BIO 302L Laboratory Report

Group 5
Number:

Group Dela Cruz, Jeremy Vincent R.

Members: Ilao, Amierah Angela V.
Monterozo, Audrey Rose L.

Topic: Circulatory System

Lab Date: 09/21/22 Section: BSBIO 3103 Time:

Introduction:

The circulatory system functions to pump blood, carry nutrients, and distribute oxygen
throughout the body and it consists of the body's heart and blood vessels. Such a system was
created by large multicellular organisms as a way to actively carry nutrients to the body's cells.

The heart has four separate chambers that work together to circulate blood. Blood is
pumped into the pulmonary and systemic circuits when the heart beats. The systemic circulation
transports blood from the left side of the heart to all of the body's organs and tissues before
returning to the right side of the heart. The pulmonary circulation transports blood from the
right side of the heart to the alveoli of the lungs and back to the left side of the heart. The region
in the thoracic cavity that houses the heart is the mediastinum. A heart’s size is almost equal to
a fist, broad at the top, and then it tapers to the base.

The system’s liquid connective tissue, blood, is vital when it comes to transportation,
protection, and regulation. The laboratory activity will also look at the major blood vessels of
the system. Arteries are blood vessels that consistently transport oxygen-rich blood away from
the heart (exception: pulmonary arteries). Compared to veins, they often have thicker walls.
Deoxygenated blood is carried by veins as they bring blood back to the heart (exception:
pulmonary veins). The tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia combine to generate
both vessel types.

Objectives:
1. To identify the parts, functions and examinations of the circulatory system.
2. To familiarize and remember essential and relevant information on the circulatory system.
3. To be able to know the process involved in the circulatory system.
Labeled Parts of the Cardiovascular System

Anterior view of the heart

Posterior view of the heart

 Internal structures of the heart (Anterior view)

Structures of the cardiovascular system in the thorax.

Discussion:

The circulatory system consists of the heart, network of blood vessels, and blood. In
general, it facilitates the distribution and circulation of extracellular fluids such as oxygen and
nutrients. The heart is in the thoracic cavity in a space between the lungs and beneath the
sternum called the mediastinum. The double-walled sac called the pericardium surrounds the
heart and keeps it in place in the mediastinum along with the blood vessels. The base of the
heart, which lies in the upper right portion, is where the major vessels enter and exit the heart.
While the apex, a pointed end in the lower left portion, is the region of maximal impulse, where
the strongest beat in the heart can be felt or heard.

The fundamental structures of this organ system are the heart wall, the chambers, the
blood vessels, and the valves. There are three distinct layers of the heart wall – an outer
epicardium, a middle myocardium, and an inner endocardium.

1. Epicardium – is the visceral pericardium that surrounds the outer surface of the heart
which is made up of an exposed mesothelium and an underlying layer of loose areolar
connective tissues
2. Myocardium – is the heart's muscle wall where the atria and ventricles are formed. Blood
arteries, nerves, and heart muscles are all present in this layer. This layer is also
responsible for the contraction of the heart.
3. Endocardium – is a thin layer of connective tissue made up of squamous epithelial cells
that connect to the myocardium. It lines the heart’s chambers, covers the valves, and
continues into the vessels.

The human heart is divided into four hollow chambers. There is one atrium and one ventricle
on both the left and right sides of the heart. The interatrial septum divides the atria, and the much
thicker interventricular septum divides the ventricles. The right atrium and left atrium both
function as receiving chambers that contract to force blood into the lower chambers, the right
ventricle, and the left ventricle. The ventricles are the primary pumping chambers of the heart
that propels blood to the lungs or to the rest of the body. The blood from the systemic circuit
enters the right atrium via the two major veins. It receives blood from the head, neck, upper
limbs, and chest via the superior vena cava, which opens into the posterior and superior regions
of the right atrium. The inferior vena cava, on the other hand, opens into the posterior and
inferior portions of the right atrium and carries blood to the right atrium from the rest of the
trunk, the viscera, and the lower limbs. Through a large aperture surrounded by three fibrous
flaps called cusps, blood enters the right ventricle from the right atrium. Cusps are part of the
tricuspid valve wherein its free edge is attached to the connective tissue fibers called the chordae
tendineae. These fibers originate in the papillary muscles that arise from the inner surface of the
right ventricle. The blood then enters the left atrium through the posterior wall from two left and
two right pulmonary veins. The left ventricle's entrance is blocked by a bicuspid valve. The left
ventricle having a thicker wall than the right ventricle has the capacity to push blood through the
large systemic circuit. Through the aortic semilunar valve, the blood exits and enters the
ascending aorta. Once the blood has been pumped into the systemic circuit, the aortic semilunar
valve prevents backflow into the left ventricle.

The circulatory system consists of a network of blood vessels that transport blood. These vessels
are enumerated below with their functions.
 ● Superior vena cava - returns blood from regions superior to the diaphragm: the head,
neck, upper limbs, and the thoracic region.
● Inferior vena cava - returns blood from areas inferior to the diaphragm: the lower limbs
and abdominopelvic region of the body.
● Pulmonary trunk - separates into the right and left pulmonary arteries which transport
oxygen-poor blood to the lung.
● Pulmonary veins - transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atria of the
heart.
● Cardiac vein - transports deoxygenated blood that contains metabolic waste products
from the heart to the right atrium.
● Ascending aorta - transports oxygenated blood directly from the heart to be distributed
throughout the body. It also serves as a low-resistance pathway for blood flow which is
pumped from the left ventricle.
● Coronary arteries - supply the walls of the heart with oxygenated blood.
● Interventricular artery - delivers blood to the inferior portions of the myocardium and
interventricular sulcus of the heart.
● Marginal artery - delivers blood to the superficial portions of the right ventricle.

The heart has four valves, two at each ventricle's exit and one between each atrium and
ventricle. These valves work together to ensure that blood flows forward through the heart. Each
valve is made up of two or three tissue flaps known as cusps or leaflets. There are two types of
valves in the heart, the atrioventricular (AV) valves and the semilunar valves.

The atrioventricular (AV) valves regulate blood flow between the atria and the ventricles. It has
two types:
● Right AV valve – or the tricuspid valve, allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the
right ventricle and prevents blood from flowing backwards from the right ventricle to the
right atrium.
● Left AV valve – also called the bicuspid valve or mitral valve, allows blood to flow from
the lungs into the left atrium and prevents blood from flowing backward from the left
ventricle into the left atrium.

The semilunar valves, on the other hand, control the flow of blood between the ventricles and the
major arteries. It has two types:
● Pulmonary semilunar valve - allows blood to flow from the right ventricle to the
pulmonary artery and prevents blood from flowing backward from the pulmonary artery
to the right ventricle.
● Aortic semilunar valve - allows blood to flow from the left ventricle to the aorta and
prevents blood from flowing from the aorta into the left ventricle. Most importantly, it is
 responsible for transporting oxygenated blood to the body.

In the human circulatory system, there are two distinct yet interconnected circuits known
as the pulmonary and systemic circuits.

Pulmonary Circulation

● Large artery that leaves the heart, the pulmonary artery is. Blood travels from the heart to
the lungs through it as it divides into two major branches. The blood absorbs oxygen
from the lungs and exhales carbon dioxide. After that, the pulmonary veins carry the
blood back to the heart.

Systemic Circulation

● After that, the blood that travels back to the heart has absorbed a lot of oxygen from the
lungs. Therefore, it can now reach the body. This oxygenated blood leaves the heart in
the aorta, a large artery. The aorta has branches that supply blood to every region of the
body, including the heart's own muscles. As they approach the aorta, the branches get
progressively smaller, much like a tree.
● The very small artery branches and the very small veins are connected at each body part
by a network of minuscule blood channels called capillaries. Oxygen and nutrients are
given to the cells through the incredibly thin walls of the capillaries. The capillaries
receive waste materials.
● Small veins are then reached by capillaries. As the blood travels to the heart, little veins
grow bigger and bigger. Blood flows correctly because of valves in the veins. The
superior and inferior vena cava are two significant veins that enter the heart. (The
phrases superior and inferior refer to the veins' locations above and below the heart,
respectively; they do not indicate which vein is superior.) When the blood is in the heart
again, it needs to enter the pulmonary circulation once again and return to the lungs to
expel carbon dioxide and take in more oxygen.

Cardiovascular muscle cells require consistent supply of oxygen and nutrients to

function properly. The heart's chambers carry a lot of blood, yet the myocardium receives a
unique, independent blood supply from a circuit called coronary circulation. The coronary
circulation is a component of the general circulatory system that nourishes the heart's tissues
with blood and removes waste products, The heart receives oxygenated blood through this type
of circulation, enabling appropriate heart function. In the human heart, two coronary arteries
branch from the aorta just past the semilunar valves. During diastole, the increased aortic
pressure above the valves pulls blood into the coronary arteries, where it subsequently travels to
the heart's musculature. Coronary veins, the majority of which congregate to create the coronary
venous sinus, which drains into the right atrium, are responsible for bringing deoxygenated
blood back to the heart's chambers.

The circulatory system can also catch possible diseases such as atherosclerosis and mitral
regurgitation, which will be both discussed further.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
The most prevalent type of arteriosclerosis, which is a collective term for a number of
diseases that cause thickening and loss of flexibility in the artery wall, is atherosclerosis.
Because it results in coronary artery disease and cerebrovascular disease, atherosclerosis is also
the most severe and clinically significant type of arteriosclerosis. Atherosclerosis can affect all
large and medium-sized arteries, including the coronary, carotid, and cerebral arteries; the aorta;
its branches; and major arteries of the extremities.

Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis
Patchy intimal plaques (atheromas), which encroach into the lumen of medium-sized and
large arteries, are the hallmark of atherosclerosis. Lipids, inflammatory cells, smooth muscle
cells, and connective tissue are all present in the plaques. When the plaque expands or ruptures,
it limits or obstructs blood flow, and symptoms vary depending on the artery that is impacted.
An imaging test such as an angiography, ultrasonography, or another confirms the clinical
diagnosis.

Risk Factors and Treatment for Atherosclerosis

Dyslipidemia, diabetes, smoking, familial history, sedentary lifestyle, obesity, and
hypertension are risk factors. Treatment options include altering risk factors, one's way of life,
and food; exercising; taking antiplatelet medications; and taking antiatherogenic medications.

Diagnosis of Atherosclerosis
Patients that show symptoms such as ischemia are evaluated for the location and
amounts of the vascular occlusion by performing various non-invasive or invasive tests. They
would also be evaluated for atherosclerosis risk factors by using history and physical exams,
fasting lipid profile, and plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels.

The value of additional testing beyond the lipid profile in patients with atherosclerotic
risk factors but no symptoms or evidence of ischemia is unknown. Despite being investigated,
imaging studies such as carotid ultrasonography to measure intimal medial thickness and other
studies that can detect atherosclerotic plaque do not consistently improve prediction of ischemic
events over assessment of risk factors or established prediction tools, and they are not advised.
CT imaging for coronary artery calcium (i.e., to determine a calcium score) is an exception, for
which there is more evidence for risk reclassification; it may be useful for adjusting risk
estimations and for choosing statin medication in some individuals (eg, those with intermediate
risk, family history of premature cardiovascular disease).

MITRAL REGURGITATION
Mitral Regurgitation (MR) happens when the mitral valve is not functioning properly,
blood flows from the left ventricle (LV) into the left atrium during ventricular systole.
Rheumatic fever and mitral valve prolapse are frequent causes of MR, which can also be related
to LV dilatation or infarction. Arrhythmias, endocarditis, and progressive heart failure are
complications. Palpitations, dyspnea, and a holosystolic apical murmur are some of the
symptoms and warning indications. Physical examination and echocardiography are used to
diagnose. Patients with moderate, asymptomatic MR may be watched, but patients with
increasing or symptomatic MR require mitral valve surgery or replacement. Prognosis varies on
LV function and the cause, severity, and duration of MR.

Pathophysiology of Mitral Regurgitation

Acute mitral regurgitation may cause acute pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock or
sudden cardiac death.

Symptoms and Signs of Mitral Regurgitation

Only when moderate to severe mitral regurgitation occurs do symptoms appear. Due to
the systolic expansion of an enlarged left atrium (LA), inspection and palpation may reveal a
rapid apical impulse and persistent left parasternal movement. LV hypertrophy and dilatation are
suggested by an LV impulse that is prolonged, larger, and shifted downhill and to the left.
Because the LA enlarges, creating anterior cardiac displacement and right ventricular
hypertrophy, severe MR results in a diffuse precordial lift. In more severe cases, there may also
be a perceptible regurgitant murmur.

Diagnosis of Mitral Regurgitation

● Echocardiography
● ECG and chest x-ray

Treatment of Mitral Regurgitation

● Mitral valve repair preferred for primary MR
● Medical therapy or mitral valve replacement for secondary MR
● Anticoagulants for patients with atrial fibrillation

The anatomical model of the heart is almost the same as the real structure of the heart.
However, there are parts that are hard to identify. For instance, the veins and arteries are placed
differently from the reference images that we can see at the internet although it has the same
colors. We also find it difficult to to distinguish the types of blood vessels due to the sizes in the
model. And lastly, the most difficult part to identify is the internal structures since it is all
painted white.

Conclusion:

In this lab activity, we analyzed the circulatory system's parts and functions, and the
processes that occur within the circulatory system. The researchers found that the general
function of the circulatory system is to distribute and circulate the extracellular fluids throughout
the body. The heart - consisting of three layers of wall, four chambers, network of blood vessels,
and four valves - plays the most important role in this system. Systemic and pulmonary
circulation are the two processes that occur in the circulatory system. Conversely, there is
another type of circulation called coronary circulation that supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
heart. Lastly, there are diseases that are caused by the failure to function of the circulatory
system like atherosclerosis and mitral regurgitation.
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