Chapter: 3 Wireless Networks

3.1 Wifi (Wireless Fidelity)

 Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that enables us to communicate with

other computers, mobile devices, and networks across a wireless medium. Wi-Fi
uses a circular spectrum of radio frequencies to deliver data.
 Wi-Fi is a radio signal that is transmitted from a wireless router to a device
nearby and converted into data you can see and use. The devices sends a radio
signal back to the router, which is wired or cabled into the internet. It is called
WLAN. IEEE 802.11 is the communication standard. The Physical Data Link
Layer powers Wi-Fi.
 Within a certain range, a Wi-Fi connection is made between an access point,
base station, and any client-to-client connection. The range is determined by the
router that transmits radio frequencies via Wi-Fi. Currently, 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
are the two types of bandwidth that these frequencies use.
 The standard bandwidth that is supported by all devices is 2.4 GHz. In order to
spread the Wi-Fi signal, 2.4 GHz can cover a wide area, but since the frequency
is low, the speed of the internet is less. In contrast, 5 GHz bandwidth can cover a
smaller region, but because the frequency is higher, the speed is much higher.
 If an internet connection with a bandwidth of 60 MB/s is used, the 2.4 GHz and 5
GHz bands provide connections with approximately 30 to 45 MB/s and 50 to 57
MB/s of bandwidth, respectively.
3.1.1 Elements of WIFI network

 Access Point (AP) - The AP is a wireless LAN transceiver, sometimes known as

a "base station," that may link one or more wireless devices to the Internet at
once.
 Wi-Fi cards - They acknowledge the wireless signal and transmit data. Both
internal and exterior ones are possible.
3.1.2 Applications of Wi-Fi

 Accessing Internet:
 stream or cast audio or video:
 share files, data, etc between two or more computers or mobile phones using Wi-
Fi
 Wi-Fi as HOTSPOTS
 We can Create Point to Point Network.
 VoWi-Fi
 Wi-Fi in offices.
3.1.3 Types of Wi-Fi

3.1.4 Working of Wi-fi

 Since Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology, it transmits networks via

electromagnetic waves. We are aware that electromagnetic waves may be
divided into various categories based on their frequency, including X-ray,
gamma-ray, radio wave, microwave, etc. The radio frequency employed in Wi-Fi
is one of these categories. There are three different mediums for transmitting Wi-
Fi signals.
 Base station network or an Ethernet(802.3) connection: It is the primary host
network from which the router receives its network connection.
 Access point or router: It serves as a link between wired and wireless
networks. It accepts a wired Ethernet connection, transforms it into a wireless
connection, then disperses the wireless connection as a radio wave.
 Accessing devices: We use the Wi-Fi and browse the internet from our
smartphones, computers, and other devices.
3.1.5 Advantages of Wi-Fi

 It has no complicated wiring and is a flexible network connection. can be reached

from anywhere within Wi-coverage Fi's area.
 Individual users are not subject to regulatory clearance.
 It is marketable and expandable using Wi-Fi extenders.
  It can be quickly and easily set up. Just the SSID and password need to be set
up.
 A Wi-Fi network with high security encrypts radio communications using WPA
encryption.
 It is also less expensive.
 It also supports roaming and can offer hotspots.
3.1.6 Disadvantages of Wi-Fi

 Any battery-operated device, including mobile phones, computers, etc., uses a

lot of power when utilising Wi-Fi.
 Even when there is encryption, security issues occasionally arise. Wi-Fi can also
be hacked, just as recognised devices have frequently started to appear as
unknown to the router.
 Compared to a direct cable connection, speed is slower.
 It can hurt people because it emits radiation at a lower level than cell phones.
 Weather phenomena like thunderstorms may have an impact on Wi-Fi
transmissions.
 Because it lacks a firewall, Wi-Fi may be accessed by unauthorised parties.
 Wi-Fi requires a router, which requires a power supply, thus when the power
goes out we are unable to access the internet.
3.2 WiMAX

 Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access is known as WiMax.

 On IEEE 802.16, this technology is based.
 It is utilised to offer greater coverage and higher data speeds.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology serves as its foundation.
 It can operate in non-line-of-sight, has a range of up to 50 km, and is based on
the MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), which can deliver speeds of up to 70
Mbps.
 WiMax technology is quick, practical, and economical.
Architecture of WiMAX

Fig 3.2 WiMAX architecture

Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/wimax-in-computer-network/

 Physical Layer: This layer controls bit transmission and reception as well as the
encoding and decoding of signals. It transforms MAC layer frames into sent
signals. This layer employs the modulation techniques QPSK, QAM-16, and
QAM-64.
 MAC Layer: This layer serves as an interface for the WiMax protocol stack's
convergence layer and physical layer. It uses CSMA/CA and offers point-to-
multipoint communication (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance).
 Convergence Layer: This layer offers data about the external network. It
accepts protocol data units (PDUs) of higher layers and converts them to PDUs
of lower layers. Depending on the service being utilised, it offers certain
functions.
3.3 Cellular Phone Technology

3.3.1 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

GSM, or the Global System for Mobile Communication, is an acronym. GSM is a cellular
technology that is open and digital and is used for mobile communication. It utilises the
850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 1900 MHz frequency bands across 4 distinct
bands. It makes use of FDMA and TDMA in conjunction.
GSM is undergoing GSM employs 4 different cell sizes:

 Macro: The base station antenna is put in this size of cell.

 Micro: Antenna height in this cell size is lower than the typical roof eave.
 Pico: Small cells with a few-meter diameter.
 Umbrella: It covers the shadowed areas by filling in the spaces between the
cells.
Elements of GSM

1. Mobile Station (MS): 

  A. Mobile equipment (ME)
  B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): 
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): 
A. Mobile switching Centre:
B. Home Location Registers (HLR): 
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR):
D. Authentication Centre: 
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS):

GSM is nothing more than a bigger system that is further broken down into three
smaller systems.

BSS: Base Station Subsystem is the acronym. BSS manages communication between
a mobile device and the network switching subsystem, including traffic and signalling.
BTS and BSC are two parts of the BSS.

NSS: Network and Switching Subsystem is referred to as NSS. The central network of
GSM is the NSS. That managed calls and mobility for mobile phones connected to the
network. NSS is made up of various parts, including VLR, HLR, and EIR.

OSS: Operating Subsystem is what OSS stands for. The network operator monitors and
controls the system via the OSS, a functional entity. Operations and Maintenance
Center, or OMC, is a component of OSS. The goal of OSS is to provide customers with
efficient assistance for all GSM maintenance services.
1. MS : Mobile Station is referred to as MS. MS consists of the user tools and
software required for connecting to a mobile network. Mobile Equipment (ME) +
Subscriber Identity Module makes up a mobile station (MS) (SIM).
2. BTS: Base Transceiver Stations, often known as BTSs, provide for wireless
communication between user devices and a network. The BTS is in every tower.
3. BSC: Base Station Controller is referred to as BSC. BSC has a number of BTS.
You can think of the BSC as a local exchange in your area with numerous towers
and BTS on numerous towers.
4. MSC: MSC stands for Mobile Switching center. MSC is connected to features of
communication switching such call setup, call release, and routing. All operations
are carried out at the MSC level, including call tracing and call forwarding.
Additional MSC components include VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR, and PSTN.
5. VLR: Visitor Location Register is known as VLR. All mobile customers that are
currently present in the MSC service area are listed precisely where they are in a
database called VLR. Your entry is recorded in the VLR database whenever you
move from one state to another.
6. HLR: Home Location Register is an abbreviation. A database called HLR holds
important information on GSM network users who are permitted to utilise the
service. If you buy a SIM card from an HLR vendor. HLR is like a house that
includes all of your information, such as your ID evidence, the plan you are on,
the caller tune you use, etc.
7. OMC: Operation Maintenance Center is referred to as OMC. Each MS, BSC, and
MSC functioning properly inside a GSM system is monitored and maintained by
OMC.
8. AUC: Authentication Center is a common abbreviation. The mobile subscriber
who wishes to connect to the network is authenticated by AUC.
9. EIR: Equipment Identity Register is referred to as EIR. EIR is a database that
maintains a list of everyone in the network who is allowed or banned. You cannot
enter the network and cannot place calls if you have been banned from it.
10. PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network is referred to as PSTN. PSTN and
MSC are linked. PSTN was once a fixed-line, analogue telephone network. Its
primary network is now nearly totally digital and covers fixed telephones as well
as mobile and other networks. The older landline phones that are still in use at
our house are simply PSTN.
11. ISDN: Comprehensive Services The circuit-switched telephone network system
known as the "Digital Network" carries speech and data over a digital connection.
It can also be considered a set of rules for signalling, voice, and data
transmission.
3.4 CDMA

 CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access.

 It essentially functions as a channel access mechanism and serves as an
illustration of multiple access. The ability of multiple transmitters to send
information simultaneously onto a single communication channel is known as
multiple access.
 Users can access the full range of frequencies or the complete bandwidth since
there are many users who are given or allocated different CDMA codes. The
user's frequency range is not constrained by this method. As a result, CDMA
enables several users to share a frequency band without experiencing any
unwarranted interference from one another. Spectrum technology and analogue
to digital conversion are both used by CDMA (ADC). Therefore, it is utilised by a
number of radio communication systems. It is mostly utilised for mobile
communication.
3.4.1 Characteristics of CDMA

 It increases the number of people who can connect at once, which improves
the capacity for voice and data communication.
 All CDMA channels utilise the entire spectrum.
 Power control is used by CDMA systems to reduce interference and noise,
which enhances the network's performance.
 CDMA secures its signals by encoding user communications into distinct and
exclusive codes.
 All cells in CDMA systems can thus use the same frequency.
 Systems utilising CDMA have a soft capacity.
 Therefore, there is no specific cap on the number of users in a CDMA system,
but performance suffers as the user base grows.
3.4.2 Advantages

 A benefit of CDMA is its increased user capacity, as it can support many more
users than TDMA or FDMA.
 CDMA offers greater security since data transmission takes place below the
noise floor, which makes spectral encroachment challenging.
 Comparatively speaking, CDMA networks see fewer dropouts than GSM. So it
can be utilised in rural locations as well.
 Calls made using CDMA are less expensive than those made using GSM.
 When making calls, CDMA offers a high-quality sound with nearly no background
noise.
 Issues like multipath and fading are avoided when using CDMA.
  CDMA requires extremely little power.
3.4.3 Disadvantages

 Since there is no cap on the number of users, system performance suffers as the
number of users rises in CDMA, which lacks the GSM feature of international
roaming.
 The loss of orthogonality in CDMA systems leads to the self-jamming issue.
 Since most mobile service providers utilise GSM, there aren't many devices
available for CDMA technology. • Channel pollution is a problem in CDMA
networks, which lowers audio quality.
3.5 3G

 The "third generation" of mobile phones is referred to as "3G." In essence, a 3G

gadget will give your mobile phone a vast array of new capability.
 Up until this point, the majority of the communications you send on your phone
are voice messages, with the occasional SMS text message. Simultaneous
conversation, data, text, picture, audio, and video transfers will be possible with
3G.
 A 3G device will obliterate the lines between computing, communications, and
consumer electronics.
 Your 3G device will serve as a combination of a PC, phone, and PDA.
 To say that people would revolve their life around 3G smartphones would not be
an overstatement.
 The third generation of mobile communications systems is referred to in a
general sense.
 A few of the future options for customers include video on demand, high-speed
multimedia, and mobile Internet access. 3G will augment the voice, text, and data
services that are currently mostly available.
 3G Services will increase information and communication opportunities.
 The industry is currently developing the technology concepts for third generation
systems and 3G services.
 The GSM Association is a member of the global 3G Partnership Project (3GPP),
a group of organisations dedicated to developing the third-generation mobile
technologies.
Use of 3G

 Mobile, high-speed Internet access

 On-demand entertainment of your choice. The high-resolution screen of the
device will be used for movies and music.
  Video conferences
 Mobile purchasing
 Information on travel
 Always have the option to use it as a phone.
3.6 GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)

 GPRS support nodes are in charge of the delivery and routing of data packets
between the mobile stations and the external packet data networks (PDN).
 GPRS uses the GSM architecture for voice.
 The following list of support nodes includes 2 different types:

3.6.1 Packet Control Unit (PCU)

PCU sends the circuit switched and packet switched communications to the GSM and
GPRS networks after separating them from the user. Additionally, it handles the majority
of the GPRS network's radio resource management tasks. The PCU is situated between
MS and MSC, either in the BTS, BSC, or another location.

There will be at least one PCU that supports a cell that offers GPRS services. These
days, it is built into the base station controller, or BSC, which reduces the need for
additional hardware. Currently, the PCU is connected to the GPRS core architecture via
Frame Relay technology.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

 A SGSN and the MSC are on the same hierarchical level. SGSN performs the
same tasks for packet data as MSC does for voice.
 Packet switching, routing, and transfer, mobility management, and logical link are
among the SGSN's responsibilities.
 Administration, charging, and authentication features.
 The SGSN conducts new mobile subscriber registration and maintains a record
of each user's position within a certain service region.
 The SGSN's location register utilises profiles from all GPRS users who have
registered with the SGSN to record location data.
 To gather information about GPRS subscribers' profiles, SGSN makes inquiries
to HLR. Frame Relay is used to link the SGSN to the base station network.
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

 A GGSN performs a similar role to a router in a LAN by serving as an interface

between the external packet data network and the GPRS backbone network. The
 Protocol Data Units (PDUs) must be tunnelled to the SGSNs that serve specific
mobile stations, and the GGSN retains the routing data required for this.
 It transforms the GPRS packets originating from the SGSN into the proper packet
data protocol (PDP) format for the internet or X.25, and then PDP sends these
packets out on the related packet data network.
 The readdressed packets are delivered to the SGSN in charge. The GGSN
keeps the user's profile and current SGSN address in its location register for this
reason.
 Some existing GSM network components need to be improved in order to
accommodate packet data.
 GGSN also handles authentication and charging tasks linked to data transfer.
Base Station System (BSS)

 The BSS system needs to be improved in order to send and recognise packet
data.
 This also involves BTS upgrade to enable user data transfer to the SGSN.
 Additionally, the BTS must be updated to facilitate packet data transmission
through radio between the BTS and the MS (Mobile Station).
Home Location Register (HLR)

 To register GPRS user profiles and reply to inquiries from GSNs about these
profiles, HLR needs to be improved.
Mobile Station (MS)

 GPRS mobile stations and phones differ from GSM mobile devices.
SMS Nodes

 The MSC/VLR can optionally be improved for more effective coordination of

GPRS and non-GPRS services and functions.
 SMS-GMSCs and SMS-IWMSCs are upgraded to support SMS transmission via
the SGSN.
 GPRS utilises two frequency bands, 45 MHz apart, for uplink (MS to BTS) and
downlink (935-860 MHz) (BTS to MS).
Applications of GPRS

 Communications: Access to intranets and the internet, unified messaging,

email,fax etc.
 Value-added services: Gaming and information services.
  E-commerce: Retail, purchasing tickets, banking, and financial trading, among
other things.
 Location-based apps: such as those for navigation, traffic, train and airline
timetables, and location-based services.
 Vertical applications: fleet management, sales force automation, and freight
delivery.
 Advertising: It might be site-specific. For instance, a person entering a mall
might see adverts tailored to the mall's retailers.
3.7 4G
LTE (LONG TERM EVOLUTION)

Long Term Evolution, also known as LTE, is the fourth generation (4G) upgrade to the
third generation (3G) Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS), enhancing
speed and performance. Based on the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) and UMTS standards, Long Term Evolution is a wireless broadband
communication standard for mobile devices and data terminals.

Even improved standards for the telecommunications system were required following
the development of the 3G UMTS technology. This resulted in the development of LTE,
a standard that is somewhat like 4G but not quite. LTE not only improved performance
and data speed, but it also reduced operating expenses.

It now has access to more frequency bands and spectrum thanks to 4G LTE
technologies, including those at 600 MHz, 700 MHz, 1.7/2.1 GHz, 2.3 GHz, and 2.5
GHz.

The first three are the main parts of the high-level LTE network architecture:

 The User Device (UE).

 MTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network Evolution (E-UTRAN).
 The Adaptive Packet Core (EPC).
In the outside world, the evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks
like the internet, private corporate networks, and the IP multimedia subsystem. Uu, S1
and SGi are the abbreviations for the system's interfaces between its many
components.

The User Equipment (UE)

The internal architecture of the LTE user equipment, which is technically a Mobile User
Equipment, is the same as that of UMTS and GSM.
The internal architecture of the LTE user equipment, also known as a mobile
equipment, is the same as that of UMTS and GSM (ME). The following significant
modules made up the mobile equipment.

 Mobile Termination (MT): This platform manages all communication-related

tasks.
 Terminal Equipment (TE): This terminates the data streams.
 Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC): Another name for this is the LTE
equipment's SIM card. It utilises a programme called the Universal Subscriber
Identity Module (USIM).
 Similar to a 3G SIM card, a USIM saves user-specific data. The user's phone
number, home network identification, security keys, etc. are all stored in this.
The E-UTRAN (The access network)

The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved
packet core and just has one component, the evolved base stations,
called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or
more cells. The base station that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving
eNB.
Two main eNB functionalities are supported by LTE Mobile, which only connects with
one base station and one cell at a time:

 The eNB regulates the low-level operation of all its mobiles by delivering them
signalling messages like handover orders.
 The eNB transmits and receives radio transmissions to all of its mobiles utilising
the analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
Each eBN has an S1 interface connection to the EPC and an X2 interface connection to
neighbouring base stations, which is primarily utilised for signalling and packet
forwarding during changeover.

A user may acquire a base station known as a home eNB (HeNB) to give femtocell
coverage within the home. Home eNBs are part of closed subscriber groups (CSGs)
and can only be accessed by mobile devices using USIMs that are also members of the
CSG.

The illustration that follows shows the EPC's architecture. To keep things simple, a few
other components are not represented in the diagram. Functions of the Equipment
Identity Register (EIR), Policy Control, and Charging Rules (PCRF).
The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) component, which was brought over from UMTS
and GSM, is a central database that houses data on all of the subscribers to the
network operator.

The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) uses the SGi interface to
communicate with other PDNs and the outside world. An access point name uniquely
identifies each packet data network (APN). The serving gateway (S-GW) functions as a
router and passes data between the base station and the PDN gateway. The PDN
gateway serves the same purpose as the GPRS support node (GGSN) and the serving
GPRS support node (SGSN) with UMTS and GSM.

The Mobility Management Entity (MME) utilizes Home Subscriber Server and signaling
messages to manage the high-level operation of the mobile device (HSS).

The component known as the Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF),
which is not represented in the diagram above, is in charge of making decisions
regarding policy control and managing the flow-based charging features of the Policy
Control Enforcement Function (PCEF), which is located in the P-GW.

S5/S8 refers to the interface between the serving and PDN gateways. S5 if the two
devices are connected to the same network and S8 if they are connected to different
networks are the two slightly different implementations of this.

3.8 SNMP
A local area network (LAN) or wide area network can use the application-layer protocol
known as Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) to monitor and manage
network devices (WAN).

With SNMP, network devices, including routers, servers, and printers, may
communicate with network management systems in a standard language (NMS).

Application layer protocol SNMP uses UDP port numbers 161 and 162 to communicate.

Network monitoring, network issue detection, and occasionally even remote device
configuration are all done via SNMP.

SNMP Components:

1. SNMP Manager - This centralised network monitoring system. It also goes by the
name "Network Management Station" (NMS)
2. SNMP agent - Installed on a controlled device, it is a software management software
module. Network devices such as computers, routers, switches, servers, etc. can be
managed devices.

3. The Management Information Base (MIB) contains details on the resources that
need to be managed. Hierarchical organisation is used to arrange this data. It is made
up of instances of objects, which are effectively variables.

SNMP Components:

 GetRequest : The SNMP manager sends this message to the SNMP

agent to request data from it. It is only employed to get information from
SNMP agents. The SNMP agent replies to this by sending a response
message that contains the requested value.
 GetNextRequest : Use this message to find out what information an
SNMP agent has to offer. Until there is no more data remaining, the
SNMP manager can continue request data. The SNMP manager will then
have access to all the information about SNMP agents that is currently
available.
 GetBulkRequest : The SNMP manager uses this message to obtain
huge amounts of data from the SNMP agent at once. It first appears in
SNMPv2c.
 SetRequest : The SNMP manager uses this to change the value of an
instance of an object on the SNMP agent.
 Response : This is a message that the agent sends in response to a
manager request. It will include the requested data when sent in
response to Get messages. As a confirmation that the value has been
set, the message delivered in response to the Set message will include
the newly set value.
 Trap : These are messages that the agent sends without the manager's
permission. When a defect occurs, it is sent.
 InformRequest : Introduced in SNMPv2c, it is used to determine whether
the manager has received the trap message or not. The agents can be
set up to continuously transmit trap messages until they get an inform
message. It is identical to a trap, except it also acknowledges something
the trap does not.
3.9 RMON
Remote Network Monitoring is referred to as RMON. It is a Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) module that enables thorough network statistics
monitoring for Ethernet networks.

Using remote network monitoring (RMON), you can track network activity on an
Ethernet transport to look for network problems. Dropped packets, network
collisions, and even traffic congestion are examples of these problems.

To particularly address the shortcomings of a conventional MIB, which was

unable to give statistics on data link and physical layer parameters, RMON was
created. Network technicians can remotely monitor and analyse data gathered
from local area networks (LANs) with the use of RMON, which eliminates the
need to travel to distant facilities to set up equipment.

ROM Versions

RMON1 MIB
10 MIB groups have been defined for fundamental network monitoring. It works
with both the physical layer and the MAC layer.

MIB Statistics Group For each monitored interface on this device, it includes a
statistic obtained by the probe. Statistics on dropped packets, sent packets,
sent bytes, broadcast packets, multicast packets, CRC errors, giants, and
fragmented packets are all included.

History – It collects and stores recurring statistical samples from a network for
later retrieval. It includes the amount of samples and the things sampled
throughout time.

Alarm – It collects statistical samples on a regular basis and compares them to

the threshold established for event generation. The implementation of event
group, alarm type, interval, starting threshold, and stop threshold is included, as
well as an alarm table.

HOST – This section offers information about each host found on the network.
Host addresses, received and sent packets and bytes, broadcast packets,
multicast packets, and error packets are all included in statistics.
HOST top N – This programme creates tables listing the top hosts. It includes
information on the hosts, sample, start and end times, and rate base duration.

Matrix – This programme maintains and returns statistics for communications

between pairs of addresses. Its components are source and destination
address pairs, together with each pair's packets, bytes, and errors.

Filters – This feature allows a filter equation to match packets in order to

capture packets or events. Bit-filter type, filter expression, and conditional
expression to other filters make up its constituent parts.

Packet Capture – It allows for the capture of packets after they have passed
through a channel. Its components are the number of captured packets, the
number of captured packets, and the buffer size for captured packets.

Events – It regulates how a gadget generates and notifies users of events.

Event type, description, and last time event sent are its constituent parts.

It is capable of supporting token rings.

Video Link:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OkDpjZXE858
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBiGDhnRl8M
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFoGiatdkRY
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wdfFCejamhI