Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

BatStateU Pablo Borbon Batangas City

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY

BIO 302 – GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Submitted by BIO3103 Group 4:

Bañados, Zachary

Ilao, Amierah Angela

Olave, Kyla Denise

Submitted to:

Ms. Kate Marquez

 Photosynthesis and Respiration

Sugar is produced by plants utilizing solar energy to change carbon. Roots draw water
(H20) from the soil and convert carbon dioxide (CO2), a gas, into glucose (C6H12O6) and
oxygen (O2). In the chloroplast of the plant cell, this procedure known as photosynthesis takes
place. Stomata, which are little holes or apertures in the leaves of plants, allow them to absorb
carbon dioxide. To open and close the stomata, special cells called guard cells are found in plant
leaves.
In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts. Plants and algae also have
accessory photosynthetic pigments, such as carotenoids, which are yellow and orange.
Carotenoids absorb wavelengths of light different from those absorbed by chlorophyll, thereby
expanding the spectrum of light that provides energy for photosynthesis. The large quantity of
chlorophyll in most leaves usually masks the presence of carotenoids in spring and summer; in
autumn, when the chlorophyll breaks down, other pigments, including carotenoids, become
visible.
All species' mitochondria carry out the process of cellular respiration. Both plants and
animals participate in this process, which sees simple sugars decompose into carbon dioxide and
water as well as releasing energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Biochemical processes like photosynthesis and cellular respiration move matter and
energy across the biosphere. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between living things
and their surroundings is brought on by these two processes.
Water and carbon dioxide are changed into oxygen and glucose during photosynthesis.
The plant consumes glucose and produces oxygen as a byproduct. Oxygen and glucose are
transformed into water and carbon dioxide during cellular respiration. Byproducts of the process
include carbon dioxide, water, and ATP, which is turned into energy. The ATP is used for all the
processes that occur within a cell that need energy.
During a chemical reaction, one or more compounds, the products are created when
reactants are changed into one or more separate substances.
● Substances that initiate a chemical reaction are known as reactants. (ingredients)
● Products are substances that the reaction produces. (finished results)
A chemical equation with the general form shown below can be used to represent the
relationship between the reactants and products in a chemical reaction:
Reactants → Products
The reaction's direction is indicated by the arrow (→). In numerous responses, the
opposite-directed reaction also takes place. Another arrow pointing in the opposite direction (←)
serves to symbolize this.
In a chemical reaction, the reactants and products are the same atoms, however they
change positions due to the reaction. By doing this, new chemicals are created that are
chemically distinct from the reactants.
 A set of chemical processes called photosynthesis convert carbon to oxygen. In the
presence of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are transformed into glucose and oxygen.
Reactants Sunlight Products
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose (sugar) + Oxygen
CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
A sequence of chemical reactions known as cellular respiration start with the reactants of
sugar and oxygen to produce the waste products of carbon dioxide and water. Cellular respiration
can be defined generally as the process by which chemical energy is released during the
oxidation of organic molecules.
Reactants Sunlight Products
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Types of Respiration

There are two main types of respiration: If it requires oxygen, it is called aerobic
respiration, whereas if it takes place in the absence of oxygen it is anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration

All eukaryotic organisms' mitochondria do this kind of respiration. In the presence of

oxygen, food molecules totally oxidize into carbon dioxide, water, and energy. All higher species
exhibit this kind of respiration, which requires ambient oxygen.
 Aerobic respiration begins with the same reactions in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis is the
first stage of cellular respiration, in which glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate for a
net yield of two ATP. Glycolysis ends with the formation of two three-carbon pyruvate
molecules. These products may now enter the second stage reactions of aerobic respiration.
Pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, contains most of the energy that was present in the
original glucose molecule. Pyruvate molecules move into the mitochondrion, where all
subsequent reactions of aerobic respiration take place.
The citric acid cycle is also known as the Krebs cycle after Sir Hans Krebs, a British
biochemist who worked out the details of the pathway in the 1930’s. The citric acid cycle is the
common pathway for the final oxidation reactions of the cell’s fuel molecules with the carbons
being released as CO2 . The citric acid cycle also takes place in the mitochondria.Only one
molecule of ATP is produced directly with each turn of the citric acid cycle. Thus at this point in
aerobic respiration, the energy of one glucose molecule has resulted in the formation of only four
ATPs (two ATPs from glycolysis and two ATPs from two turns of the citric acid cycle).
The third and last stage of aerobic respiration, electron transfer phosphorylation, also
occurs in the mitochondria. Remember that electron transfer phosphorylation is a process in
which the flow of electrons through electron transfer chains ultimately results in the attachment
of phosphate to ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

Anaerobic Respiration
The cytoplasm of prokaryotic organisms like yeast and bacteria is where this kind of
respiration takes place. In this instance, less energy is released as a result of the food's
incomplete oxidation in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration results in the production of
both carbon dioxide and ethanol.

Anaerobic Pathways
Fermentation, another anaerobic pathway, also degrades glucose and other organic
molecules without oxygen. Like aerobic respiration, fermentation depends on the reactions of
glycolysis. The final acceptor of hydrogen in fermentation is an organic molecule. Two common
types of fermentation are alcohol fermentation and lactate fermentation.
Certain fungi and prokaryotes carry on lactate fermentation. In this pathway, pyruvate
produced during glycolysis is converted to lactate. Lactate fermentation occurs when bacteria
cause milk to sour or ferment cabbage to form sauerkraut.
Alcohol, the end product of fermentation, contains a lot of energy and can even be burned
as automobile fuel. Lactate, a three-carbon compound, contains even more energy than the
two-carbon alcohol. Fermentation produces a net profit of only 2 ATPs from one glucose
molecule.
 Two Stages of Photosynthesis

Light-dependent Reaction

The light-dependent reactions use light energy to make two molecules needed for the next
stage of photosynthesis: the energy storage molecule ATP and the reduced electron carrier
NADPH. Light reactions in plants occur in the thylakoid membranes of organelles called
chloroplasts.
The light reactions are mainly governed by photosystems, large complexes of proteins
and pigments (light-absorbing molecules) that are designed to capture light. Photosystem I (PSI)
and Photosystem II are the two different types of photosystems (PSII).
Both photosystems contain many pigments that help collect light energy, as well as a
special pair of chlorophyll molecules found at the core (reaction center) of the photosystem. The
special pair of photosystem I is called P700, while the special pair of photosystem II is called
P680.

Photosytem I Photosystem II

Wavelength of Light 700 nm 680 nm

Absorbed

Primary acceptor A0 pheophytin

Source of electrons electrons that flow down an water

electron transport chain from
PSII

Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
 ● the "standard" form of the light-dependent reactions
● electrons are removed from water and passed through PSII and PSI before ending
up in NADPH
● This process requires light to be absorbed twice, once in each photosystem, and it
makes ATP . In fact, it's called photophosphorylation because it involves using
light energy (photo) to make ATP from ADP (phosphorylation). Here are the
basic steps:

○ Light absorption in PSII. When one of the numerous pigments of

photosystem II absorbs light, energy is transmitted inward from pigment
to pigment until it reaches the reaction center. There, energy is transferred
to P680, raising an electron's energy level. An acceptor molecule receives
the high-energy electron, which is then exchanged for an electron from
water. The oxygen we breathe is released by this splitting of water.
■ Photoexcitation - light energy is absorbed by a chlorophyll
molecule its electrons gain energy and move to higher energylevels
in the molecule
○ ATP synthesis. The high-energy electron loses energy as it travels down
an electron transport chain. Some of the released energy drives the
pumping of hydrogen ions from the stroma into the thylakoid interior,
creating a gradient. As hydrogen ions flow down their gradient and into
the stroma, they pass through ATP synthase, driving ATP production in a
process known as chemiosmosis.
○ Light absorption in PSI. The electron arrives at photosystem I and joins
the P700 special pair of chlorophylls in the reaction center. When light
energy is absorbed by pigments and passed into the reaction center, the
electron in P700 is boosted to a very high energy level before being
transferred to an acceptor molecule. The missing electron in the special
pair is replaced by a new electron from PSII (arriving via the electron
transport chain).
○ NADPH formation. The high-energy electron travels down a short
second leg of the electron transport chain. The electron is passed to
NADP+ at the end of the chain (along with another electron from the same
pathway) to form NADPH.

The net effect of these steps is to convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of
ATP and NADPH. The ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are used to make
sugars in the next stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle.
 Cyclic photophosphorylation

● The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of the electrons in a

cyclic manner for synthesizing ATP molecules is called cyclic photophosphorylation.
● In this process, plant cells just accomplish the ADP to ATP for immediate energy for the
cells. This process usually takes place in the thylakoid membrane and uses Photosystem
I and the chlorophyll P700.
● During cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons are transferred back to P700 instead of
moving into the NADP from the electron acceptor. This downward movement of
electrons from an acceptor to P700 results in the formation of ATP molecules.
● This process is predominant only in bacteria.

The Calvin Cycle

 The second stage of photosynthesis, also known as the light-independent reactions
because this cycle is not directly driven by light.

Stroma of the chloroplast is the site of the calvin cycle.

In Calvin cycle, carbon atoms from CO2 are fixed and are used to create three-carbon
sugars.

3 stages of Calvin cycle

1. Carbon Fixation

A CO2 molecule combines with ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBP), a five-carbon

molecule. This makes a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of
3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA), a three-carbon compound. This step is catalyzed by the
enzyme RuBP or rubisco.

An enzyme nicknamed rubisco (RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase) catalyzes the attachment

of CO2 to a five-carbon sugar called ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). The resulting
6-carbon molecule quickly splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called
3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA)
 2. Reduction

In the second stage, NADPH and ATP are utilized to convert the 3-PGA into molecules
of a three-carbon sugar, the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

First, the 3-PGA receives a phosphate group from ATP, turning it into a molecule called
1,3-biphosphoglycerate.

Second, the 1,3-biphosphoglycerate molecules are reduced (gained electrons) Each

molecule receives two electrons from NADPH and loses one of its phosphate groups,
converting it into a three-carbon sugar called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). The
reduction step produces NADP+ and phosphate as by-products.

3. Regeneration

Some G3P molecules leaves the cycle to make carbohydrate molecules, which is
commonly glucose (C6H12O6). While others are recycled to regenerate the RuBP
acceptor.

Summary:

3 CO2 combine with 3 RuBP acceptors, making 6 molecules of

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
 ● 1 G3P molecule exits the cycle to make glucose
● The remaining 5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 3 RuBP acceptors
9 ATP are converted to 9 ADP, and 6 NADPH are converted to 6 NADP+

It takes six turns of the cycle to produce one molecule of glucose (C6H12O6).
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