7

Cognitive and Behavioral

Demands of Work
Lynn Shaw, Rosemary Lysaght

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter and completing the exercises, the reader should be able to do the following:
1. Discuss the cognitive and behavioral demands of work occupations.
2. Describe how cognitive and behavioral risks are measured.
3. Discuss external factors that influence optimal cognitive and behavioral performance in the workplace.
4. Evaluate the cognitive requirements and behavioral demands of work needed to inform return-to-work
strategies.

Cognitive demands. Demands associated with work
tasks that require thinking, information processing,
learning, imagining, and anticipating.
Behavioral demands. The actions, efforts, and inter-
actions required to conduct work tasks.
Workplace contextual factors. Aspects of the work-
place environment that affect the way work may be
performed, when it is performed, and under what con-
ditions it is performed.
Work occupations. Productive occupations, career,
profession, or jobs that workers perform for monetary
reimbursement.

103
104 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
CASE STUDY
Kara has worked as a laboratory technician and area
supervisor for 10 years. She is a petite, soft-spoken woman
in her late 50s and has been off work for 12 months.
Currently she is on long-term disability leave for depres-
sion. Three months before she left work, her performance
started to decline. Her co-workers noticed that she was
not completing her work, and they frequently had to
perform some of her duties before the end of her
shifts. Her co-workers liked Kara. To them, Kara was a
mother figure who had trained them in some of the
essential tasks needed to be a successful laboratory tech-
nician in the hospital. Her pace at work was less than
moderate, yet the work demanded a consistently high
pace in order to keep up with the testing required in the
laboratory.
When she was no longer able to function at work, she
went on short-term disability leave and then advanced to
long-term disability. For 4 months she was suicidal and
unable to manage self-care. With medication and treat-
ment, she was able to regain a sense of functional com-
petency in daily self-care activities.
As an occupational therapist, you received a referral
from the insurance company to assist Kara in determining
her capacity for returning to work and to set up an RTW
plan. After meeting with Kara and reading her file, you
begin to get a sense that Kara has low self-esteem, lacks
confidence in her ability to return to the workplace for
fear of poor performance, and is somewhat anxious about
her relationship with co-workers. Kara reported that she
feels she has lost her sense of identity because she has
been out of the workplace for so long. She also lacks a
sense of power to make changes that could improve
things for her in the workplace. She is afraid that the
employer will not let her come back to work.
As the occupational therapist, you contact the staff
ergonomist, who agrees to meet with you to conduct an
evaluation of the work demands. Although the workplace
has provided you with a physical demands analysis of a
laboratory worker job, you note that most of the informa-
tion about the job relevant to Kara’s return to work is not
evident on the form.
You require the following information before develop-
ing an RTW plan:
• What are the cognitive and behavioral demands of
the job that Kara will need to resume on her return
to work?
• How can these job demands be measured? What
tools and processes exist? Are they valid and
reliable?
• What job specific information does the employer
have—for example, job descriptions or procedure
manuals?
• What job demands are cognitively or behaviorally
complex?
• How do situations or factors in the workplace
influence the temporality or frequency of these
demands?
• How do I match Kara’s functional capacities with
work demands and requirements?
• How can Kara be included in this evaluation
process?
U nderstanding and differentiating cognitive
and behavioral demands of work is a complex
endeavor. It is often difficult to separate the cogni-
tive and behavioral demands required of work
occupations from the human capacity to execute
those demands. Some of the confusion is caused
by the inconsistent use of terms such as skills,
tasks, demands, workload, capacities, and poten-
tial, as well as the overlap of factors described
within the psychosocial, cognitive, and behavioral
domains of work. The aim of this chapter is to
provide therapists with information and a process
for evaluating cognitive and behavioral demands
of work that can, in turn, be used to develop
disability prevention programs and inform return-
to-work (RTW) programs for workers with inju-
ries or disabilities. Information in this chapter
may also assist therapists in working with employ-
ers, workers, worker representatives, and engi-
neers to develop strategies for managing or
adjusting work demands when cognitive and
behavioral demands of work are high relative to
worker capacity.
BACKGROUND
A number of disciplines and fields of knowledge
are contributing to the emergence of classifica-
tions, taxonomies, and tools for evaluating cog-
nitive components of work. Researchers in
 Chapter 7
psychology have examined cognitive workload
from a human information processing pers-
pective,1 and organizational psychologists have
recently begun to focus on positive psychology,
studying “human strengths and optimal function-
ing” and their impact on the health and productiv-
ity of workers.5 Occupational health researchers
have also advanced knowledge about the behav-
ioral and cognitive demands that influence mental
health and functioning of workers. For example,
both the Job Demands and Control model2,3 and
the Effort-Reward Imbalance model7 provide mea-
sures used to examine the impact of work demands
and work capacities on health. These tools are
designed to study the relationship of workplace
strain to outcomes such as back pain and cardio-
vascular disease, and human resource issues such
as worker motivation and job satisfaction. Cogni-
tive science, a field within human factors, has
contributed to the development of a cognitive tax-
onomy that elaborates on cognitive attributes and
actions required to process, synthesize, and use
information in performing jobs.10 A process for
consistently evaluating cognitive demands was
proposed by Wei and Salvendy to assist in job
evaluation, job design, and job rotation, as well
as in personnel selection and training.10
Clinical occupational health providers such
as ergonomists, occupational health nurses, oc-
cupational therapists, physicians, and social
workers have used evidence-based tools in the
evaluation of cognitive and behavioral work
demands to assist in the matching of workers
with mental or behavioral health problems to
appropriate job tasks during the RTW process.
The clinical community has also contributed to
assessments of cognitive function and neurolo-
gic trauma or impairments. These developments
across disciplines have contributed to the depth
and breadth of information available to therapists
to address a multitude of issues central to cogni-
tive and behavioral job demands and worker
functioning.
In clinical practice there is growing acceptance
for the use of a holistic approach to understanding
factors that influence worker health and perfor-
mance, including workplace factors (e.g., psycho-
social and physical work environments), individual
Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 105
factors (e.g., engagement and support), and aging
factors (e.g., cognitive and physical effects of
aging). As a result, therapists are required to
provide advice and expertise to enable optimal
worker performance through strategies that might
prevent injury or support successful transitions
back to work for persons with cognitive or
behavioral impairments. To generate solutions,
the therapist must know what information is rel-
evant to the case, situation, or problem, how to
measure the demands of work, and how to antici-
pate potential risks and challenges in the work-
place. The case study about Kara will be used
throughout this chapter to demonstrate the infor-
mation and process needed to provide recommen-
dations for RTW programs.
UNDERSTANDING COGNITIVE AND
BEHAVIORAL WORK DEMANDS
In conducting job demands analyses, it is impor-
tant to distinguish between the requirements for
competent job performance and work capacity.
Job demands and requirements refer to the tasks
and components of work, or the specific require-
ments of a work occupation. Worker skills and
abilities refer to the capacities and expertise of the
person that are used in performing or executing
job demands. Although these elements are related,
especially if the worker’s skills are a good match
for the job demands, each must be evaluated
separately using appropriate tools and measures.
In the same way that we would evaluate the
physical demands of a job (e.g., a worker is
required to lift 50-pound boxes to a surface at
shoulder height up to 10 times a day) separately
from a worker’s physical capacity (e.g., maximum
lifting capacity and tolerances), we must consider
cognitive and behavioral demands as separate
from the incumbent worker’s abilities. This
chapter will address how to rate and measure
cognitive and behavioral job demands. For infor-
mation on assessment of human cognitive per-
formance and behavioral skills, abilities, and
expertise, therapists should consult appropriate
texts and literature. Further information about
these sources is located in the reference list at the
end of this chapter.
106 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
Cognitive Demands
Typically, therapists view cognitive skills at the
level of the person. The domain of human cogni-
tive abilities is often understood and expressed
through terms such as short-term or long-term
memory, problem solving, attention span, com-
munication skills, and computational ability.
Cognitive functioning is essential to occupational
competence at a personal level but is also impor-
tant in the workplace, as it enables workers to be
productive and fulfill the demands of work. For
instance, cognitive functioning is a multilevel
process that enables a person to perceive, imagine,
organize, assimilate, analyze, communicate, sense
problems, and manipulate information and knowl-
edge9 in order to understand, reason, make deci-
sions, create ideas, problem solve, and take actions
in the context of doing a work activity. The execu-
tion of job tasks that require cognitive functions
also requires human cognitive resources such
as memory, vision, hearing, attention, concentra-
tion, literacy skills, communication, and an in-
creasing reliance on electronic and technologic
skills. Wei and Salvendy suggest that cognitive
work tasks or job elements can be classified into
the cognitive skills required to carry out work
tasks and the cognitive resources needed to execute
those cognitively based performance skills.10 We
drew on the work of Wei and Salvendy10 and
others2,3,9 to compile a list of cognitive (skill) re-
quirements and a list of cognitive resources needed
to perform cognitive work tasks (Box 7-1).
Each job can be thought of as having a particu-
lar physical or cognitive load, and often one of
these elements is in higher demand than the other.
All work requires cognitive skills, but the cogni-
tive load may be high or low, and the profile of
cognitive skills required is unique for each job.
The role of the therapist is to identify and describe
the work demands or tasks that require specific
application of cognitive functioning and to iden-
tify the nature and level of the cognitive demands.
In this process, therapists must be careful to eval-
uate and define the nature of the cognitive work
task requirements, not the worker. To do this,
therapists can draw on their knowledge of human
cognition, their awareness of the complexities of
occupation-environment interactions, and their
BOX 7-1 Cognitive Demands of Work
Cognitive Requirements of Job Tasks
Critical thinking (judgment, analysis, reasoning,
calculation, manipulation, generation of
knowledge and ideas)
Creative thinking using imagination and
generating creative ideas
Information acquisition, searching, and retrieval
Information processing: assimilate, organize
Mental planning and scheduling
Learning
Communicating
Comprehending
Translating knowledge
Perceiving and interpreting interpersonal
information
Using intuition—sensing or anticipating
problems
Cognitive Resources
Memory (short-term, long-term)
Attention, visual and auditory concentration
Imagination
Communication skills (verbal, nonverbal),
interpersonal skills, graphic expression,
written skills
Vision
Visual processing
Visual perception
Auditory processing
Hearing and listening skills
Literacy and reading, writing, and
documentation skills
Computer and technologic skills
skills in task analysis to identify and analyze cog-
nitively based work demands. Box 7-1 can assist
the therapist in framing the cognitive demands of
work. Cognitive requirements of work must be
fully understood in terms of their complexity, then
translated into terms to which the end-user, such
as the worker, the employer, the supervisor, or
the insurer, can relate.
Once the cognitive work requirements are
understood, the therapist may then take steps
 Chapter 7 Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 107

1. Identify the essential job tasks

or duties–use workplace
terminology to describe Identify gaps
and mismatches
2. Evaluate 3. Evaluate between work Assess worker
the cognitive the cognitive demands and abilities, expertise
functional resource worker and skills
requirements requirements capacities
of job of job
demands demands

4. Evaluate the
behavioral Develop RTW
job demands strategies and
opportunities
5. Evaluate
the contextual
workplace
factors
Workplace Worker
strategies strategies

FIGURE 7-1 Process for evaluating cognitive and behavioral demands and the workplace context in developing
an RTW plan.

to identify cognitive performance strengths and
weaknesses of the worker, acknowledge gaps or
mismatches between the worker and the work
requirements, and develop a comprehensive RTW
intervention that matches a worker’s abilities to
suitable job demands. Therapists need to adopt a
consistent approach to defining and describing
cognitive demands through translating informa-
tion about cognition into understandable language
when requesting procedural changes or accom-
modations to a worker’s cognitive workload. The
range of cognitive work demands and the work-
place dynamics must also be determined to assist
the therapist in identifying contextual factors that
might hinder performance, as well as opportuni-
ties for creating a successful transition and resump-
tion of duties as a person recovers from an illness
or injury. This process of evaluating the cogni-
tive requirements of a job and the cognitive
resources required to execute job demands in
consideration of workplace influences is shown in
Figure 7-1.
For Kara’s job as a supervisor, the first step is
to identify the job demands or tasks that are
required. In this case example, scheduling staff is
one of Kara’s responsibilities. Step two is to iden-
tify and evaluate the cognitive demand. The job
demand of scheduling staff in the laboratory
requires the mental functions of planning and
scheduling. Step three is considering the cognitive
resource requirements. This cognitive demand
is enacted using cognitive resources such as
short- and long-term memory, concentration, pri-
or knowledge and experience, reading literacy,
108 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
writing, and technologic skills because scheduling
is done on the computer.
Many tools or lists of cognitive skills may serve
as resources when evaluating these demands of
work occupations. Existing tools commonly used
to measure cognitive components of work, dis-
cussed later in this chapter, do not capture or
measure all cognitive demands. Thus, the thera-
pist must use judgment in attempting to com-
prehensively appraise the diversity of and in-
terrelationship between the cognitive skills and
resources required to execute job demands. Spe-
cific tools for evaluating and rating these demands
are provided later in this chapter.
Behavioral Demands
Behavioral demands of work occupations refer to
the actions and interactions a worker may encoun-
ter that require a specific response or subsequent
set of actions to manage or perform duties and
tasks in the workplace. These include the enact-
ment of social processes and relationships with
others, performance of management responsibili-
ties, enactment of worker responsibilities, gener-
al competencies, and accountabilities, and enact-
ment of specific competencies. An overview of the
specific behavioral demands that may be associ-
ated with work is provided in Table 7-1. These
demands require a person to be able to demon-
strate specific social and interpersonal skills or
competencies that often combine or draw on prior
experience, specific training, cognition, and affec-
tive skills in order to successfully exercise these
behaviors. For the most part, these demands are
defined as actions and are thus conceptualized
using a gerund, or “-ing” word. The role of the
therapist is to identify which demands are required
and to determine the nature of these demands and
how they unfold when work occupations are exe-
cuted. Again, this list of behaviors is not complete;
however, it is meant to organize an array of
behavioral demands that therapists can draw on
when considering the types of behaviors and
demands required in the workplace.
Step 4 of the process illustrated in Figure 7-1
indicates that the therapist identifies the behav-
ioral demands and appraises the salient interac-
tions required to perform work.
In order to begin development of a plan to
return Kara to the workplace, use the behavioral
demands from Table 7-1 and identify the demands
that Kara can be expected to perform in her role
as a laboratory supervisor. Based on the informa-
tion from the case, prioritize the demands that
may be challenging for Kara and require consid-
eration in developing a modified RTW strategy.
What demands would you consider modifications
for, or address in a progressive work conditioning
process?
Develop a set of questions for Kara and for
Kara’s manager to assist you in obtaining informa-
tion you will need to implement an RTW plan that
offers a gradual resumption of full duties. Next,
consider what each stakeholder will need to do in
order for a feasible and client-centered plan to be
developed. Consider Kara’s role (worker strate-
gies), as well as what the manager needs to do
(workplace strategies). What is your role as a
therapist in creating the return-to-work plan?
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON COGNITIVE
AND BEHAVIORAL WORK DEMANDS AND
WORKER PERFORMANCE
Workplace factors include the governance struc-
tures in a workplace, workplace culture, exposure
to change, and risk concerns such as physical
security and safety. All of these factors can affect
the nature of cognitive and behavioral demands
and influence the success of the worker-job match.
Box 7-2 includes some of the workplace factors
that need to be considered in evaluating the
impact of contextual factors on worker productiv-
ity and performance. Governance and position
status factors can affect the degree of power or
responsibility a worker can exercise at work.
Workplace culture can influence the acceptance
and belonging needs of a worker.8 In addition,
productivity dynamics such as the urgency, speed,
degree of interruptions, and unplanned or unex-
pected tasks can, in turn, influence the cognitive
and behavioral requirements and demand an
adaptive response from the worker. For thera-
pists, the consideration of the environment and
how it shapes the way work unfolds in a given
environment is essential for designing a successful
 Chapter 7 Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 109

TABLE 7-1 Behavioral Components of Work

Component Examples

Enactment of social Interacting with supervisor

processes, Interacting with others
interactions, and Providing supervision
relationships with Managing conflict
others Working cooperatively with other employees or customers
Working in isolation from others
Interpreting and responding to nonverbal cues and gestures
Providing social support to co-workers
Implementing a social interaction approach when working with others:
Using a friendly, congenial customer-oriented approach
Using a caring approach
Using a professional, expert-oriented approach
Using a collaborative-partnership, team-oriented approach
Using a business-oriented, networking approach
Enactment of worker Exercising supervision
responsibilities and Receiving supervision
requirements Exercising self-supervision
Training self and others
Taking initiative
Working safely
Socializing with others
Networking with others
Working independently
Working interdependently
Working cooperatively with others; using team work
Exercising independent control and autonomy over decisions and problem
solving
Exercising control over work pace
Self-directing schedule and prioritizing work tasks
Solving problems
Making decisions
Executing emotional Exercising self-awareness; demonstrating a high self-regard and self-confidence
job demands Exercising autonomy through reflection and action in midst of practice or
performing duties
Exercising self-regulation of emotions (e.g., be calm in emotionally charged
situations)
Exercising sensitivity toward others
Exercising or conveying compassion, empathy, sympathy
Executing a positive attitude
Conveying hopefulness
Acting in a courteous manner
Acting in a kind and thoughtful manner
Exercising emotional intelligence
Motivating self
Managing emotions of others

Continued
110 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques

TABLE 7-1 Behavioral Components of Work—cont’d

Component Examples

Enactment of Managing material, financial, human resources, quality, and production of

management work
responsibilities and Managing negative attitudes of others
requirements Managing and resolving conflict
Managing cultural sensitivities
Managing through training, instructing, negotiating, or persuading,
giving feedback, coaching, mentoring
Managing social and emotional needs
Engaging a directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented
supervisory or leadership approach
Solving problems
Making decisions
Enactment of general Paying attention to detail
competencies and Performing multiple tasks
accountabilities
Enactment of specific Operating lift truck
competencies Using statistical software
Dispensing pharmaceuticals

BOX 7-2 Emotional, Cognitive, Security- RTW program. The workplace environment can
Related, and Environmental have a significant impact on a person in terms of
Tasks feedback regarding performance when returning
to work, but returning to work also requires a
Time pressures person to be ready to accept changes and adapt
Deadline pressures activities and actions based on the pressures
Safety pressures exerted by the workplace environment. Other
Security pressures environmental considerations such as noise, heat,
Life and death pressures cold, physical space, location, tools and equip-
Exposure to emotional situations ment, and resources and supports may also influ-
Exposure to confrontational situations
ence a worker’s capacity to fulfill cognitive and
Exposure to high risk with regard to safety and
behavioral demands.
physical well-being
Step 5 in the process outlined in Figure 7-1
Exposure to environmental stimuli (noise,
people, machines, distractions)
requires that the contextual factors that influence
Position status the performance of work in this workplace be
Union status considered. In this case, for example, the sched-
Type of governance (style): ules are done biweekly to make adjustments for
Authoritative changes in shift resulting from employees who are
Directive ill or absent, holidays, and vacation planning.
Supportive Based on our case, create a description that
Participative captures the essence of the workplace. What are
Achievement-oriented the challenges and facilitators that might inform
the implementation of the RTW plan? How might
 Chapter 7
contextual factors affect Kara’s ability to adapt to
modified work and accept and respond to changes
and pressures in the workplace? How can this
information be used to support the RTW process?
Consider how the worker or others involved in
the workplace might be included to support a
transitional RTW process for Kara.
What contextual information do you need that
cannot be assumed from the case information
provided? Develop a list of additional information
you need, and develop a set of strategies for
obtaining this information. Then follow through
with the process to identify the areas requiring
consideration and create a plan to address these
issues.
MEASURING THE COGNITIVE AND
BEHAVIORAL DEMANDS OF WORK
Numerous challenges are involved in assessing
workload, because many cognitive and beha-
vioral demands are less observable than physical
demands. By focusing on the behavioral aspects
of cognitive skills, however, it is possible to iden-
tify and rate demand levels. For example, record-
ing the degree to which one is exposed to emotional
situations on a job is arguably more objectively
determined than is measuring the level of sensitiv-
ity required. Another challenge lies in the fact that
cognitive and behavioral ratings are often done by
or with workers themselves so that a broad and
inclusive spectrum of the job demands is consid-
ered. Individual worker perceptions of the inher-
ent cognitive demand of a job may vary greatly,
however, based on their personal qualities, such
as the worker’s ability to function in the pre-
sence of multiple stimuli or with high or low
supervision.
Document Review
Job descriptions provided by a company or work
unit can provide useful background information
on the position in question, including responsibili-
ties, physical risks, hours of work, and specific
knowledge or preparation required. The latter can
provide insight into the nature of the work. For
example, if a worker is required to have many
years of experience in the use of technical equip-
Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 111
ment, one may anticipate that a high level of
attention to detail and accountability are required.
A worker who is required to pass numerous police
screenings will likely have some level of self-
supervision, as well as personal accountability.
Other sources outside of the workplace, such as
government job descriptions and ratings, like the
National O*Net Consortium: Occupational Infor-
mation Network (O*Net) (http://online.onetcen-
ter.org), also provide good background information,
but it may not be directly relevant to the demands
of work in a particular workplace. For example,
the cognitive and behavioral demands of a clean-
ing job may be quite different for a worker who
works on a crew with other workers than for one
who is independently responsible for an entire
building, although the physical demands may be
quite similar.
Observation
An impartial rater, such as a therapist or occupa-
tional health nurse, may observe job performance
and note the variety of demands required in the
cognitive and behavioral spectrum. Use of a struc-
tured format or checklist helps observers attend
to key factors and to consistently record demand
levels. In order for analyses to be complete, it may
be necessary to observe for extended time periods
or to sample time segments from different times
of the day or week. Observational analysis is gen-
erally done in conjunction with other information
sources (e.g., review of job descriptions, inter-
views) in order to guide time sampling to ensure
that the review is comprehensive.
Worker Interviews
Job incumbents possess the most in-depth knowl-
edge of a job and are an invaluable source of
information concerning job demands. Although
some workers will lack the experience to critically
evaluate the level of job demand, many contem-
porary workers have been employed in a number
of different positions over the course of their
working life and will have keen insight into the
key risks or demands associated with the cur-
rent job. Use of behaviorally based scales and
examples is helpful in identifying the level of
demand.
112 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
Supervisor Interviews
Supervisor input is useful for understanding job
duties and how they fit with the overall flow of
the workplace. Expectations of worker perfor-
mance in such functions as customer service,
emergency preparedness, and cooperation with
other workers may be best identified by a person
with a broad, supervisory perspective. Supervisor
interviews alone typically provide insufficient
information on which to base job demands an-
alysis (JDA), however, as often the supervi-
sor is removed from a job and its detailed
requirements.
As with any measurement system, cognitive
and behavioral job rating tools must satisfy basic
standards for reliability and validity. Validity
issues in rating forms are typically addressed in
the developmental stages by including vocational
and occupational health experts in the creation
and refinement of tools such that the items
included are meaningful, relevant, and compre-
hensive. The reliability of a measure, which is the
reproducibility of the score over time or across
raters, is enhanced by the following:
• Clear definitions: The levels of an item and
their meaning must be clearly stated and
defined for the rater. Ambiguous definitions
lead to wide variance in scoring, based on
differences in interpretation from one job
setting to another and from one rater to
another.
• Training: Job raters require both thorough
orientation to rating tools and experience in
using the tool under supervision in order to
eliminate misconceptions. This is particu-
larly important in the case of tools measur-
ing the cognitive and behavioral aspects of
work, because of the less observable nature
of many of the items. Training is generally
enhanced by providing detailed documenta-
tion as to how to use the tool, along with
sample cases.
• Experience: As in other areas of JDA, famil-
iarity with a measurement tool and exposure
to a wide variety of job types help to situate
observations in a broader context. Observers
are more able over time to differentiate
among levels of cognitive and behavioral
demand than when few reference points are
available.
Rating Systems
A number of approaches to identifying the cogni-
tive and behavioral demands of work are available
in the literature and from corporate and govern-
ment sources. Functional demands are examined
in different ways depending on the group con-
ducting the analysis and the group’s purpose.
Government agencies (such as the U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor, Employment and Training Admin-
istration [DLET] and Statistics Canada) maintain
databases of jobs and their corresponding training
and skill requirements. These systems include
ratings related to the knowledge level required
and other cognitive components of work. For
example, O*Net, the job database maintained by
DLET, includes ratings on more than 40 cognitive
and behavioral skills for each job (Table 7-2).
These skills range from the basic skills required
to perform a job to required aptitudes in areas
such as complex problem solving, resource man-
agement, and social, technical, and systems skills.
Skill ratings are done by incumbent workers who
are assumed to have in-depth knowledge of jobs,
and the resulting scales are used primarily for
vocational guidance and planning and for public
policy development.
Unions typically perform job demands analyses
for the purpose of delineating the responsibility
level of work in order to determine the relative
value of the job, with the goal of creating fair and
equitable compensation scales. The Uniform Clas-
sification Standard developed by the Treasury
Board of Canada for classification of public sector
jobs has been used or adapted by major unions
in that country. It rates four key elements of jobs:
Responsibility, Effort, Skills, and Working Condi-
tions. Table 7-3 demonstrates how the Univer-
sal Classification has been modified for use by
one major union, the Canadian Union of Public
Employees (CUPE). Many of these demands
address the cognitive and behavioral aspects of
performing work. A sample rating scale is shown
in Figure 7-2. In order to allocate point values to
jobs using the various scales, determinations are
typically done by job evaluation committees that
 Chapter 7 Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 113

TABLE 7-2 O*NET Skill Requirements Categories

Skills Developed Capacities

Basic Skills Capacities That Facilitate Learning or the More Rapid Acquisition of Knowledge
Active learning Understanding the implications of new information for both current and future
problem solving and decision making
Active listening Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand
the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting
at inappropriate times
Critical thinking Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative
solutions, conclusions, or approaches to problems
Learning strategies Selecting and using training or instructional methods and procedures appropriate
for the situation when learning or teaching new things
Mathematics Using mathematics to solve problems
Monitoring Monitoring and assessing performance of one’s self, other individuals, or
organizations to make improvements or take corrective action
Reading Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work-related documents
comprehension
Science Using scientific rules and methods to solve problems
Speaking Talking to others to convey information effectively
Writing Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the
audience

Complex Problem- Capacities Used to Solve Novel, Ill-Defined Problems in Complex, Real-World
Solving Skills Settings
Complex problem Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and
solving evaluate options and implement solutions

Resource Management Capacities Used to Allocate Resources Efficiently

Skills
Management of Determining how money will be spent to get the work done and accounting for
financial resources these expenditures
Management of Obtaining and seeing to the appropriate use of equipment, facilities, and
material resources materials needed to do certain work
Management of Motivating, developing, and directing people as they work, identifying the
personnel resources best people for the job
Time management Managing one’s own time and the time of others

Social Skills Capacities Used to Work with People to Achieve Goals

Coordination Adjusting actions in relation to others’ actions
Instructing Teaching others how to do something
Negotiation Bringing others together and trying to reconcile differences

Continued
114 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques

TABLE 7-2 O*NET Skill Requirements Categories—cont’d

Skills Developed Capacities

Persuasion Persuading others to change their minds or behavior

Service orientation Actively looking for ways to help people
Social perceptiveness Being aware of others’ reactions and understanding why they react as they do

Systems Skills Capacities Used to Understand, Monitor, and Improve Sociotechnical Systems
Judgment and Considering the relative costs and benefits of potential actions to choose the
decision making most appropriate one
Systems analysis Determining how a system should work and how changes in conditions,
operations, and the environment will affect outcomes
Systems evaluation Identifying measures or indicators of system performance and the actions needed
to improve or correct performance, relative to the goals of the system

Technical Skills Capacities Used to Design, Set up, Operate, and Correct Malfunctions Involving
Application of Machines or Technologic Systems
Equipment Performing routine maintenance on equipment and determining when and what
maintenance kind of maintenance is needed
Equipment selection Determining the kind of tools and equipment needed to do a job
Installation Installing equipment, machines, wiring, or programs to meet specifications
Operation and Controlling operations of equipment or systems
control
Operation monitoring Watching gauges, dials, or other indicators to make sure a machine is working
properly
Operations analysis Analyzing needs and product requirements to create a design
Programming Writing computer programs for various purposes
Quality control Conducting tests and inspections of products, services, or processes to evaluate
analysis quality or performance
Repairing Repairing machines or systems using the needed tools
Technology design Generating or adapting equipment and technology to serve user needs
Troubleshooting Determining causes of operating errors and deciding what to do about them

TABLE 7-3 Work Characteristics Included in the Canadian Union of Public

Employees Gender-Neutral Job Evaluation Plan

Characteristic Examples Characteristic Examples

Responsibility Accountability Skill Knowledge

Safety of others Experience
Supervision of others Judgment
Contacts with others Working conditions Disagreeable working conditions
Effort Concentration
Physical effort
Dexterity
 Chapter 7 Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 115

Subfactor 4 - Concentration

DEFINITION: This subfactor measures the period of time wherein mental, visual, and/or aural concentration is
required on the job. Both the frequency and duration of the effort are to be considered.

DEGREES: 1. Occasional periods of short duration.

2. Frequent periods of short duration; OR

Occasional periods of intermediate duration.

3. Almost continuous periods of short duration; OR

Frequent periods of intermediate duration; OR
Occasional periods of long duration.

4. Almost continuous periods of intermediate duration; OR

Frequent periods of long duration.

5. Almost continuous periods of long duration.

NOTES TO 1. Attentiveness is required for all jobs; rate tasks requiring concentration.
RATERS:
2. Concentration includes activities such as listening, interpreting, reading, watching, driving,
inputting data, or when a combination of the five senses, sight, taste, smell, touch, and hearing,
is required in the course of doing the job that result in mental/sensory fatigue.

3. Consider components such as interruptions and the requirements for simultaneous processing
of information (i.e., maintaining concentration despite frequent interruptions or changes in work
priorities).

4. Duration of uninterrupted time is measured as follows:

Short — Up to and including 1 hour.
Intermediate — Over 1 hour, and up to and including 2 hours.
Long — In excess of 2 hours.
Frequency relates to work carried out on a regular basis throughout the year.
Occasional — Once in a while, most days.
Frequent — Several times a day or at least 4 days per week.
Almost Continuous — Most working hours for at least an average of 4 days per week.

5. Subfactor Chart

FREQUENCY DURATION
Short Intermediate Long
Occasional 1 2 3
Frequent 2 3 4
Almost Continuous 3 4 5

FIGURE 7-2 Sample rating format from the Universal Classification Standard.
116 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
base job ratings on job questionnaires completed
by workers and supervisors.
Measures emerging from psychology, as previ-
ously mentioned, are used primarily in research
in order to measure the relationship between job
demands and various outcomes of interest. An
example of a scale used for this purpose is the
Job Content Questionnaire,3 a standardized, self-
administered tool that measures a number of
cognitive, behavioral, and contextual job factors
including decision authority, choice and variety in
work, psychologic demands and mental workload
(including general psychologic demands, role
ambiguity, concentration, and mental work dis-
ruption), job security, and supports available. The
subject is asked to indicate on a scale ranging
from “Never” to “Extremely Often” the extent to
which the job requires him or her to work fast,
how often the worker must expend excessive
effort, whether the job is hectic, and other similar
factors. This tool has well-established predictive
validity and reliability but is available only from
the authors for use in research.
From a rehabilitation perspective, the cognitive
and behavioral demands of jobs are of increasing
interest to therapists and occupational health per-
sonnel, given their relevance to successful job
performance. The goal of JDA in rehabilitation is
to understand and objectify the requirements of
the work for use in work conditioning and modi-
fied return-to-work programs. Many JDA tools in
use provide only global ratings of cognitive and
behavioral demands and lack sufficient detail to
match jobs to the functional capacities of the
worker. In addition, only a few JDA tools identify
the demands of work versus the capabilities of the
worker.
USING JOB DEMANDS ANALYSIS TOOLS:
CITY OF TORONTO JOB DEMANDS
ANALYSIS INSTRUMENT
One example of a JDA tool that addresses physi-
cal, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of work is
the City of Toronto Job Demands Analysis Tool
(CoT).6 This instrument was developed by thera-
pists, ergonomists, occupational health personnel,
and a consulting psychiatrist based on their expe-
riences with a broad spectrum of jobs and workers
over several years. A four-point rating scale is
provided for each item, with “4” representing the
highest level of demand, and unique descriptions
are provided for each rating level within each
item. Figure 7-3 shows the section of this tool
that is used for evaluating the responsibility and
accountability demands of work. The full list of
cognitive and behavioral demands addressed in
this tool is shown in Figure 7-4 as it would be
completed for Kara’s job. It includes factors rang-
ing from relationships with others (e.g., supervi-
sion, cooperation with other workers, communi-
cation) to independent cognitive demands (e.g.,
memory, literacy, attention to detail, exposure to
distracting stimuli) and emotional control (e.g.,
working with deadline pressures, exposure to
emotional and confrontational situations).
The CoT established content validity of this
tool6 and more recently inter-rater reliability was
established through a study using student and
expert raters.4 The second part of the CoT tool
provides therapists with a means to record the
worker’s functional capacity, based on separate
clinical assessments. A parallel process of rating
of the worker’s capacity to perform these job
demands is completed to identify areas of poten-
tial mismatch. These mismatches are then used as
a basis for developing an RTW plan.
CONCLUSION
This chapter draws attention to the need for a
broader evaluation of the demands and require-
ments of work occupations. Measuring the cogni-
tive and behavioral demands of work in addition
to the physical elements of the job will lead to a
more complete and comprehensive JDA. Efforts of
therapists to rate these demands and identify
inherent challenges will assist them in the devel-
opment of RTW plans for clients. In addition,
through the JDA process therapists may identify
potentially highly complex or behavioral work
requirements that may lead to risks such as stress
and anxiety. Thus, therapists may use this infor-
mation to make recommendations for changes in
work processes, procedures, or the workplace
context to help workers and employers reduce
the onset of problems and improve workplace
health.
 Chapter 7
Responsibility and accountability
required
“Responsibility and accountability
required” refers to the extent of liability or
safety risk that could result if the
employee does not exercise appropriate
judgment or attention during the
performance of job tasks. A high rating
indicates that the job is a safety-sensitive
position with the potential for grave
consequences if errors or inattention
occur.
Job Demands Analysis Definitions
Error in judgement or attention would
have insignificant consequences
Error in judgment or attention would
create inconvenience
Error in judgement or attention could
create serious difficulty or significant
expense
Error in judgment or attention could
have grave or life-threatening conse-
quences
FIGURE 7-3 City of Toronto JDA sample of behavioral demand.
Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 117
Responsibility and accountability
The ability to exercise appropriate judgment
and behave in a responsive manner during
the performance of work. A low rating
indicates a potential error or inattention that
could have grave consequences if the
worker is required to perform safety-
sensitive work.
Rating Functional Abilities Definitions
May be prone to errors in judgment and/or
lapses of attention and therefore should only
1
perform work in which such errors or lapses
would have insignificant consequences
Able to exercise some judgment and
responsibility, but occasional lapses may
2 occur; the worker should be assigned to
work in which such lapses would not create
serious difficulties
Able to exercise a moderate degree of
judgment and responsibility, but not to a
3
sufficient extent to assume responsibility for
safety of others
Able to exercise sufficient judgment and
responsibility to perform well in safety-
4 sensitive positions in which the worker is
responsible for the safety of others
118 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
Job Demands Analysis Definitions
Degree of Self-Supervision Required
Predominantly self-supervised through-
out the shift (may contact supervisor to
obtain work direction as needed)
Degree of Supervision Exercised
Has full supervisory responsibility for
other employees
Deadline Pressures (time pressure)
Time pressure is high: the majority of
work is performed under rigid time
constraints and the volume of work is
high (assumes that the work pace is high
OR the worker must extend the workday
to manage the volume of work)
Attention to Detail
Significant attention to detail or concen-
tration required for many tasks or intense
attention to detail or concentration
required for some tasks
Performance of Multiple Tasks
Responsible for multiple tasks, with
some time-management skill and
judgment required to determine priorities
Exposure to Distracting Stimuli
Moderate degree of distracting stimuli
during some tasks or portions of the shift
Need to Work Cooperatively
with Others
The majority of work requires close
cooperation with others
Exposure to Emotional Situations
Occasional exposure (approx. weekly) to
emotionally stressful circumstances or
emotionally distressed individuals with
whom the worker must interact in order
to complete job requirements
FIGURE 7-4 Sample behavioral and cognitive job rating using the CoT JDA tool applied to Kara’s job
demands.
Ratings Functional Abilities Definitions
The Ability to Self-Supervise
Can tolerate infrequent supervision
4 3
The Ability to Supervise Others
Able to provide work direction and some
4 3 elements of managing work performance
with the exclusion of disciplinary action
The Ability to Tolerate Deadline
Pressures (time pressure)
Capable of moderate work pace and can
occasionally work under time constraints
4 2
The Ability to Attend to Detail
Able to concentrate on or attend to details
for some tasks, although not at an intense
3 2
level
The Ability to Perform Multiple Tasks
Can handle more than one task, but requires
3 2 clear cues to indicate when each task should
be performed
Tolerance to Distracting Stimuli
Able to work effectively with a moderate
3 3
degree of distracting stimuli
The Ability to Work Cooperatively
with Others
Can work cooperatively with others on some
tasks
4 3
Ability to Tolerate Emotional Situations
Able to tolerate infrequent exposure (e.g.,
monthly) to emotionally stressful circum-
3 2 stances or emotionally distressed individuals
 Chapter 7
Exposure to Confrontational Situations
Occasional exposure (up to weekly) to
confrontational situations in which
assistance is immediately available
Responsibility and Accountability
Required
Errors in judgment or attention could
have grave or life-threatening conse-
quences
Reading Literacy
A high degree of reading literacy is
required to read reports, manuals, or
other documents with a high degree of
comprehension
Written Literacy
Required to create reports, complex
documents, or any communications that
require a high degree of grammatical
form and/or careful wording
Numerical Skills
Required to use more complex arithmetical
operations such as division, multiplication,
percentages, or ratios
Verbal Communication
Moderate communication skills are
required to comprehend and communicate
information fluently (e.g., to work crews)
Memory
Moderate memory ability is required to
recall information that is harder to
remember because it is recalled
infrequently, or because there are time
constraints within which to recall the
Computer Literacy
Required to use one or more computer
programs at a competent level (e.g., most
office workers using word processing and
e-mail applications)
FIGURE 7-4 cont’d.
Cognitive and Behavioral Demands of Work 119
Ability to Tolerate Confrontation
Able to tolerate occasional exposure (up to
2 2 weekly) to confrontational situations in which
assistance is immediately available
Responsibility and Accountability
Able to exercise a moderate degree of
judgment and responsibility, but not to a
4 3 sufficient extent to assume responsibility for
safety of others
Ability to Read
Able to read at an advanced level without
4 4 difficulty
Ability to Write
Able to compose memos or letters with
4 3 accurate spelling, grammatical construction,
and clarity.
Ability to Perform Numerical Skills
Able to use more complex arithmetical
3 3 operations such as division, multiplication,
percentages, or ratios
Ability to Communicate
Has sufficient communication skills to
3 3 comprehend and communicate information
fluently
Memory
Has moderate memory ability; can recall
information that is harder to remember
3 3 because it is infrequently used or because
of time pressures
Ability to Use Computers
Able to use one or more computer programs
at a competent level expected for most office
3 3
workers
120 PART II Knowledge, Tools, and Techniques
Learning Exercise
Overview
This learning exercise is designed to make the
student aware of various aspects of the cognitive
and behavioral demands of work.
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to encourage the
student to use a critical and thorough approach
in evaluating the cognitive and behavioral de-
mands of work.
Exercise
To apply the information from this chapter and
enhance practical skills in identifying cognitive
and behavioral demands, choose a commonly
understood job such as a resource or reference
librarian in the local university or college library.
This exercise may be approached as a casual
observation or as a formal worksite visit.
1. Using a casual observation only: Visit the
library and observe the librarian
performing his or her job. Use Boxes 7-1
and 7-2, Table 7-1, and/or the CoT JDA
form to observe, identify, and record the
cognitive and behavioral requirements of a
resource librarian. Choose a rating scale,
then try to rate the demands you observe
as well as categorizing them into simple
complex requirements. Identify demands
that you cannot observe and about which
you require further information. What
questions might you pose to the librarian
to get the information you need and to
justify your rating of these demands?
• Hold a small group discussion about the
experience of conducting the observa-
tion. Identify what was easy and what
was difficult to observe, and create a list
of strategies you would use to evaluate
the cognitive and behavioral components
that you remain unsure about.
• As a group, describe the contextual
factors you observed in the workplace.
Identify the factors in the workplace
context that are constant and those that
are variable. Create a list of questions you
would ask the librarian to enhance your
understanding of the nature of the
contextual factors.
• Identify potential people you would
involve if you were developing an RTW
plan for an employee.
2. Alternative exercise for the same job:
Conduct a formal worksite visit (one in
which you ask the employer’s permission to
perform an evaluation as part of a learning
exercise) with opportunity for interviews
and use of other collateral information. First,
review a job description and conduct an
Internet search to identify some key
behavioral or cognitive demands of the
position. Next, conduct an observation and
identify demands as above. From your
observations, try to rate the behavioral and
cognitive demands. Work in a small group
and identify a list of questions you want to
ask to further your understanding of these
tasks. Ask to meet with the librarian to
interview him or her for more detailed
information, or invite the librarian to a
class. In class, conduct a group interview to
further refine your understanding of these
demands. Write up a description of the
cognitive and behavioral demands. Identify
and record the simple and highly complex
demands of this workplace.