt
hear
ti
sti
ctheor
yofhi
stor
y,apopul
arf
orm of
l
i
ter
atur
ethatwasusedasameanst
owar
dmoneymaki
ng,
butsev
eral
otherschol
arsat
tempt
ed
t
oincr
easet
her
eader
shi
poft
hehi
stor
ical
studi
es.I
ndoi
ngso,
schol
arshi
pcamei
ntodi
rectt
ouch
wi
th'
Erudi
ts'
,whenschol
arl
ywor
ksatt
heuni
ver
sit
yofGot
ti
ngen,
incor
por
atedeconomi
c,
st
ati
sti
cal
andgeogr
aphi
cal
aspect
sinanal
ysi
ngt
hepast
.Butf
arbef
oret
heGer
manschool
of
Hi
stor
ywr
it
ingat
tempt
edatamor
esci
ent
if
icwayt
opr
esentapast
,weneedt
olookbackatt
wo
phi
l
osophi
cal
wri
terwhoar
eof
tenbr
acket
edt
oget
her
,Gi
ambat
ti
staVi
coandJohanGot
tfr
iedv
on
Her
der
.Inhi
s'NewSci
ence'
(1725)Vi
cocl
aimedt
ounf
oldt
hedi
ff
erentst
agesofhuman
ci
vi
li
zat
ion,
'dev
ine'
,'
her
oic'
and'
human'
.Butmosti
mpor
tant
lyheemphasi
zedont
hecul
tur
al
di
ff
erencesbet
weendi
ff
erentagesandnat
ions.Asar
guedbyAr
thurMar
wick,
unl
i
keot
her
enl
i
ght
enmenthi
stor
ians“
hewasawar
eoft
hedangerofi
mpor
ti
ngi
deas,
orj
udgement
s,f
rom a
7
l
ateragei
ntoanear
li
er”
.

Yet
,Her
deri
nhi
s'Phi
l
osophyofHi
stor
y'pr
esent
edsi
mil
ari
deast
hatofVi
coi
namor
e
sophi
sti
cat
edmanner
.Hesawpastasapr
ocessandemphasi
zedont
hei
mpor
tanceof
geogr
aphi
cal
spaceandi
ts'
nat
ional
char
act
er'
thathebel
i
evedt
obei
nfl
uencedt
hehi
stor
yofany
nat
ion.(
ibi
d)andposedt
hei
deat
hatev
ery
thi
ngr
elat
ivel
yri
ghti
nit
sownhi
stor
ical
cont
ext
.

Hi
ghl
yinf
luencedbyFr
enchenl
i
ght
enmentandFr
anci
sBacon,
anewt
radi
ti
onofi
ntel
l
ect
ual

5
GeorgIgger
s,“Refl
ect
ionsonthehi
stor
iogr
aphyoft
het
went
iet
hcent
uryf
rom t
heper
spect
iveoft
het
went
y-f
ir
st
cent
ury,
”Hist
orein,
16(1-2)
,151.
6
Ar
thurMar
wi TheNewNat
ck, ureofHi
stor
yKnowl
edge,
Evi
dence,
Language(
Pal
grav
e,2001)
58.
7
I
bid,
62.
 4

pr
ogr
esswasi
nit
iat
edbyAugustComt
eaf
terhi
sbook'
Thecour
sei
nPosi
ti
vePhi
l
osophy
'and'
A
Gener
alv
iewofPosi
ti
vi
sm'
rev
eal
edt
hei
deasof'
posi
ti
vi
sm'
.Theappr
oachofposi
ti
vi
sm wast
o
emphasi
zeonsci
ent
if
icev
idence,
exper
iment
s,st
ati
sti
cal
inqui
ri
est
orev
eal
thet
rut
hoft
he
soci
ety
,andpr
oducear
eli
abl
eandv
ali
dknowl
edge.Comt
ehi
msel
fnev
erwr
oteanyhi
stor
ybut
t
hisappr
oacht
owar
dsst
udy
ingt
hehi
stor
ywasadopt
edbyHenr
yThomasBuckl
e,asel
ftaught
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
,whocl
aimedt
oappl
ysci
ent
if
icmet
hodsi
nwr
it
ingt
he'
Hist
oryofCi
vi
li
zat
ioni
n
Engl
and'
andpr
oposed-“
byappl
yi
ngt
othehi
stor
yofmant
hosemet
hodsofi
nvest
igat
ionwhi
ch
hav
ebeenf
oundsuccessf
uli
not
herbr
anchesofknowl
edge,
andr
eject
ingal
lpr
econcei
ved
8
not
ionswhi
chcoul
dnotbeart
het
estoft
hosemet
hods,
” .
Hebel
i
eved,
ther
ecanbenohi
stor
y
9
wi
thoutnat
ural
sci
ence.Besi
deshi
sbel
i
efi
ninv
est
igat
ingempi
ri
cal
evi
dencet
ofor
mul
atea
gener
all
awofhumansoci
ety
,heal
sost
ressedont
heuni
ver
sal
i
tyofor
derand'
col
l
ect
ive
phenomenon'
whi
chwasl
ateri
nspi
redgener
ati
onsofhi
stor
ians.Butt
hisi
deaof'
col
l
ect
ive
phenomenon'
and'
Uni
ver
sal
i
tyofor
der
'canbet
racedbackt
oVi
co'
sideaoff
unct
ional
co-
rel
ati
ons
ofhumanact
ionsandot
hernat
ural
processes.10

Howev
er,
thi
sideaofhi
stor
ical
sci
encewasl
aterchal
l
engedbyGer
manhi
stor
ianJohann
Dr
oysen'
sidesofhumanf
reedom andot
herpar
ti
cul
arev
ent
sandi
nst
it
uti
onswhi
chcannotbe
exami
nedwi
thi
nthef
ramewor
kofnat
ural
sci
encet
hatassumet
otal
det
ermi
nism.Hef
urt
her
emphasi
zedont
hemeani
ngofact
ionst
hatcannotber
educedt
ogener
alaws11r
l atherbel
i
eved
t
hat
,topr
oducehi
stor
ical
knowl
edge'
i
nter
pret
ati
on'
isapr
erequi
sie12.Tor
t econst
ructt
hepast
f
rom av
ail
abl
edat
a,Dr
oysen,
li
kehi
steacherRankeul
ti
mat
elydependedoni
ntui
ti
onoft
he
hi
stor
ianandgoesbackt
othemet
aphy
sical
assumpt
ionst
hati
sof
tencr
it
ici
zedbyl
att
er
Hi
stor
ians.

Leopol
dvonRanke,
consi
der
edt
obet
hepi
oneerofpr
ofessi
onal
andacademi
chi
stor
ywr
it
ing;
t
eacherofDr
oysenandmanyot
herhi
stor
iansofear
lyGer
manhi
stor
ical
school
isof
teni
dent
if
ied
as'
posi
ti
vi
st'
noti
nthesenseofComt
eorBuckl
e,butf
orr
est
ri
cti
nghi
sinqui
ryt
otheobj
ect
ive
13
r
econst
ruct
ionofev
ent
s. Hei
sconsi
der
edt
obeaposi
ti
vi
stbecauset
het
er Ei
m'gent
li
ch'
int
he
pr
efaceofhi
sfi
rstbook'
Hist
ori
esoft
heLat
inandTeut
oni
cNat
ions'
,inEngl
i
shhowev
erhast
he
meani
ng'
act
ual
l
y'.Buti
nGer
mancont
exti
tisunder
stoodaswant
ingt
oshowwhat'
essent
ial
l
y'

8
C. DWar ner,“Henr yThomasBuckl e:Cri
tical
andBibl
iogr
aphicalI
ntr
oduct i
on”,
https://www.bar t
leby .com/l
i
brar
y/prose/1004.ht
ml
9
Geor gG.Igger s,Q.Edwar dWang,andSupr iyaMukheree,
j AGlobalHist
or yofModern
Historiogr
aphy ,
(Rout ledge,
2017)
,95.
10
IsaiahBer l
i
n, “
Hi storyandTheory:TheConceptofScienti
fi
cHistor
y,”HistoryandTheor
y,Vol
.1,No1(1960)
:105.
11
Geor gG.Igger s,Q.Edwar dWang, andSupr i
yaMukherj
ee,AGlobalHistoryofModernHist
oriogr
aphy,
(Rout l
edge,2017),96.
12
Ibid,
97.
13
Ibid,
96.
 5
14
happened. Manyschol
arscl
aimt
hatRankewast
hef
ir
stper
sont
orel
yoncr
it
ical
exami
nat
ionof
pr
imar
ysour
cesi
nHi
stor
ywr
it
ingandi
tist
ruet
osomeext
entt
hathepl
ayedt
hemostsi
gni
fi
cant
r
olebehi
ndt
hepr
ofessi
onal
i
zat
ionofHi
stor
yasadi
sci
pli
ne.ButAr
thurMar
wickhasar
guedt
hat
t
hismet
hodol
ogyofcr
it
ical
l
yexami
ningt
hepr
imar
ysour
cewasal
readybei
ngdev
elopedbya
nat
iveschol
arofDenmar
kNi
ebuhr
.Asal
ect
urerofBer
li
nuni
ver
sit
yin1811-
1812hi
sbook'
The
Hi
stor
yofRome'
waspubl
i
shed,
whi
chi
ndeedanembodi
mentoft
hemostadv
ancedmet
hodsof
15
t
ext
ual
cri
ti
cism appl
i
edt
opr
imar
ysour
ces.

Nev
ert
hel
ess,
Rankebel
i
evedt
hatbesi
descol
l
ect
ing,
findi
ngandpenet
rat
ing,
hist
oryi
sal
soanar
t
wher
ehi
stor
iani
ssupposedt
obeabl
etor
ecr
eat
ebyusi
nghi
sar
ti
sti
cimagi
nat
ion.Fr
om
i
nvest
igat
ingandcr
it
ical
l
yexami
ningt
hef
act
stor
ecr
eat
eahi
stor
ical
nar
rat
ive,
Rankesoughtt
o
bei
nfl
uencedbyWi
l
hel
mvonHumbol
dt'
essay'
Ont
heHi
stor
ianst
ask'
,publ
i
shedi
n1821.
Al
thoughhi
sli
fe'
swor
kencompassesmai
nlyt
hear
easofphi
l
osophy
,li
ter
atur
e,ant
hropol
ogyand
pol
i
tical
thought
,recentschol
arshi
phasdi
scov
eredhi
scont
ri
but
iont
othef
iel
dofmoder
n
l
i
ngui
sti
cs,
semi
oti
csher
meneut
icsandhi
stor
yaswel
l
.Inhi
swr
it
inghest
atest
hatt
het
askofa
hi
stor
ian“
ist
opr
esentwhatact
ual
l
yhappened”butal
soment
ionst
hatcompl
exi
ti
esofl
anguage
chal
l
enget
hehi
stor
ianmor
eint
het
askofr
ecr
eat
ingt
heobj
ect
ivehi
stor
y.Si
nceanev
enti
sonl
y
par
ti
all
yvi
sibl
e,Humbol
dtencour
ageshi
stor
ianst
ofi
l
lthi
svoi
dbyhi
stor
ical
imagi
nat
ion-“
Iti
sthe
hi
stor
ianwhoi
ssupposedt
oawakenandst
imul
ateasensi
bil
i
tyf
orr
eal
i
ty,
andhi
sact
ivi
tyi
s
def
inedsubj
ect
ivel
ybyt
heel
abor
ati
onoft
hatconceptasi
tisdef
inedobj
ect
ivel
ybyt
hehi
stor
ical
16
nar
rat
ive.
” Humbol
dtwaswel
lawar
eoft
hel
i
mit
ati
onsoft
hehi
stor
ical
evi
denceandof
r
ecr
eat
inganar
rat
ive,
thus,
hesuggest
sthati
tist
het
askoft
hehi
stor
iant
ocomposet
he
17
nar
rat
ivei
nawayt
hat“
reader
semot
ionwi
l
lbest
ir
redbyi
t,asi
fbyr
eal
i
tyi
tsel
f.
” Hef
urt
her
ar
guest
hatr
ecr
eat
ionofhi
stor
yismor
ear
tthansci
ence,
andpr
emat
uresci
enceweakenst
he
beaut
yofar
tfor
m.Manyy
ear
sbef
oret
hedev
elopmentofpost
-posi
ti
vi
sm andpost
-moder
nism,
Humbol
dtsuggest
edt
hatf
orcesbehi
ndanyhi
stor
ical
eventorhumanact
ionl
i
espsy
chol
ogi
cal
f
orces,
emot
ions,
incl
i
nat
ionsandpassi
onswhi
chi
smor
edi
ff
icul
ttounder
standt
hananyev
ent
.
Heal
sopoi
ntsoutt
hei
nfl
uenceof“
languageasv
ehi
clei
ncr
eat
ionandcommuni
cat
ionof
18
i
deas”
. Ther
efor
eHumbol
dtsuggest
s,i
tisnotmer
elyt
heev
ent
sbutt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
i
tyandt
he
i
nter
act
ionofdi
ff
erentper
sonsandi
nst
it
uti
onst
hatf
orm whatact
ual
l
yhappened.

Whi
l
eRankeanmodel
dev
elopedt
hecul
tur
eofpr
ofessi
onal
i
zat
ionofsci
ent
if
ichi
stor
y'
,t
he
subsequenthi
stor
iansofGer
manschool
ofhi
stor
iansar
econsi
der
edt
obel
i
ber
atedhi
stor
yfr
om

14
Ibi
d,.
15
Art
hurMar wi
ck,TheNewNatur
eofHistor
yKnowl
edge,Ev
idence,
Language(Pal
grav
e,2001)
63.
16
WilhelmvonHuboldt
,“Ont
heHist
ori ”Hi
ansTask, stor
yandTheory6,No1(1967)
:60.
17
Ibi
d,.
18
Ibi
d,70.
 6

met
aphy
sicsandposi
ti
vi
sti
cappr
oaches.Theyar
eof
tencr
it
ici
zednotonl
yforemphasi
zi
ngon
di
plomat
icandmi
l
itar
yhi
stor
y(j
ust
if
yingGer
manexpansi
oni
sm andi
mper
ial
i
stcont
rol
overt
he
col
oni
alwor
ld)
,andkeepi
ngsoci
al,
soci
o-cul
tur
alaspect
sasi
de,
butal
sof
orr
ely
ingoni
ntui
ti
ons
19
andmet
aphy
sical
assumpt
ionsi
nmostoft
hecases.

Mar
xism asconsi
der
edt
obepr
ovi
dingoneoft
hemostsi
gni
fi
cantconcept
ionof'
sci
ent
if
ic
hi
stor
y'i
sdi
ff
icul
ttoassesst
owhatext
enti
tisasci
ence.Thedoct
ri
nesofKar
lMar
xandFr
edr
ich
Engel
sdur
ingt
heear
lyni
net
eent
hcent
urycont
ainsmanycont
radi
cti
onsi
nassessi
ngt
he
hi
stor
ical
dev
elopmentoft
hesoci
ety
.Al
ltheel
ement
sofMar
x'st
heor
ywer
edev
elopedbet
ween
t
het
imeof1840st
o1880s.I
nhi
smaj
orwor
k“capi
tal
”(
1867-
1894)Mar
x,wi
thahi
stor
ical
appr
oachf
oundcapi
tal
i
steconomyt
obet
hedy
nami
cfact
ori
nmoder
nhi
stor
y.Tounder
standt
he
hi
stor
ical
processt
hroughwhi
chpast
,pr
esentandf
utur
eisl
i
nked,
Mar
xunf
oldedser
iesofst
ages,
Asi
ati
c,Ant
ique,
Moder
n,Feudal
,moder
nbour
geoi
s,whi
chhebel
i
evedt
obedet
ermi
nedbyt
he
20
pr
evai
l
ingcondi
ti
onsunderwhi
chweal
thwaspr
oduced. Andt
hef
orcebehi
ndt
hechangesf
rom
onest
aget
oanot
herst
age,
hepr
oposedt
heconceptofcl
assst
ruggl
eandcl
assconf
li
ctst
hat
ul
ti
mat
elydemol
i
shest
hef
ormersoci
alandeconomi
cst
ruct
ureandbegi
nsanewepoch.Mar
x's
v
iewoft
hehi
stor
yandt
hecl
assconf
li
ctsast
hemot
orbehi
ndr
evol
uti
onwasi
nspi
redbyt
he
not
ionofHegel
'
sdi
alect
icwhi
chsaweachagecont
aini
ngadomi
nanti
deabesi
desand
opposi
ti
onal
idea.Asar
esul
toft
hecl
ashoft
hesedi
alect
ics,
adomi
nanti
deaofnewage,
'
synt
hesi
s'i
spr
oduced.Her
eMar
xfol
l
owst
hesamev
iewbutappl
yi
ngt
hedi
alect
ict
othemat
eri
al
dev
elopment
,inst dea21.Thi
eadofi sideaundoubt
edl
ysetast
ri
cteconomi
cdet
ermi
nism and
excl
udest
hei
ntel
l
ect
ual
for
cesbehi
ndt
hehi
stor
ical
dev
elopmentandshar
esmanyassumpt
ions
22
wi
tht
heposi
ti
vi
sthi
stor
ians.

Howev
er,
manyschol
arssuchasAl
thusserar
guedt
hatMar
xism i
snotapol
i
tical
ideol
ogy;
thati
s
essent
ial
l
yandexcl
usi
vel
yasci
ent
if
ict
heor
ytounf
oldt
hedev
elopmentofhi
stor
y,butschol
ars
l
i
keWeber
,Dur
khei
m andPar
sonshav
ecr
it
ici
zedMar
xism f
orsubst
it
uti
ngmor
alpassi
onandnot
t
reat
ingev
idenceser
iousl
y.

19
Geor gG.Igger
s,Q.Edwar
dWang,andSupri
yaMukher
jee,
AGl obalHist
oryofModernHistor
iogr
aphy
,
(Routl
edge,2017),
98-99.
20
Art
hurMar wi
ck,TheNewNat
ureofHist
oryKnowl
edge,Ev
idence,Language(Pal
grav
e,2001)
,71.
21
Ibi
d,72.
22
Geor gG.Igger
s,Q.Edwar
dWang,andSupri
yaMukher
jee,
AGl obalHist
oryofModernHistor
iogr
aphy
,
(Routl
edge,2017),
99.
 7

Concl
usi
on

Rankewr
otei
nhi
slat
erday
sthat“
Hist
oryi
sdi
sti
ngui
shedf
orm al
lot
hersci
encesandt
hati
tis
23
al
soanar
t” wher
ecr
it
ical
schol
arshi
pmer
gedagai
n.Anot
herphi
l
osopherDi
l
theyi
nhi
s
i
ntr
oduct
iont
oHi
stor
ical
knowl
edge'
arguedt
hat
,despi
tet
hef
undament
aldi
ff
erencesbet
ween
sci
ent
if
icknowl
edgeandcul
tur
alknowl
edge,
“hi
stor
yhasnoneedt
oat
temptt
oconf
ormt
othe
24
nor
msofsci
ence. ”Thus,
hist
ori
ansshoul
dnotf
eel
tobeashamedofwhati
sconsi
der
edt
obe
'
sci
ent
if
icnor
ms'
,whi
chi
deawasl
aterr
efl
ect
edi
nmanywor
ksGust
avDr
oysen,
whodespi
te
f
oll
owi
ngRankeanmodel
,foundnopr
obl
em i
nconsi
der
ingHi
stor
yasal
i
ter
arysubj
ect
.

Howev
er,
wecannot
icet
hatt
hroughoutt
hedev
elopmentof'
Sci
ent
if
icHi
stor
y'dur
ingt
he
ei
ght
eent
handear
lyni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,sev
eral
schol
arsat
tempt
edt
odef
inet
hemet
hodol
ogi
cal
pr
erequi
sit
etopr
oducehi
stor
ical
knowl
edget
hatcanbedi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom l
i
ter
arywor
k.I
ndoi
ng
so,
despi
tehav
ingconcept
ual
andmet
hodol
ogi
cal
dif
fer
ences,
theyal
lpossessedmet
aphy
sical
assumpt
ionswhi
chshapedt
hesubsequenthi
stor
ywr
it
ings.Aswecanseet
hedi
ff
erent
concept
ionsandconnot
ati
onsof'
sci
ence'
it
sel
fdet
ermi
nedt
hewayHi
stor
ywasr
esear
ched,
and
per
cei
ved,
from t
heday
sofRanke,
acul
tur
eofpr
ofessi
onal
i
zat
ionwasdev
elopedi
naschol
arl
yor
sci
ent
if
icway
.Butt
hist
urni
n'sci
ent
if
ichi
stor
y'i
sal
soheav
il
ycr
it
ici
sedbymanyf
orcont
aini
ng
t
hei
deaofsupr
emacyoft
heWest
ernci
vi
li
zat
ion'
andj
ust
if
yingWest
erni
mper
ial
i
sm and
col
oni
ali
sm.Asar
guedbyI
gger
s,t
heseSci
ent
if
icschol
arshi
psnotonl
yexcl
udedwomen,
Jews
andet
hni
cmi
nor
it
yfr
om t
heacademi
cinst
it
uti
onsbutal
soasapar
ti
cipantofsoci
alandhi
stor
ical
pr
ocess.

23
GeorgIggers,“
Reflecti
onsonthehist
ori
ographyofthet
wenti
ethcentur
yfrom t
heperspecti
veofthet
went
y-f
ir
st
century,
”Hist
orein,
16( 1-
2),
152.
24
ArthurMarwick,TheNewNat ureofHist
oryKnowledge,
Evi
dence,Language(Pal
grav
e,2001),
81.
 8

Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

Mar
wick,
Art .TheNewNat
hur ureofHi
stor
yKnowl
edge,
Evi
dence,
Language.Pal
grav
e,2001.

I
gger
s, g.Ref
Geor lect
ionsont
hehi
stor
iogr
aphyoft
het
went
iet
hcent
uryf
rom t
heper
spect
iveof
t
het
went
y-f
ir
stcent
ury
.Hi
stor
ein.

G.I
gger
s,Geor
g,Q.Edwar
dWang,
andSupr
iyaMukher
jee.AGl
obalHi
stor
yofModer
n
Hi
stor
iogr
aphy
.Rout
ledge,
2017

Humbol
dt,
Wil
hel
mvon.“
Ont
heHi
stor
i ”Hi
ansTask, stor
yandTheor
y6,
No1(
1967)
:57-
71.

War
ner
,C.
D,“
Henr
yThomasBuckl
e:Cr
it
ical
andBi
bli
ogr
aphi
cal
Int
roduct
ion”
,
ht
tps:
//www.
bar
tl
eby
.com/
li
brar
y/pr
ose/
1004.
html

Br
iskman,
Lar
ry,
"Rat
ional
i
ty,
Sci
enceandHi
stor
y, nCompani
"i ont
otheHi
stor
yofSci
ence,
edi
ted
byR.C.Ol
by,
G.N.Cant
or,
J.R.R.Chr
ist
ieandM.J.S.Hodge,
166-
180.
Rout
ledge,
1990.

Ber
li
nIsai
ah.“
Hist
oryandTheor
y:TheConceptofSci
ent
if
icHi
stor
y,”Hi
stor
yandTheor
y,Vol
.1,
No
1(
1960)
:103-
142.

Bur
awoyMi
chael
.“Mar
xism asSci
ence:
Hist
ori
cal
Chal
l
engesandTheor
eti
cal
Growt
h,”Amer
ican
Soci
ologi
cal
Rev
iew,
Vol
.55,
(1990)
:775-
793.