Pollution Control

THERMAL TREATMENT OF
SHW
• Waste characterisation for thermal treatment
• Thermal technologies:
incineration/thermolysis/gasification/
liquefaction
• Minimum design requirements for TT
technologies
• Performance evaluation of a TT plant
• Safety, health & environmental quality issues
1. What is thermal treatment (TT)?
Absorption, storage &/or release of heat energy by waste resulting

in changes in physical, chemical &/or biological characteristics
The principle behind TT is volume reduction by combustion

(complete or incomplete) under specific conditions
Physical changes: - changes in state (solid-liquid-gas), position or

size following the breakdown or formation of:
-intermolecular bonds, also called the van der Waals forces, e.g.
dipole-dipole, H-bonding - include vaporization, sublimation
-London dispersion force or temporary attractive force that results

from temporary or induced dipoles
-metallic bonds making/breaking the orderly atomic

arrangements , e.g. melting
Physical changes: Parameters affecting physical change include:
-Moisture content
-Waste particle size, density & porosity
-Metal species/reaction kinetics & concentration
-Type (& conditions) of thermal treatment
-Combustion/flame temperature
-Performance of the air pollution control device

Chemical changes: - alteration of chemical composition ,

production of new compounds
-heat energy given off is viewed a stored energy from the sun
-ignition & combustion require: fuel, air/O2 & heat /ignition

temp./spark in appropriate combination
-combustion is a chain reaction chemically similar to

photosynthesis in reverse
-complete combustion: C + O2  CO2

2H2 + O2  2H2O
S + O2  SO2
� Physical or chemical changes?:
1. A hot glass cracking when placed in cold water
2. Melting copper metal
3. Writing on paper
4. Mixing water and food colouring
5. Explode
6. Burn
7. Corrode
8. Rust
9. Freeze
10. Photosynthesis
11. Boil
12. Condense
Biological changes: - death or reduction in life forms &
biochemical/biophysical processes in the waste
2. Waste characterisation for TT?
�State & justify waste parameters required for TT:

-Total wastes parameters?
-Physical parameters?
-Chemical parameters (organic/inorganic)?
-Biological & biochemical parameters?
3. Thermal technologies
1. Incineration
process that uses high-temperature thermal oxidation to convert a
waste to a less bulky, less toxic or less noxious material
Complete combustion of hazardous wastes depends on:
(1) high combustion temp. >900 °C

(2) availability of sufficient oxygen for combustion
(3) sufficient residence time to allow the reactions to occur
�Advantages & disadvantages? Challenges & opportunities?

1. Incineration
Types:
Small capacity (e.g. modular incinerators) <300 t/day
Large capacity stoker (800-2,500 t/day) - grates system

- fluidised bed
Key system elements:
1. Tipping area
2. Storage pit
3. Equipment for charging the incinerator
4. Combustion chamber
5. Bottom ash removal system
6. Gas cleaning equipment for air pollution control
7. A boiler – if energy is to be recovered
modular combustion unit

1. Incineration
Large capacity stoker systems (massburn incinerators):
Grates system - frame of iron bars to hold fuel for a fire (fixed
grates) or chain of movable rollers (roller grates)
-waste is dried and ignited on the first grate parts
-flue gas in incinerator kept at temp. of 850 - 1 000°C
-latter grate parts burn out waste and leave ash
-hot flue gases produced are led to a boiler plant where energy is
utilised for steam/hot water production
1. Incineration
Grates systems (fixed & roller grates)
1. Incineration
Fluidised-bed system - fluidised sand bed used to transport waste

during incineration (sand substitute grates)
-fluidising process is obtained by blowing air from underneath the

sand bed in an upward direction
-bubbling or circulating allows the retention of airborne volatile

fines in the incineration zone
-incineration produces a low amount of NOx
-residue is inert and the amount of non-combusted material is low

1. Incineration
Fluidised-bed system
-fly ash production considerably

higher than at the grate systems
-slightly higher capital investment
-can be used in thermal gasification

Systems
� Advantages & disadvantages?

2. Gasification
Is a thermochemical conversion of a solid or liquid C-based material
into a combustible gaseous product by the supply of a gasification
agent
-gasification agent (usually air, enriched O2 & steam) allows

feedstock to be quickly converted into gas
Combustible gas contains:
-gases: CO2, CO, H2, CH4, H2O,

-trace amounts of higher hydrocarbons
-inert gases present in the gasification agent
-contaminants, incl. small char particles, ash & tars
2. Gasification
Not so wide implemented, several problems:
-oxidation of hydrocarbons
-production of high levels of CO2
-production of pollutants
-low calorific value of gas
2. Gasification
Plasma gasification - converts organic matter into synthetic gas,
electricity, and slag using plasma
mapanda_MIEEM
2. Gasification
Plasma gasification - used to process

very hazardous & radioactive wastes
-very expensive, consume a lot of energy

for the process
-high temp. of 9600°C are good for

processing hazardous waste but
are not manageable
plasma arc gasification
� Challenges & opportunities?

3. Pyrolysis
Process in which organic matter is broken down at high temps in the
absence or near absence of oxygen
-minimise amount of organic waste;

-minimise air pollution/minimum waste oxidation/cleaner gas
-sterilise the hazardous components
-high level of production of gas with high calorific values
But - not well known on the market.
Products of pyrolysis:
1. Gases: -principally CO, CO2, H2, & water vapour
2. Liquids: -pyrolytic oil, viscous tars, & oxygenated organics in
water
3. Solids: -designated as “char”
� Challenges & opportunities?
3. Pyrolysis
mapanda_MIEEM
3. Pyrolysis
The relative concentrations of the 3 products affected by:
1) partial oxidation thru the use of reducing agents (H2, CO) with a
catalyst
2) hydrogenation through the application of high pressures and

supplying of H2
3) altering the residence time

4. Air pollution control
Before the exit at the stack gas mixture leaving the TT plant has
components that have to be removed
Main targets (SI 72 of 2009)

Pollutant Blue Green Yellow Red
mg/m3-
H2S <0.001 <0.002 <0.003 <0.004
Cl2 <10 <25 <35 <50
Particulates <10-70 <16-100 <19-110 <23-150
HCl <10 <20 <25 <30
NH3 <40 <60 <80 <100
NOx <70 <100 <130 <150
SO2 <25-30 <30-40 <35-45 <40-50
CO <40 <60 <80 <100
As2O3 <12 <24 <36 <46
Smoke density (%) 0 mapanda_MIEEM20 40 60
In sugarcane plantations, air pollution comes from cane burning,
steam generation & waste incineration (Zimwara et al., 2013
mapanda_MIEEM
Highlights from Zimwara et al. (2013)
mapanda_MIEEM
Highlights from Zimwara et al. (2013)
Highlights from Amfo-Out et al. (2015) - Heavy metals in bottom
ash from incinerators &open pit from healthcare facilities in Ghana
Flue gases must be subjected to:
-Cooling or heat recovery

-Dust separation
-Scrubbing (dechlorination, desulphuring, removal of metals).
-Finishing treatments (DeNOx, activated carbon, etc)
-Possible reheating & suction towards the stack
1. Gas cooling
-cooling protects upstream equipment : ducts, dust separators,

fans, stack
-also improved efficiency in removal of some pollutants, metals in

particular
1. Gas cooling
Cooling can be achieved through use of:
-a recovery boiler
-dilution (tertiary cooling air), but increases the volume of gas to

be treated
-heat exchange (gas/water or gas/air cooling systems) - higher

investment costs
2. Dust separation
2.1 Cyclons and multicyclons can be used as primary dust

separators, but efficiency do not comply with recent standards for
dust
2. Dust separation
2.1 Cyclons and multicyclons

2. Dust separation
2.2 Electrostatic filters >99.5% efficient. One or several chambers

with baffle plates containing dust hoppers in lower section
mapanda_MIEEM
2. Dust separartion
2.2 Electrostatic filters - often used for waste incineration in dry as

well as in wet processes.
2.3 Baghouse filters- flue gases go through a series of filter bags
Dust retention can take place on the

inner or outer surface
Compressed air jet is reversed to unclog

filters and dusts fall in the dust hopper
Efficiency rate >99.5%

2. Dust separation
2.3 Baghouse filters- problem is their resistance to very high

temperatures (fibreglass resist to temp of approx. 280°C).
2.4 Wet scrubbers - increase the volume of solid particles by

introducing water droplets facilitating their agglomeration
can be carried out by means of a

scrubbing tower
(double function - flue gas

scrubbing and dust removal)
3. Flue gas scrubbing
-purpose is to eliminate acid components (HCl, HF, S02) & heavy

metals (Hg, Cd..)
3.1 dry process (injection of pulverulent lime)
Lime reacts with acid gases to produce salts (Cl- & SO42-)
3.2 semi-dry process - lime milk in suspended or solution form, is
pulverized (atomized) into droplets that react with the acid
-droplets evaporate in contact with gases, which are being cooled
-dry residue obtained is collected at the bottom of reactors
-combines the advantages of the dry process (no waste water

discharge) and of the wet process (at least in part)
3.3 wet process/condensation method - put contaminated gases in close contact

with a liquid in order to capture:
-acid components (HCl, HF, S02)

-volatile metals
-remaining fly ash
4. Finishing treatments
4.1 Activated carbon filter - eliminate final traces of pollutants (dioxins, furans
and other organic unburnt compounds as well as heavy metals such as Hg)
-pre-treated flue gases are heated by a heat exchanger up to around 120°C
-gases led towards activated C (coke) which is subjected to up-down movement
-The used coke is recovered in a silo before being sent back to the furnace
4. Finishing treatments
4.2 DeNOx reactor - reduction of nitrogen oxides (NO & N02) takes
place in a catalytic reactor with selective NH3-based reduction :
4NO +4NH3 + 02 --> 4N2 + 6H20
6N02 +8NH3 --> 7N2 +12H20
-flue gases are heated to 200° C by another heat exchanger before

being mixed with prevaporized ammonia.
Cleaned flue gases leave the catalytic reactor at a temperature of

around 120°C
5. Energy from waste
Recap
A calorie is heat needed to raise temp. of 1g pure water by 1°C
A joule is about ¼ of a calorie: 1 J =0.239 cal & 1 cal =4.18 J
A joule (J) = Power (W) x Time (s); 1 kWh = 3600 kJ
Gross calorific value (kJ/kg) = heat released by combustion, plus

heat needed to vaporise water in the fuel
Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2256 kJ/kg @ 100 °C ; or

2441 J/g @ 25 °C; decrease with pressure
Recap
- GCV also called upper (superior) calorific value (Hsup)/Higher

heating value (HHV). Fuel temp must be 25°C, air pressure 1
atmosphere
- For comparison, HHV is also calculated from the elemental

composition using the Milne formula:
HHVMilne (MJ/kg) = 0.341·C + 1.322·H - 0.12·O - 0.12·N + 0.0686·S -

0.0153·ash,
where C, H, etc. are the mass and the ash fractions in wt% of dry
material
Recap
-Net calorific value (NCV) = GCV less water vaporisation heat
-NCV also called lower (inferior) calorific value (Hinf) or lower

heating value (LHV).
-Two contributors to the variation in energy value of different

wastes are moisture & ash content
- HHVar = HHVdry · (1-w/100)

- HHVdry = HHVdaf · (1-ash/100)
- LHVdry = HHVdry - 2.443 · 8.936 H/100

- LHVar = LHVdry · (1-w/100) - 2.443 · w/100
- LHVar = HHVar - 2.443 · {8.936 H/100 (1-w/100) + w/100}
Key: ar = wt% as received(incl. ash & moisture); dry = wt % (incl.

ash); daf = wt% dry and ash free
Energy production potential
Example (Kunatsa & Musademba, 2013)
“Feasibility of Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies For The

Wattle Company’s Vumba Sawmill Wood Waste”
Average moisture content from 3 replicates = 37.3%
Average ash content from 3 replicates = 2.95%

Data:
- moisture content (MCw) of wood waste is 37.3%
-ash content (ACw) of wood waste is 2.95%
-dry ash free matter (100-37.3-2.95) is 59.75%
-hydrogen content ( 1 g in 18 g water) is 5.5%
-Higher heating value (dry ash free) HHVdaf = 20400kJ/kg
For 1kg of wood the composition is as follows:

Mass of water in wood = 0.5kg
Mass of ash in wood = 0.01kg
Mass of dry ash-free material = 0.49kg
Thus, Vumba Sawmill Energy Production Potential= 30 992 MJ/day

Thus, Vumba Sawmill Energy Power Potential= 359 kW
Efficiency
Formula for the calculation of the energy efficiency:
where 0.97 is a constant accounting for energy losses via bottom

ash & radiation Tebert (2006
Example (EPA, 2014) - Energy from waste plant supplying
electricity only
mapanda_MIEEM
electricity only
electricity only
6. SHEQ issues
What are the SHEQ issues related to thermal treatment of waste
-Health challenges, incl. dioxin & furans
-Greenhouse gas emissions
-Other air pollution issues
-Heavy metals and other pollutants in residues
-Thermal pollution

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THERMAL TREATMENT OF

Absorption, storage &/or release of heat energy by waste resulting

The principle behind TT is volume reduction by combustion

Physical changes: - changes in state (solid-liquid-gas), position or

-London dispersion force or temporary attractive force that results

-metallic bonds making/breaking the orderly atomic

Physical changes: Parameters affecting physical change include:

-Waste particle size, density & porosity

-Metal species/reaction kinetics & concentration

-Type (& conditions) of thermal treatment

-Performance of the air pollution control device

Chemical changes: - alteration of chemical composition ,

-ignition & combustion require: fuel, air/O2 & heat /ignition

-combustion is a chain reaction chemically similar to

-complete combustion: C + O2  CO2

�State & justify waste parameters required for TT:

Complete combustion of hazardous wastes depends on:

(1) high combustion temp. >900 °C

�Advantages & disadvantages? Challenges & opportunities?

Large capacity stoker (800-2,500 t/day) - grates system

modular combustion unit

Large capacity stoker systems (massburn incinerators):

-waste is dried and ignited on the first grate parts

-flue gas in incinerator kept at temp. of 850 - 1 000°C

-latter grate parts burn out waste and leave ash

Fluidised-bed system - fluidised sand bed used to transport waste

-fluidising process is obtained by blowing air from underneath the

-bubbling or circulating allows the retention of airborne volatile

-incineration produces a low amount of NOx

-residue is inert and the amount of non-combusted material is low

-fly ash production considerably

-slightly higher capital investment

-can be used in thermal gasification

� Advantages & disadvantages?

-gasification agent (usually air, enriched O2 & steam) allows

Combustible gas contains:

-gases: CO2, CO, H2, CH4, H2O,

Plasma gasification - used to process

-very expensive, consume a lot of energy

-high temp. of 9600°C are good for

plasma arc gasification

� Challenges & opportunities?

-minimise amount of organic waste;

But - not well known on the market.

The relative concentrations of the 3 products affected by:

2) hydrogenation through the application of high pressures and

3) altering the residence time

Main targets (SI 72 of 2009)

-Cooling or heat recovery

-cooling protects upstream equipment : ducts, dust separators,

-also improved efficiency in removal of some pollutants, metals in

Cooling can be achieved through use of:

-dilution (tertiary cooling air), but increases the volume of gas to

-heat exchange (gas/water or gas/air cooling systems) - higher

2.1 Cyclons and multicyclons can be used as primary dust

2.1 Cyclons and multicyclons

2.2 Electrostatic filters >99.5% efficient. One or several chambers