Cosmos College of Management and Technology

(Affiliated To Pokhara University)

Subject: Instrumentation

Chapter 1 & 2 Tutorial 1

1. You are required to measure the weight by using the piezoelectric crystal. Draw the
block diagram of additional components and briefly explain about it.

2. With the help of block diagram explain the various components of a generalized
Instrumentation System.
Ans:
Variable
Primary Variable
Quantity to Manipulation
Sensing Conversion
be measured Element
Element Element
(Measurand)

Data Data
Presentation Transmission
Element Element

Fig: Generalized block Diagram of Instrumentation System

Primary Sensing Element

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with primary sensing element called as transducer.
A transducer is a device which converts a physical (non-electrical) quantity into an electrical quantity. e.g.
Microphone, LDR etc.

Variable Conversion Element

The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any forms. It may be voltage or
current or other electrical parameters. Sometimes this input is not suited to the system. For digital system,
this analog signal will have to be converted into digital form. For example: ADC (Analog to Digital
Converter)

Variable Manipulation Element

The function of this element is to manipulate the signal present to it preserving the original nature of the
signal. Manipulation here means only a change in numerical values of the signal. e.g. Electronic
Amplifier which accepts a small voltage signal and produces an output signal of greater magnitude.

Data Transmission Element

When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit
data from one point to another. The element that performs this task is called data transmission lines. For
example, space crafts are physically separated from the earth station where the control stations guiding
their movements are located. Therefore, control signals are sent from these stations to space craft by
telemetry system using radio signals.
Data Presentation Element
The information about the quantity being measured should be displayed appropriately for monitoring,
control and analysis purpose. In this case, data to be monitored needs visual devices. e.g Ammeter,
voltmeter, LCD Display etc.

3. Explain the measurement of unknown capacitance by using standard bridge circuit.

Ans: Capacitance Bridge (Schering Bridge)
It is one of the most important ac bridges extensively used for the measurement of capacitors.
The general equation for ac bridge balance is
𝑍1𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍2𝑍3 or, 𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍2𝑍3𝑌1

where,

𝑍2 = 𝑅2; 𝑍3 = −j/w𝑐3
𝑌1 = 1 + jw𝑐1 and 𝑍𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 − j/w𝑐𝑥
𝑅1
j
o𝑟, 𝑍𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 − = 𝑅2 (− j
) ( 1 + jw𝑐1 ) = 𝑅2𝐶1 − j𝑅2

w𝐶𝑥 w𝐶3 𝑅1 𝐶3 w𝐶3𝑅1

Equating the real and imaginary terms,
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅2𝐶1 = 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑑 𝐶𝑥 = 𝑐3 𝑅1
𝐶3 𝐶3 𝑅2

4. Briefly explain about the signals in instrumentation.

Ans: Signal and its types in Instrumentation

Signal
- Something that posses information
- It can be represented as a function of one or more independent variables.
- For example: Speech signal can be represented by acoustic pressure as a function of time.

- A picture can be represented by brightness as a function of two spatial variables (co-ordinates)

Types of signals:
1) Continuous time and Discrete time signal
Fig: continuous Time signal Fig: discrete time signal

In the continuous time signal, the independent variable (time) is continuous, thus the signal is
specified for every values of the independent variable. It is denoted by x(t), g(t), y(t).
The discrete time signal is defined only for discrete values of time. It is represented by x[n], g[n],
y[n].

2) Deterministic and Random signal

Signal about which there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time and can be
represented by explicit mathematical expressions is called deterministic signal. e. g x(t)=5 cos10t
Signal about which there is uncertainty before its actual occurrence and therefore cannot be
expressed in the form of exact mathematical expression is called random signal. e. g Noise signal
which can be analyzed by probability theory and statistical technique.

3) Even and odd Signal

A signal x(t) or x[n] is called even (symmetric) signal if it is identical to its time-reversed
counterpart i.e. x(-t)= x(t), x[-n] = x[

e.g. cosine wave series

A signal x(t) or x[n] is called odd signal if it isn’t identical to its time-reversed counterpart i.e.
x(-t) =- x(t); x[-n] = - x[n] .e.g sine wave series
4) Energy and power signals
A signal with finite energy is called energy signal. A signal is called energy signal if and only if
0<Ex<∞
∞ 2
Where Ex = 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 is the energy of the signal x(t)
∫−∞
A signal with finite power is called power signal . A signal is called a power signal if and only if
0<Px<∞
Where Px = T/2 2
lim ∫−T/2 𝑥 (𝑡) dt is the power of x(t).
T−>∞

Note: Most periodic signals and random signals are power signals.
Most aperiodic signals and deterministic signals are energy signals

Fig: Energy signal Fig: Power signal

5) Harmonic Signals
A periodic signal defined for -∞<t<∞ and expressed in terms of sinusoidal function
x(t) = Acos(2𝜋f𝑡 + 𝜃) is called harmonic signal.
 6) Unit step signal
u(t) = 1 for t ≥ 0
0 otherwise

7) Unit Impulse signal

δ(t) = 1 for t = 0
0 otherwise

8) Ramp signal
r(t) = t for t ≥ 0
0 otherwise

5. How would you measure the value of unknown inductance using bridge circuit? Derive
necessary expression.
Ans: Maxwell Bridge

The Maxwell Bridge measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance. The
general equation for balance of the ac bridge is
𝑍1𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍2𝑍3
Z2Z3
𝑍𝑥 = = 𝑍2𝑍3𝑌1
Z1
1
where 𝑍2 = 𝑅2; 𝑍3 = 𝑅3; 𝑌1 = + jw𝑐1
𝑅1
1
So, 𝑍𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 + jw𝐿𝑥 = 𝑅2𝑅3 ( + jw𝑐1)
𝑅1
 Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅2𝑅3 …………………..(1)
𝑅1
𝐿𝑥 = 𝑅2𝑅3𝐶1 …………….(2)

6. Draw block diagram of instrumentation system and write the function of each block with example.
Also, locate the types of signals of each block.
(Refer to Q.No.2)
7. Temperature was measured in eight locations in a room, and the values Obtained were
28.2, 16.5, 32.1, 29.7, 27.1, 19.0, 22.0 and 10.0 oC. Assuming that the random errors are
present. Calculate (i) Arithmetic mean (ii) Standard Deviation (iii) Probable error of
readings
Ans:
x d d2
26.2656
28.2 5.125 3
43.2306
16.5 -6.575 3
81.4506
32.1 9.025 3
43.8906
29.7 6.625 3
16.2006
27.1 4.025 3
16.6056
19 -4.075 3
1.15562
22 -1.075 5
170.955
10 -13.075 6
184.6 399.755

i. AM
n= 8
 AM= 23.075

ii. SD= sqrt(Sum d^2/n)

7.55697
4

iii. PE
r1= 0.6745 S for one reading
5.09717
9 deg C

1.92655
rm= 3 for average of 8 readings

8. What are the applications of Wein Bridge? Derive the necessary expression under balance
Condition?
Ans: Wien Bridge

It is an ac bridge used to measure the frequency. A Wien Bridge is used as a notch filter in the harmonic
distortion analyzer. The Wien bridge also finds application in audio and HF oscillators as the frequency
determining element. The general equation for the ac bridge is,
𝑍1𝑍4 = 𝑍2𝑍3
 Or, 𝑍2 = 𝑍1𝑍4𝑌3
where,
𝑍2 = 𝑅2; 𝑍4 = 𝑅4
1
𝑍= − j
1 1 w𝐶1 and 3 = + jw𝑐3
𝑅3

Now, 𝑍2 = 𝑅2 = (𝑅1 − j
w𝐶 1 ) 4( ) ( 1 + jw𝑐
3
)
𝑅3

𝑅1R4 𝑅4𝐶3 j𝑅4

= + + jw𝑐3𝑅1𝑅4 −
𝑅3 𝐶1 w𝐶1𝑅3
Equating real and imaginary terms,
𝑅1𝑅4 𝑅4𝐶3
2= +
𝐶1
𝑅 3
which reduces to
𝑅2
= 𝑅1 + 𝐶3 ……………(1)
𝑅4 𝑅3 𝐶4
𝑅4
and w𝐶3 𝑅1 𝑅4 − =0
w𝐶1𝑅3
Or, w𝐶3𝑅1𝑅4 = 𝑅4/w𝐶1𝑅3
Or, w2 = 1

𝐶1𝐶3𝑅1𝑅3 wℎe𝑟e, w = 2𝜋f 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠o𝑙𝑣i𝑛𝑔 fo𝑟 f , we 𝑔e𝑡

1
w=
√𝐶1𝐶3𝑅1𝑅3
1
Or, f = (2)
2𝜋√𝑐1𝑐3𝑅1𝑅3......................................
In most Wien Bridge circuits, the components are chosen such that 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 and 𝐶1 = 𝐶3 . So, equation (1)
and (2) becomes
𝑅2
= 2 and
𝑅4
1
f = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 is the general expression for the frequency of the Wien bridge.

9. A 1000 Hz bridge has the following constants: arm AB, R = 1000 Ω in parallel with C =
0.5 μF; BC, R = 1000 Ω in series with C = 0.5 μF; CD, L = 30 mH in series with R =
200 Ω. Find the constants of arm DA to balance the bridge. Express the result as a Pure
R in series with pure C or L and also as a pure R in parallel with a pure C or L?
 10. The measurements of the resistance of a resistor are 101.2, 101.7, 101.3, 101.0, 101.5,
101.3, 101.2, 101.4, 101.3 and 101.1. Assume that only random errors are present,
calculate (a) Arithmetic mean (b) Average deviation from mean (c) The Standard
Deviation and (d) Probable Error.
Ans:
x d d2
101.2 -0.1 0.01
101.7 0.4 0.16
101.3 0 0
101 -0.3 0.09
101.5 0.2 0.04
101.3 0 0
101.2 -0.1 0.01
101.4 0.1 0.01
101.3 0 0
101.1 -0.2 0.04
1013 0.36

i. AM
n= 10
AM= 101.3

ii. SD= sqrt(Sum d^2/n)

0.2

iii. PE
r1= 0.6745 S for one reading
0.1349 deg C

0.05098
rm= 7 for average of 10 readings

iv. Average deviation 0.14

11. A circuit was tuned by ten different students, and the values of resonant frequency in KHz
were recorded as 525, 526, 524, 527, 523, 527, 525, 524, 528 and 527. Assume that only
random errors are present. Calculate:
(i) arithmetic mean (ii) average deviation from mean
(iii) standard deviation and (iv) probable error

Ans: 1

x d d2 d abs
525 -0.6 0.36 0.6
526 0.4 0.16 0.4
524 -1.6 2.56 1.6
 527 1.4 1.96 1.4
523 -2.6 6.76 2.6
527 1.4 1.96 1.4
525 -0.6 0.36 0.6
524 -1.6 2.56 1.6
528 2.4 5.76 2.4
527 1.4 1.96 1.4
5256 24.4 14

i. AM
n= 10
AM= 525.6

ii. SD= sqrt(Sum d^2/n)

1.64654
5

iii. PE
r1= 0.6745 S for one reading
1.11059
5

0.41976
rm= 5 for average of 10 readings

iv. Average
deviation 1.4
12. The impedance of the basic ac bridge given below are as: Z  100  800 ,
Z 2  250, Z3  400  300 . Find the value of Z4, name the unknown component and
its value.
13. The A.C. bridge is in balance with the following constant: arm AB, R=450  ; arm BC,
R=300  in series with C=0.047  F; arm CD, unknown; arm DA, R=200  in series
with L=15.9 mH. The oscillator frequency is 1 KHz. Find the constants of arm CD.
14. It is desired to measure the voltage across the 50K resistor in the circuit shown below.
Two voltmeters are available for this measurement: voltmeter 1 with a sensitivity of
1000/V and voltmeters 2 with sensitivity of 20000/V. Both meters are used on their 50-
V range. Calculate (a) the reading of each meter. (b) the error in each reading, expressed
as a percentage of the true value.
100k

150V 50k V
–

15. An AC bridge has the following constant arms AB, R=1000Ω in parallel with C =
0.159µF; BC, R = 1000Ω; CD, R = 500Ω; DA, C = 0.636µF in series with an
unknown resistance. Find the frequency for which this bridge is in balance and
determine the value of resistance in arm DA to produce this balance
16. The resistance of an unknown resistor is determined by the Wheatstone bridge method.
The solution for the unknown resistance is stated as RX = (R1 R2) / R3, where;
R1 = 500 Ω ± 1 %
R2 = 615 Ω ± 1 %
R3 = 100 Ω ± 0.5 %
Calculate:
(i) the nominal value of the unknown resistor
(ii) the limiting error in ohms of the unknown resistor
(iii) the limiting error in percent of the unknown resistor

17. The four arms of a Maxwell’s bridge at balance are: arm ab – an unknown inductance
L1 having an inherent resistance R1; arm bc – a non-inductive resistance of 1000 ; arm
cd – a capacitor of 0.5 F in parallel with a resistance of 1500 ; arm da – a resistance
of 200 . Find the value of unknowns.

18. How can we measure the self-inductance by comparing it with a standard variable
capacitance? Derive the relationship.
Ans: Refer to Q.No. 5