STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB.

ME 325

Experiment #8: Strain Gages Test

Group: ME
Date: 17/12/2003 Wed.

OBJECTIVE:
To perform an experimental stress analysis on an sample beam by using strain
gage technology. The strain values shall be measured by a strain indicator
(strainmeter). A graph of applied load vs. recorded strain values is to be plotted.

THEORY:
The basic theory of strain gage is utilizing the change of an electrical resistant
due to the change in its dimensions. The resistance R of a uniform conductor made
from a metallic alloy and having the length L, cross-sectional area A and specific
resistance  is given by
…(1)
By differentiating equation (1) and dividing by R the following is obtained
…(2)
The last term, dA/A, represents the change in cross-sectional area because of the
transverse strain, which is equal to . By applying this strain to compute the
change in the wire diameter, the change in area will be
…(3)
Substituting equation (3) in (1) yields
…(4)
Strain Sensitivity:
The strain sensitivity of the metallic alloy, SA, is the resistance change per unit
of initial resistance divided by the applied strain as following
…(5)
By substituting in equation (4) and rearrangement, strain sensitivity can be
written as
…(6)
Equation (6) shows that the strain sensitivity of any alloys depends on the change in
dimensions, represented in the term , and on the change in specific resistance,
represented in the term . Experimental results show theat SA varies from 2
to 4 for the most metallic alloys, as shown in Table (1).

1/7
 Table (1): Strain sensitivity SA for common strain-gage alloys

Material Composition, %SAConstantan (or Advance)45 Ni, 55 Cu2.1Nichrome

V80 Ni, 20 Cr2.1Isoelastic36 Ni, 8 Cr, 0.5 Mo, 55.5 Fe3.6Karma74 Ni, 20 Cr, 3
Al, 3 Fe2.0Armour D70 Fe, 20 Cr, 10 Al2.0Platinum tungsten92 Pt, 8 W4.0

Most metallic-alloy strain gages are fabricated from Constantan since it was found
very useful in application in comparison with other alloys for the following reasons:
1- Its strain sensitivity SA is linear over a wide range of strain.
2- The value of SA does not change as material becomes plastic.
3- The alloy has a high specific resistance ( = 0.49 m).
4- The alloy has excellent thermal stability.
In strain gage selection, the factors mentioned above should be taken in consideration
for any other alloy.

Strain Gage Construction:

In the beginning, the strain gages were made from a wire of very small
diameter and known length. The wire is bended to equal length segments and bonded
to the specimen with a suitable adhesive. Wire gages were manufactured in two types:
flat-grid and bobbin-type, as shown in figure 1-a and 1-b, respectively.

Figure 1: Wire strain gages: (a) Flat-grid and (b) Bobbin-type.

The second type of strain gages is metal-foil gages. It is used very widely in the most
application replacing the wire-gages. Metal-Foil strain gages are manufactured by a
photoetching process. Since the process is quite versatile, a wide range of gage sizes
and grid shapes can be produced. Typical examples of the variety of gages used
commercially are illustrated in Figure 2.

2/7
 The etched metal-film grids are very fragile and easy to distort, wrinkle, or tear. For
this reason, the metal-film is usually bonded to a thin plastic sheet, which serves as a
backing or a carrier before photoetching. The carrier material also provides electrical
insulation between the gage and the component after the gage is mounted. The
backing sheet is shown in figure 3.
Metal-foil

Direction marks

Figure 3: Metal-foil Backing sheet

strain gage construction

3/7
Strain Gage Adhesives:
The strain gages are bonded to the specimen with special adhesives having
very important properties. These properties can be summarized as following
1- The adhesive must transmit strain from specimen to the gage without
distortion.
2- Its mechanical properties must remain stable in at the change operation
conditions, such as variation in temperature, humidity, etc.
3- Its properties must remain constant over the test period and not deteriorate
with time at high rates.
4- It must be resistant to stress relaxation.

There are several types to adhesive employed in strain gage technique. They are
selected according to backing material, curing temperature, operating temperature and
maximum strain. hereby the most common adhesives are described in brief:
1- Cyanoacrylate Cement: It consists of a methyl-2-cyanoacrylate compound,
and it is well-known with its high bonding ability and strength in domestic
uses too. In strain gage application a thin film of adhesive is place between the
gage and the specimen and a gentle pressure is applied for about 1-2 minutes.
The strain gage can be employed 10 minutes after bonding.
2- Epoxy Cements: Epoxies are a class of thermosetting plastics which exhibit a
higher bond strength and a higher level of strain at failure than other types of
adhesives. Epoxy systems are usually composed of two constituents, a
monomer and a hardening agent. Thus, after application of monomer (base
epoxy), a curing process is necessary using the hardener in order to obtain a
complete adhesion. Curing process is determined according to the instructions
of the manufacturer of the epoxy type.
3- Cellulose Nitrate Cement: It is commonly used for paper backed strain
gages. When properly employed, this system is adequate; however, the
adhesive must be totally dried before satisfactory performance is obtained. So,
the main problem with this adhesive is assisting the solvent to escape from the
layer between the gage backing and specimen.
4- Ceramic Cements: This type of adhesive is consisted of a powder of ceramic
materials such as Alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) which are processed with
some acids and chemicals to form a coating and a bonding layer for the gage.
High temperature flame is used for curing the mixture. Ceramic cements are
used primarily for high-temperature applications or in radiation environments.

Strain Gage Installation Procedure:

The following procedure is intended to be as aguide to general purpose work
for mounting strain gages on the specimen’s surface:
A- Surface Preparation:
The surface preparation technique described here is for use where gages are to
be mounted in the more usually encountered engineering materials such as steel,
aluminum, etc.
1- Abrade or scrap the surface mechanically with sander, grinder abrasive paper
or similar, to remove all surface contaminates such as paint and rust, in order
to provide a reasonably smooth surface of sufficient area.
2- Clean the surface with a tissue saturated in solvent; repeat as necessary.
3- Mark the position for the gage with the 4H pencil.

4/7
 4- Apply acid cleaner to the surface with a cotton applicator, and remove with
one stroke of a clean tissue.

B- Strain Gage Preparation and Installation:

1- Remove the strain gage from its packing using the
tweezers, and place face upwards on the mounting
panel.
2- Press about 100mm of clear adhesive tape along the
gage (and tags where fitted), sandwiching the gage
between tape and mounting plate, so that the tape
covers the gage and adheres to the mounting panel and
the upper face of the gage. Do not press the entire
length of the tape into contact with the panel, but leave
one end free to facilitate removal of the assembly.
Ensure smooth even contact between tape and gage
(figure 4-A).
3- Lift the tape from the free end at a shallow angle,
keeping the tape under tension and remove the tape
and gage assembly from the mounting panel (figure 4-
B).
4- Position the gage/tape assembly in the installation
position previously cleaned, using the tape to hold the
gage in the position on the surface. Starting at one end
of the tape, lift the gage/tape assembly and turn back
the tape to expose the underside or gage. Leave the
other end of the tape attached to the surface (figure 4-
B).
5- Apply a small amount of adhesive as shown in figure
4-C.
6- Feed gage/tape assembly back onto the surface, by one
stroke of even pressure with a tissue across gage to
ensure intimate contact with the surface (figure 4-D).
7- Press gage firmly into contact with surface using a clip
pressure.
8- After not less than a further 2 minutes, carefully peel
the tape back off the surface and gage.
9- After the time required for complete bonding Figure 4: The tape method of
according to the adhesive specifications, solder the installation of metal-foil
wires and connect to the circuit. strain gages.

Gage Factor:
The most important specification of a strain gage, in order to use in the strain
measuring circuit, is the gage factor. This factor is given by the manufacturer
according to standard calibrations and measurements carried out. This factor is the
axial gage sensitivity with taking the transverse strain in specimen into consideration.
The response of a bonded gage to a biaxial strain field can be written as
…(7)
where a = normal strain along axial direction of gage

5/7
 t = normal strain along transverse direction of gage
at = shearing strain
Sa = sensitivity of gage to axial strain
St = sensitivity of gage to transverse strain
Ss = sensitivity of gage to shearing strain
In general, the gage sensitivity to shearing strain is very small, so the last term can be
neglected. Equation (7) can be written as
…(8)
where is defined as transverse sensitivity factor for the gage. Since the
gage factor Sg relates the resistance change to the axial strain, this can be express as
…(9)
Determination of gage factor is carried out by the manufacturer, as mentioned above,
by performing a calibration process. In this process, the strain field experienced by the
gage is biaxial, with
…(10)
where is a standard calibration Poisson’s ratio. If equation (10) is
substituted in equation (8), the resistance change in the calibration process is
…(11)
Since the resistance changes given in equations (9) and (11) are identical, the gage
factor Sg is related to both Sa and Kt by the expression
…(12)

Wheatstone Bridge:
Since measuring of strain is the aim of the strain gage technique, the gage
should be connected to a electrical circuit to perform measuring processes. The strain
gages are connected to the bridge as elements in its configuration and their resistances
are considered in balancing calculation. There are three bridge configurations:
quarter, half and full bridges as shown in figure 5. The active gages are the strain
gages mounted on the specimen and subjected to strain during the operation. A
dummy gage can be placed in the bridge to perform the temperature compensation to
balance any difference in active gage resistance because of the temperature difference.
The dummy gage does not carry any strain.

Strain Indicators:
Measuring strain is carried out by means of electrical equipments called strain
indicators or strainmeters. These equipments are generally base on Wheatstone bridge
theory, such as P-350A strain indicator which is used in this experiment. But some
more complicated electronic devices are calibrated to measure strain directly and to
display it digitally. Nowadays, most strain-gage measurements are done by utilizing
the computer, where the strain is measured, monitored and plotted directly with high
level of precision and accuracy.

6/7
 Figure 5: Wheatstone bridge configurations in strain measurement

REQUIREMENTS:
1- Plot the data obtained from the test in a load (N) and strain () graph.
2- Proof theoretically the relation between the strain at any point on the
cantilever beam surface and the load applied to its free end.
3- Discuss the type of graph.

EXPERIMETAL DATA:

Load Strain
(kg) ()
0 0
0.5 30
1 64
1.5 94
2 125
2.5 157
3 189
3.5 221

7/7