Overview of Plant Physiology liverworts reproduce by spores released from
capsules. Moreover, Liverworts are the oldest
Types of Plants
Humans are able to construct their homes, nourish
their bodies, and adorn themselves with the
myriad goods that come from plants. From
sprawling gardens to little window boxes, plants
are a constant source of aesthetic pleasure in our
lives. It's easy to underestimate the diversity of
plants given how many different ways we put
them to use. At last, Plants come in a wide range
of forms, from the simplest to the most complex,
from the smallest to the largest, with or without
flowers.
Non-vascular Plants
● Also refer to as “bryophytes.”
● The most primitive types of plants that lack
vascular tissue, the tube like structures through
which water and other materials move inside a
plant.
● Non-vascular plants are considered to be
among the least complex living plants.
● They are usually small plants, which enables
most materials to move through them easily.
● Non-vascular plants, such as liverworts and
mosses, take in water through osmosis, the
process that allows water to diffuse across a
cell membrane. Because of this, their life
cycles are dependent on damp places.
The examples are the Liverworts and moses.
Liverworts
Liverworts and their relatives are small and grow
on the surface of wet soil. Without true roots,
living plant species and are direct descendants of
the first land plants.
Mosses
Mosses are the small plants that form a green
carpet on the floor of many forests. Mosses also
grow on trees and rock surfaces. Liverworts and
mosses, like all non-vascular plants, lack true
roots, stems, and leaves.
Vascular plants
● Vascular plants, known as tracheophytes, are
“true land plants” because they have evolved
ways to survive independent of wet
environments.
● They are able to move water from their
surroundings through their bodies in vascular
tissues. Vascular tissue allows plants to grow
to a great height, like the giant redwoods of
Northern California.
● Vascular plants include seedless plants like
club mosses (which are not true mosses,
despite their name), horsetails, and ferns, as
well as seed plants- for example, violets,
potatoes, and pine trees.
There are relatively few species of seedless
vascular plants compared to vascular plants with
seeds. The reproductive structures of seedless
vascular plants are dust like spores. Club mosses
are small evergreen plants with needle-like or
scale- like leaves. The leaves of horsetails encircle
the shoots. Horsetails may or may not be
evergreens and can grow to be rather tall. Fern
leaves look a great deal like green feathers. These
seedless vascular plants reproduce in a two
generation life cycle - one that produces spores,
and one that does not.
Ferns
Specific tissues within them are responsible for
the internal movement of water and nutrients, and
these are the vascular tissue. Additionally, they
have true leaf structures, stems, and root systems.
However ferns are different from other plants in
that they do not produce flowers or seeds.
Violets
It is an example of a seed plant and is a flowering
plant due to its role in producing flowers in
reproduction. Violets, as the name suggests, grow
to be in violet color. However, it can also be seen
in blue, white, and pink colors. They also usually
live in rocky or dry open woods, on the corners of
the woods, and mainly on hillsides.
Seed Plants
● Seed plants are vascular plants that reproduce
using seeds.
● They can be divided into two groups:
gymnosperms and angiosperms, based on how
their seeds are produced.
● Most of the plants people are familiar with,
including trees, flowers, vegetables, and grains,
are seed plants.
Gymnosperms
● Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce
seeds that are not enclosed within a fruit.
● Gymnosperms, such as pines, firs, redwoods,
and sequoias, do not produce flowers but form
seeds in cones.
● The leaves of most gymnosperms are scale-like
or needle-like.
● Many gymnosperms are called evergreens
because some green leaves are always on their
branches.
Pines
Pines, like many other gymnosperms, are borne in the
form of cones that don't emerge until the trees is fully
grown, unlike angiosperm which produce
flowers/fruits.
Angiosperms
● Angiosperms are the most easily recognizable
seed-producing plants.
● Angiosperms, or flowering plants, include
familiar plants such as roses, corn, bamboo,
orchids, daisies, and fruit trees. In
angiosperms, seeds are enclosed in fruits.
 Stems

Stems support the leaves, cones, fruits, flowers,

and even seeds of plants. They hold a plant’s
leaves up toward the sunlight. Stems contain two
types of vascular tissue: Xylem and Phloem.

Roses
There are two classifications of stems:
Roses is an example of angiosperms. This is because
1. Herbaceous stems - are green, soft, and
they enclose their seeds within a fruit to keep them
flexible. Cells in herbaceous stems
safe.
contain chloroplasts that use light to make
food for the plant.
Parts of Plants
2. Woody stems - are hard, strong, and rigid.
Trees, shrubs, and roses have woody
stems.

Leaves

Leaves are plant organs whose main functions

include capturing the energy of sunlight, making
organic molecules, and exchanging gases with the
environment. Most leaves are flat and have a
relatively large surface area that receives sunlight.

Flowers

Roots
Flowers are the main reproductive organs of
flowering plants. Most flowers have four main
It comes in various shapes and sizes. Roots give a
parts: petals, sepals, stamens, and a pistil. Each
plant the surface area it needs to absorb the water and
flower part plays an important role in a plant’s
minerals essential to its survival. The outermost cells
ability to produce more of its kind.
of the roots absorb water and minerals. The more
surface area, or outer part, the roots have, the more
Seeds
cells can absorb these essential substances. There are
two main types of root systems: taproots and fibrous
Seeds vary widely in appearance, but they all have
roots.
the same basic structure: a protective seed coat, an
1. A taproot is a single thick structure that grows
embryo, and stored food. A seed develops from a
straight into the ground.
fertilized egg and contains an embryo.
2. Fibrous roots consist of a great many thin,
branching roots that grow from a central point.
Plants Cell and Tissue

Plant cells are quite different from animal cells. In

addition to all of the structures that animal cells
have, plant cells have cell walls, plastids, and a
 large vacuole. Just as with animals, plants are
made up of many types of cells that are organized
into tissues. Three basic types of plant cells,
shown in are parenchyma cells, collenchyma
cells, and sclerenchyma cells.
Parenchyma Cells
● The most common type of plant cell—stores
starch, oils, and water for the plant. You can
find parenchyma cells throughout a plant.
● These cells have thin walls and large water-
filled vacuoles in the middle.
● Photosynthesis occurs in green chloroplasts
within parenchyma cells in leaves.
● Both chloroplasts and colorless plastids in
parenchyma cells within roots and stems store
starch.
● The flesh of many fruits we eat is also made of
parenchyma cells.
● Parenchyma cells are sometimes thought of as
the least specialized of plant cells, but they
have one very special trait.
● They have the ability to divide throughout their
entire lives, so they are important in healing
wounds to the plant and regenerating parts.
● For example, parenchyma cells let you place
stem cuttings of many types of plants in water
to grow into a complete, new plant.
Sclerenchyma Cells
● It is the strongest among the three.
● These cells have a second cell wall that is
hardened by lignin, which makes these cells
very tough and durable. But the lignin also
makes these cells very rigid.
● Unlike collenchyma cells, they can’t grow with
the plant. Therefore, sclerenchyma cells are
found in parts of the plant that aren’t
lengthening anymore.
● Many sclerenchyma cells, such as those within
the vascular system, die when they reach
maturity.
● The cytoplasm and organelles of these dead
cells disintegrate, but the rigid cell walls are left
behind as skeletal support for the
water-conducting tissues or for the plant itself.
● Sclerenchyma cells form a major part of fruit
pits and the hard outer shells of nuts.
● They are also found in stems and leaf veins and
are responsible for the gritty texture of pears.
Humans use sclerenchyma cell fibers to make
linen and rope.
Plant organs are made of Three Tissue Systems

Collenchyma Cells

● It has cell walls that range from thin to thick,

providing support while still allowing the plant
to grow.
● These cells are most common in the younger
tissues of leaves and shoots. They often form
into strands. For example, celery strings are
strands of collenchyma cells.
● The unique feature of collenchyma cells is that
they are flexible.
● Their cell walls don’t contain lignin, so they are
stretchy and can change size.
● As a young leaf grows, collenchyma cells can Diagram 1
elongate and still give the leaf structure.
Dermal Tissue System
● Plants don’t have skin, but they do have a
system of dermal tissue, that covers the outside
of a plant and protects it in a variety of ways.
● Dermal tissue, called epidermis, is made up of
live parenchyma cells in the nonwoody parts of
plants.
● On leaves and some stems, epidermal cells
may secrete a wax-coated substance that
becomes the cuticle.
● Dermal tissue made of dead parenchyma cells
makes up the outer bark of woody plants.
Ground Tissue System
● Dermal tissue surrounds the system of ground
tissue, which makes up much of the inside of a
plant.
● Ground tissue provides support and stores
materials in roots and stems.
● In leaves, ground tissue is packed with
chloroplasts, where photosynthesis makes food
for the plant.
● The ground tissue system consists of all three
of the simple tissues—parenchyma tissue,
collenchyma tissue, and sclerenchyma
tissue—but parenchyma is by far the most
common of the ground tissues.
● The ground tissue of cacti has many
parenchyma cells that store water. However,
the spines of cacti—which are actually
modified leaves—contain mostly rigid
sclerenchyma cells in their ground tissue.
Ground tissue system in cactus
Vascular Tissue System
● Surrounded by ground tissue, the system of
vascular tissue transports water, mineral
nutrients, and organic compounds to all parts
of the plant.
● Plants can transport necessary fluids and
nutrients throughout their systems.
● A plant’s vascular system is made up of two
networks of hollow tubes somewhat like our
veins and arteries.
● Each network consists of a different type of
vascular tissue that works to move different
resources throughout the plant.
Xylem (ZY-luhm)
- is the vascular tissue that carries water
and dissolved mineral nutrients up from
the roots to the rest of the plant.
Phloem (FLOH-ehm)
- is the vascular tissue that carries the
products of photosynthesis through the
plant.
Vascular Tissue System
Xylem
The xylem is one of the two types of tissue in the
vascular tissue system. Its main function is to
transport water and dissolved minerals upward
from the roots into the shoots. It is important to
note that the xylem is dead at maturity, and so are
the two specialized cells in it.
These specialized cells are the tracheid cells and
vessel elements. Tracheid cells are long and
narrow. They have small holes between their ends,
which allow water to move vertically between the
cells. Here, water can flow from cell to cell in
tracheids.
The other specialized cell in the xylem is the
vessel elements. Vessel elements are shorter and
wider than the tracheid. When the xylem tissue
matures, these cells die and the cell wall
disintegrates at both ends. The cells then connect
end to end, forming long tubes. Then, the water
can move through the cells.
Only flowering plants have both vessel elements
and tracheids while other vascular plants have
only tracheids.
Cohesion-Tension Theory
The xylem transports water through the
Cohesion-Tension Theory. This theory proposes
that the physical properties of water allow the rise
of water through a plant. This is due to the strong
attraction of water molecules to one another and
to other surfaces. Cohesion is the tendency of
hydrogen bonds to form between water molecules
creating a force. Meanwhile, adhesion is a force
made by hydrogen bonds forming between water
molecules and non-water molecules. These two
forces create tension that moves water upward in
the xylem.
The water moves from the roots via a negative
water potential. Then, the adhesion of the
capillary effect of capillary action. Capillary
action is the tendency of water to rise in a hollow
tube. This capillary action is water adhering and at
the same time moving upward in the inside of the
xylem. The tension that moves water upward,
occurs when the water evaporates from the leaves.
Then the water moves up throughout the xylem.
Next, the cohesion-tension. Water molecules are
cohesive which means that they can form a
column that is pulled up the xylem as a result of
transpiration. It is important to note that it is the
main driver of water movement in the xylem.
Phloem
The second type of tissue in the vascular tissue
system is the phloem. Its function is to carry the
plant nutrients, including minerals and sugars,
throughout the plant. It also moves the products of
photosynthesis out of the leaves to stems and
roots. Phloem tissue is alive at functional
maturity, unlike the xylem tissue.
It is composed mostly of cells called sieve tube
elements that have companion cells. Sieve tube
elements are elongated conducting cells that are
used for the transportation of phloem sap. Phloem
sap is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic
substances comprised of sugars and amino acids.
The Sieve tube loses its nuclei and ribosomes
when sieve tubes are forming. Hence, the
companion cells function to support these mature
sieve tubes.
Pressure-Flow Model
The phloem transports phloem sap in any
direction depending on the plant’s need depending
on the plants need via the pressure-flow model.
The Pressure-flow model proposes that water
containing food molecules flows under pressure
through the phloem. Phloem sap moves from a
sugar source to a sugar sink.
The source is a plant structure that produces
photosynthates that has a high concentration of
sugars. Sources can be the leaves or the roots. On
the other hand, the sink is the point of sugar
delivery, such as roots, young shoots, and
developing seeds.
In the pressure-flow model, sugars move from
their source, such as photo-synthesizing leaves,
into the phloem. Here, plants use ATP to pump or
load sugar into phloem at a high concentration.
This means that at a source, there is a low
concentration of water relative to sugars. Then,
water moves from the xylem into the phloem by
osmosis, due to the higher concentration of sugars
in the phloem. The water flow helps move sugars
through the phloem. This active loading of sugars
and passive flow of water creates high pressure at
the sugar source. Then, the sugars move into the
sink, such as a root or fruit, where they are stored.
The sugar concentration of the sink end is
lessened as sugar is unloaded into the sink which
uses ATP. The overall result is higher pressure at
the source end and lower pressure at the sink end.
This difference in pressure keeps the sugary sap
flowing in the direction of the sink.
Plant Parts
Roots
Roots can make up more than half of a plant's
body as it anchors the plant to the ground. It
absorbs water and minerals required by the plant
from the soil as well.
Roots provide support to the plant through
absorbing, transporting, and storing nutrients.
Roots, like other plant parts, have all three tissue
systems: vascular, ground, and dermal. The
following slide depicts parts of a root.
Parts of the Root
● The center of the root is known as the
vascular cylinder - made up of xylem
and phloem tissues. It is covered by
ground and dermal tissues (where most of
the water of plants are being absorbed).
● Root hairs are tiny cell projections. It
increases the surface area available to
absorb water.
● The root cap covers the root tip. It is a
small cone of cells that protects the root's
growing portion as it pushes through the
soil.
● Meristem is a tissue formed by a group
of new cells. This does not imply that it is
specialized, but when the meristem
divides, some of the new cells specialize
into tissues.
There are two types of meristem: apical
(zones of growth that lengthen the tips of
roots and stems) and lateral (found all
along the woody roots and stems, thicken
these plant parts) meristem.
Root Types Tree Rings

Two basic types of roots are fibrous root systems

and taproot systems.

● Fibrous root systems form fine branches

with most roots being the same size.
These roots spread underneath the soil
surface like a mat, firmly anchoring the
plant to the ground.
● On the other hand, taproot systems have a
long, thick, vertical root that is
surrounded by smaller branches. Plants
with long taproots can obtain water from
deep underground. The thick taproot can
also be used as food storage (e.g.
● Heartwood, the oldest part of the xylem;
radishes, carrots, and beets).
found in the center of a tree trunk; and no
longer conducts water but still serves as a
Stem
structural material. The heartwood is
surrounded by sapwood, which is xylem
Flowers and leaves are supported by stems,
and conducts water. The inner layer of
providing them with more access to pollinators
bark is formed by phloem produced near
and sunlight. Also, it frequently contain the
the trunk's edge. A protective layer of
majority of the vascular system and can store
bark forms an outer layer.
food or water.
● Secondary growth is responsible for tree
Most stems grow above the ground but others
ring formation. Tree rings form as a result
grow underground (e.g. potatoes and ginger).
of uneven seasonal growth. Plenty of
water in the spring: new xylem cells are
Stem Types
wide and have thin walls, cells are in light
appearance. Scarce water: xylem cells
Plant stems could be herbaceous or woody.
shrink and thicken their walls, making
● Herbaceous plants yield little to no
them appear darker in color
wood, and are typically soft due to a lack
- These annual rings can be used to determine the
of rigid xylem cells. Could be: monocots -
age of a tree. One ring represents one year of
corn; dicots - beans. Stems are frequently
development.
green and may be capable of
photosynthesis.
Stem Growth
● Whereas, the majority of plants with
woody stems are dicots, such as many
broadleaf trees and gymnosperms, such as
pines and fir trees. Woody stems include
things like tree trunks.
A plant has the ability to grow as long as it
survives. This is because meristems are active
throughout the plant's life. Meristem cells divide
to produce new cells. Some of the divided cells
remain as meristem cells for future divisions,
while others become specialized and become part
of a plant's tissues and organs.
● The location of the meristems within the
plant determines the pattern of plant
growth. Growth that lengthens a
plant—creating stems primary growth is
when plants grow taller or roots grow
longer, which takes place in the apical
meristem.
● Secondary growth increases the width of
woody plant stems and roots. Secondary
growth is abundant in dicot trees such as
oak and maple throughout their lives.
Leaves
Plant leaves are the primary sites of
photosynthesis. Many leaves' broad, flat features
allow for light collection on the upper surface and
gas exchange on the underside.
Parts of a Leaf
Leaves emerge from the stem of a plant and are
composed of a few basic components. The blade
is typically broad and flat, collecting sunlight for
the plant. The blade is joined to the stem by a thin
stalk known as the petiole. An axillary bud is a
bud that grows between a plant's petiole and stem
to mark the end of a leaf. Leaves, like roots and
stems, have an outer layer of dermal tissue and an
internal network of vascular tissue enveloped by
ground tissue. Many leaves have a waxy cuticle
which produces a water-resistant covering over
the dermal tissue. The cuticle provides protection
to the plant's inner tissues and reduces
evaporation.
Stomata and Guard Cells
Stomata are holes in the underside of leaves that
allow for transpiration and gas exchange.
The figure depicts a pair of guard cells that
surround each stoma and can open and close by
changing shape. Most plants' stomata are open
during the day, enabling the carbon dioxide (CO2)
required for photosynthesis to enter. Guard cells
collect potassium ions (K+) from neighboring
cells. Water enters the guard cells when the K+
concentration is high. When the plant is
submerged in water, the two guard cells expand
into a semicircle shape, allowing the stoma to
open.
Water evaporates from the leaves when the
stomata are open. When the plant loses more
water through transpiration than it gains at the
roots, the guard cells deflate and the stomata
close. The plant may run out of CO2 for
photosynthesis if the stomata are closed. At night,
the stomata close as well. Temperature, humidity,
hormonal response, and CO2 levels in the leaves
all prompt the guard cells to open or close.
Leaf Characteristics
Which part of a plant is a leaf may not always be
obvious. The figures show how leaves can be
either simple, with only one blade attached to the
petiole, or compound, with numerous blades on a
single petiole. The numerous blades are called
leaflets. All of the leaflets and their petioles
combine to form a single leaf because the axillary
bud is at the base of the petiole. At the bases of
the leaflet, there are no buds. In addition to leaf
shape, other leaf traits that help identify plants are
the vein pattern and the leaf margin.
Mesophyll
There are two different types of mesophyll cells in
leaves. A leaf's photosynthetic tissue is called
mesophyll.
The two different kinds of mesophyll cells both
contain chloroplasts. Just below the dermal layer,
there is a layer of tall, rectangular cells called the
palisade mesophyll. The majority of the light that
enters the leaf is absorbed by these cells. Under
this layer is the mesophyll, which is spongy.
There are numerous air spaces in the loosely
packed cells of the spongy mesophyll. These air
spaces are connected to the outside of the plant by
the stomata, which allows carbon dioxide and
oxygen to diffuse into and out of the leaf.
Carbohydrates generated by the plant transfer
from mesophyll cells into phloem vessels, which
transport the products to tissues throughout the
plant.
Leaf Adaptations
● Not all leaves are "leafy," for example;
cacti leaves are actually sharp spines that
protect the plant from predators and help
to minimize water loss due to
transpiration. Leaves are adapted for
photosynthesis in the plant's particular
environment. Other desert plants, like
agave, store water in their leaves.
Numerous desert plants have extremely
thick cuticles that shield the leaves and
stems and limit water loss.
● Similar adaptations are made by
coniferous trees in cold, dry climates. For
instance, pine needles are tiny leaves with
a thick, waxy epidermis that shields them
from damage from the cold. Water loss is
decreased thanks to the stomata's tiny,
sunken areas.
● Large, broad leaves are a common feature
of tropical plants. The difficulty in the
dense rainforest is finding enough light
and room among the other plants. Larger
leaves have more surface area for
capturing light.
● There are several plant predators. Pitcher
plants, for instance, have tall, tubular
 leaves that draw, capture, and digest
insects. Due to a deficiency of nitrogen in
the soil where the plant grows, these
insects supply the plant with additional
nitrogen.

Additional sources:

Campbell, N. and Reese, J. (2008). Plant

Structure, Growth, and Development. Pearson
Education, Inc.