FACULTY OF INFORMATICS

Department name: - Information

Technology
Course name: - data communication and
computer networks

Assignment 1
Prepared by Abel Belete
Id 0093/13

What does a data communication mean? What are the key

elements of the communication model?
 The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and
Communication. Data can be any text, image, audio, video, and multimedia
files. Communication is an act of sending or receiving data. Thus, data
communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more
networked or connected devices. These devices must be capable of sending
and receiving data over a communication medium. Examples of such
devices include personal computers, mobile phones, laptops, etc.
Components of Data Communication
 Whenever we talk about communication between two computing devices
using a network, five most important aspects come to our mind. These are
sender, receiver, communication medium, the message to be
communicated, and certain rules called protocols to be followed during
communication. The communication media is also called transmission
media.
 Sender: A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of
sending data over a network. It can be a computer, mobile phone,
smartwatch, walkietalkie, video recording device, etc.
 Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of
receiving data from the network. It can be any computer, printer, laptop,
mobile phone, television, etc. In computer communication, the sender and
receiver are known as nodes in a network.
 Message: It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between
the sender and the receiver. Messages can be in the form of text, number,
image, audio, video, multimedia, etc.
 Communication media: It is the path through which the message travels
between source and destination. It is also called medium or link which is
either wired or wireless. For example, a television cable, telephone cable,
Ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc. We will study about various
communication media in section 11.5. Protocols: It is a set of rules that need
to be followed by the communicating parties in order to have successful and
reliable data communication. You have already come across protocols such
as Ethernet and HTTP.
 Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating
parties in order to have successful and reliable data communication. You
have already come across protocols such as Ethernet and HTTP.
1. List the major disadvantages with the layered approach to
protocols?
 "The main disadvantages of layered systems consist primarily of
overhead both in computation and in message headers caused by the
abstraction barriers between layers. Because a message often has to
pass through many (10 or more) protocol layers the overhead of these
boundaries is often more than the actual computation being done?"
 "One other disadvantage is that the higher level layers can't see what's
in the lower layers, implying that an application can't debug where in a
connection a problem is, or exactly what the problem is."
 "Another disadvantage is the higher level layers can't control all aspects
of the lower layers, so they can't modify the transfer system if beneficial
(like controlling windowing, header compression, CRC/parity checking,
et cetera), nor specify routing, and must rely on the lower protocols
working, and can't specify alternatives when there's problems."
 Addition of headers in each layer also adds to the computation overhead

2. (a) What is the need of modulating signal (b) explain the

techniques used in digital to Analog modulation with the
help of diagram.
Modulation is simply a widely used process in communication systems in
which a very high-frequency carrier wave is used to transmit the low-
frequency message signal so that the transmitted signal continues to have
all the information contained in the original message signal.
What is the need for modulation in communication systems?
 The message signals have a very low frequency due to which these
signals cannot be transmitted over long distances. Hence such low-
frequency message signals are modulated over the high-frequency
carrier signal due to the following reasons:
1. Increase The Signal Strength
 The baseband signals transmitted by the sender are not capable of
direct transmission. The strength of the message signal should be
increased so that it can travel longer distances. This is where
modulation is essential. The most vital need of modulation is to
enhance the strength of the signal without affecting the parameters of
the carrier signal.
 2. Practical Length of Antenna:
 For the effective transmission of a signal, the height h of the antenna
should be comparable to the wavelength λ of the signal at least the
height of the antenna h should be λ / 4 in length so that the antenna
can sense the variations of the signal properly.
 The low-frequency message signal has a very high value
of λ which will require a very high antenna (practically not possible).
 Nb; increasing the frequency of the carrier signal the length
of antenna required will be small.
3. Frequency Multiplexing
It is practically not possible to distinguish between the different audio
signals when transmitted simultaneously through a single antenna as all
of them lie in the same spectral range. Hence, each of these signals is
translated to a low-frequency range before transmission which makes it
quite easier to recover them and distinguish each of them from one
another at the receiver’s end.
4. Effective Power Radiated By Antenna
Power radiated by an antenna ∝ (l / λ)2 where l is the length of the
antenna and λ is the wavelength of the signal which is to be transferred
through the antenna. This relation clearly shows that when signals
having a low frequency and high wavelength are transmitted directly the
power radiated by the antenna is very low and the signal will vanish
after travelling some distance.
Hence, to transmit such signals over long distances, we superimpose
these low-frequency signals over the carrier signal having a high
frequency and short wavelength so that the power radiated by the
antenna of the same length will be very large.

Techniques used in digital to Analog modulation

Digital Signal – A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a
sequence of discrete values; at any given time it can only take on one
of a finite number of values.
Analog Signal – An analog signal is any continuous signal for which
the time varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other
time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in
which carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The
amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in
frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low
input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.The amplitude and
frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
Psk further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):
BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest
form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed
according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying,
difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0.
This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and
is used for long distance wireless communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying:
This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e we can code two
bits onto one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits
per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees.
It has double data rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two
bits are mapped on each constellation points.
4. Define checksum and write an algorithm for
computing the checksum?
 A checksum is a value that represents the number of bits in a transmission
message and is used by IT professionals to detect high-level errors within data
transmissions. Prior to transmission, every piece of data or file can be assigned a
checksum value after running a cryptographic hash function. The
term checksum is also sometimes called hash sum or hash value.
 Checksums work by giving the party on the receiving end information about the
transmission to ensure that the full range of data is delivered. The checksum
value itself is typically a long string of letters and numbers that act as a sort of
fingerprint for a file or set of files to indicate the number of bits included in the
transmission.
 Checksum algorthim
 class checksum {
 public:
 checksum() { clear(); }
 void clear() { sum = 0; r = 55665; c1 = 52845; c2 =
22719;}
 void add(DWORD w);
 void add(BOOL w) { add((DWORD)w); }
 void add(UINT w) { add((DWORD)w); }
 void add(WORD w);
 void add(const CString & s);
 void add(LPBYTE b, UINT length);
 void add(BYTE b);
 DWORD get() { return sum; }
 protected:
 WORD r;
 WORD c1;
 WORD c2;
 DWORD sum;
 };

5. Discuss wimax technology? How does it work?

 WiMAX is one of the hottest broadband wireless technologies around
today. WiMAX systems are expected to deliver broadband access
services to residential and enterprise customers in an economical
way.
 WiMax is a standardized wireless version of Ethernet intended
primarily as an alternative to wire technologies (such as Cable
Modems, DSL and T1/E1 links) to provide broadband access to
customer premises.
 More strictly, WiMAX is an industry trade organization formed by
leading communications, component, and equipment companies to
promote and certify compatibility and interoperability of broadband
wireless access equipment that conforms to the IEEE 802.16 and
ETSI HIPERMAN standards.
 WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi, but at higher speeds over
greater distances and for a greater number of users. WiMAX has the
ability to provide service even in areas that are difficult for wired
infrastructure to reach and the ability to overcome the physical
limitations of traditional wired infrastructure.
 WiMax operates over radio waves on a tower-receiver model. A single
WiMax tower can provide coverage over about 8,000 square km
(3,000 square miles) and also connect to other towers via a line-of-
sight microwave link to broaden coverage further. A roof-
mounted antenna dish can receive information at the fastest data-
transfer rates, or an internal receiver chip in a personal
computer, mobile telephone, or other device can communicate without
a line of sight at lower speeds.

6. What is multiplexing? What is multiplexing used

for? What are the types of multiplexing?
 Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one
signal, over a shared medium. If analog signals are multiplexed, it is
Analog Multiplexing and if digital signals are multiplexed, that process
is Digital Multiplexing.

 The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into

several numbers of logical channels, allotting each one for a different
message signal or a data stream to be transferred. The device that
does multiplexing can be simply called as a MUX while the one that
reverses the process which is demultiplexing, is called as DEMUX.

Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital.
They are further divided into FDM, WDM, and TDM.
Analog Multiplexing
The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in
nature. The analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency
(FDM) or wavelength (WDM).
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division
Multiplexing FDM. This technique uses various frequencies to combine
streams of data, for sending them on a communication medium, as a
single signal.
Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of
channels through a single cable, uses FDM.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in which many
data streams of different wavelengths are transmitted in the light
spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal
decreases.
Example: Optical fibre Communications uses the WDM technique, to
merge different wavelengths into a single light for the communication.

Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence the
available data is in the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to
transmit a signal over a single communication channel, with allotting one
slot for each message. Of all the types of TDM, the main ones are
Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.
Synchronous TDM
In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’
number of connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One
slot is allocated for each input line. In this technique, the sampling rate is
common to all signals and hence same clock input is given. The mux
allocates the same slot to each device at all times.
Asynchronous TDM
In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the
signals and the clock signal is also not in common. If the allotted device,
for a time-slot, transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot is allotted to
another device, unlike synchronous.
What is multiplexing used for?
 Multiplexing is used in a wide range of industries to facilitate both
analog and digital communications. It was first introduced in the 1870s
to support telegraphy but has since become a mainstay
in telecommunications, such as radio, television and telephone. It is
also used in computer networks, often to transmit multiple signals
across a wide area network (WAN).

7.What is satellite communication and how

does it work?
 Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to
another using a communication satellite in orbit around the Earth. A
communication satellite is an artificial satellite that transmits the signal
via a transponder by creating a channel between the transmitter and
the receiver at different Earth locations.

How Satellite Communications Work?

The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us
bounce signals such as radio, internet data, and television from one side
of the earth to another. Three stages are involved, which explain the
working of satellite communications. These are:

 Uplink
 Transponders
 Downlink
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage,
the signal from the television broadcast on the other side of the earth is
first beamed up to the satellite from the ground station on the earth. This
process is known as uplink.
The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers,
amplifiers, and transmitters. These transponders boost the incoming
signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing signals are not
altered. Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders
vary.
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other
end of the receiver on the earth. It is important to understand that
usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.

8. What is piggybacking? Why do we need

piggybacking? How piggybacking is done?
 Piggybacking is a cybersecurity term for using a wireless network

without the authorization of its administrators.

 If a Wi-Fi network has not been protected with a password, anyone

who is physically within wireless range of the router can connect to it.

Doing so without permission is called piggybacking.

 A common example of piggybacking involves people connecting to

the Wi-Fi of a business — a coffee shop, for example — without the

knowledge or permission of the owners. This often happens if the Wi-

Fi can be accessed from outside of the premises (in a nearby

apartment, for example, or a neighboring business).

How does piggybacking work?

 Before engaging in piggybacking, the perpetrator needs to be

physically close enough to the network router to connect their

device.

 Once they are nearby, the network name will appear on their

device’s list of available networks. At this point, there are two ways

in which they can access the wireless connection.

 If the network has not been protected with a password, the

piggybacker can connect right away. This is the most common

form of piggybacking. Alternatively, if a password is needed to

 connect, the perpetrator can either guess the password or find this

information out before accessing the network.

 It should be noted, however, that the term is also used in an

entirely separate area of computing, which we will cover now .

9.List and explain different wan technologies?

IPsec VPN

IPsec VPN securely connects all of your sites on the same private

network using Internet connectivity as the data communications network.
This type of VPN is deployed between a security appliance or firewall at
each location, ensuring a secure IPsec tunnel between sites. The LAN
sits behind these security devices and software isn’t required on laptops,
desktops, or servers to enable VPN connectivity between locations. VPN
network topologies are available in a hub and spoke or meshed
configuration.

Software Defined WAN – SD-WAN

Software-Defined WAN (SD-WAN) is an emerging type of WAN

technology. Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is used to automatically
determine the best routes to and from locations over
Internet connections and private data networks. SD-WAN creates tunnels
that are transport-agnostic, so you can use Internet connections like
DSL, cable, wireless, shared fiber, or dedicated connectivity.

Metro Ethernet

Metro Ethernet is a point-to-point Ethernet data networking service

connecting locations within a metropolitan area (MAN). Ethernet over
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) technology is used for secure
point to point WAN connectivity. Circuit speeds typically range from 10
Mbps to 10 Gbps, with 100Gbps available in some metropolitan areas.

Ethernet Private Line – EPL

Ethernet Private Line service (EPL) provides dedicated point-to-point

Ethernet network connectivity between two or more locations. Like Metro
Ethernet, Ethernet over Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is the
type of WAN technology used. EPL circuits provide a reliable data
networking service for customers with high bandwidth and low latency
needs. A key component of EPL service is network resiliency and
performance through SONET protection (network reroute).  Making this
data networking service for the most mission-critical applications.

Ethernet Virtual Private Line – EVPL

Ethernet Virtual Private Line (EVPL) or E-Line provides point-to-

multipoint connectivity over a provider’s MPLS network. EVPL uses
Ethernet Virtual Connections (EVCs) to connect multiple locations
together, as well as multiple services on a single User-to-Network
Interface (UNI) at the host or hub site.