UNIT 2

Gender and the Family

LESSON 2.1

Gender Socialization in the Family

LESSON 2.2

Gender Issues in the Family

LESSON 2.3

Laws and Issuances: RA 9262 and RA 8972

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LESSON 2.1

Gender Socialization in the Family

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. analyzed how the process of gender socialization impact the development of a
person in his or her lifespan;
2. cited how the family acts as the most important agent of gender socialization
for children and adolescents; and
3. provided ways on how to diminish gender stereotyping at home.

Introduction
Who you are and what you are, much of it, is said to be a product of your own
childhood and formation at home. How you act and mingle with people is said to be
patterned also by your own day to day interaction and observation from your own parents
and members in the household. Although labelled as the smallest unit of our society, the
family is considered to be the most significant and influential among social institutions.
This unit will give you the idea on how critical the family is, as this is where we first learn
our sex and gender roles.

Gender Socialization
Before you go in depth with the definition of gender socialization, it is ideal for you
to first have a background of what socialization is. Merriam- Webster dictionary simply
defined socialization as social interaction with others; and the process beginning
childhood by which individuals acquire the values, habits, and attitudes of a society.

In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies

of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means
by which social and cultural continuity are attained” (Clausen, 1968). Socialization
essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a
central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children
(Cromdal, 2006).

Looking at the definition of socialization, you will notice the concepts like interaction
and life course. We all know as to when our life course starts and that is from our birth
down to our death and our interaction also starts with our parents and with other social
institutions. This is where gender socialization will come in. Our society expects different
attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. The way we are, how we behave and think,
is the final product of socialization. Since the moment we are born, we are being moulded

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into a being which the society wants us to be. Through socialization we also learn what
is appropriate and improper for both genders (Crespi, 2004).

So what exactly is gender socialization?

Gender socialization is the process through which children learn about the social
expectations, attitudes and behaviors typically associated with boys and girls.

Gender Socialization is the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently.
Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls are raised to conform to the
female gender or role (Crespi, 2004).

As you remember gender role is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality

characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.

Sociologists and other social scientists generally attribute many of the behavioral
differences between men and women to socialization. In regards to gender socialization,
the most common groups people join are the gender categories of male and female. Even
the categorical options of gender an individual may choose is socialized; social norms act
against selecting a gender that is neither male nor female. Thus, gender socialization is
the process of educating and instructing potential men and women how to behave as
members of that particular group.

Even if you are not familiar with the concept of “gender socialization,” it is most
likely that you have been influenced by it and shared it to others. Gender socialization
begins at birth, intensifies during adolescence and contributes to gender inequalities in
education, employment, income, empowerment, and other significant outcomes of well-
being during adolescence and later in life, argues a recently published discussion paper
by the UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti and the International Centre for Research
on Women (Balvin, 2017).

Socialization before Birth

Preparations for gender socialization begin even before the birth of the child. One
of the first questions people ask of expectant parents is whether the baby will be a boy or
girl. This is the beginning of a social categorization process that continues throughout life.
Preparations for the birth of the child often take the expected sex into consideration, such
as painting the infant’s room pink or blue.

Early Life Socialization

One illustration of early life gender socialization can be seen in preschool
classrooms. Children in preschool classrooms where teachers were told to emphasize
gender differences saw an increase in stereotyped views of what activities are appropriate
for boys or girls, while children with teachers who did not emphasize gender showed no
increase in stereotyped views. This clearly demonstrates the influence of socialization on
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the development of gender roles; subtle cues that surround us in our everyday lives
strongly influence gender socialization.

Adolescent Socialization
The process of gender socialization continues as adolescents enter the workforce.
Research has found that adolescents encounter stereotypes of gendered performance in
the workforce in their first jobs. First jobs are significantly segregated by sex. Girls work
fewer hours and earn less per hour than boys. Hourly wages are higher in job types
dominated by boys while girls are more frequently assigned housework and childcare
duties. The impact of these first experiences in the professional world will shape
adolescents’ perspectives on how men and women behave differently in the workforce.

Gender Influence on Family

When parents have a new baby, the first question they typically ask is whether
they have a girl or a boy. Children’s gender assignment becomes a powerful social identity
that shapes children’s lives. During early childhood, girls and boys spend much of their
time in the home with their families and look to parents and older siblings for guidance.
Parents provide children with their first lessons about gender. Possible ways that parents
might influence children’s gender development include role modeling and encouraging
different behaviors and activities in sons and daughters (Bussey K., Bandura A., 1999).

Every culture has different guidelines about what is appropriate for males and
females, and family members may socialize babies in gendered ways without consciously
following that path. For example, in American society and most other parts of the world,
the color pink is associated with girls and the color blue with boys. Even as tiny babies,
boys and girls are dressed differently, according to what is considered “appropriate” for
their respective sexes. Even parents who strive to achieve a less “gendered” parenting
style unconsciously reinforce gender roles.

Example: The toys and games parents select for children are often unconsciously
intended to socialize them into the appropriate gender roles. Girls receive dolls in an
attempt to socialize them into future roles as mothers. Since women are expected to be
more nurturing than men, giving a girl a doll teaches her to care for it and fosters the value
of caring for others. When boys receive dolls, they are likely to be action figures designed
to bring out the alleged aggressive tendencies in boys.

Gender Messages in the Family

Gender role theory posits that boys and girls learn the appropriate behavior and
attitudes from the family and overall culture in which they grow up, and that non-physical
gender differences are a product of socialization. Social role theory proposes that social
structure is the underlying force behind gender differences, and that the division of labor
between two sexes within a society motivates the differences in their respective behavior.

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Division of labor creates gender roles, which in turn, lead to gender-specific social
behavior.

Family is the most important agent of socialization because it serves as the center
of a child’s life. Socialization theory tells us that primary socialization – the process that
occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions expected of individuals within
a particular culture – is the most important phase of social development, and lays the
groundwork for all future socialization. Therefore, the family plays a pivotal role in the
child’s development, influencing both the attitudes the child will adopt and the values the
child will hold. Socialization can be intentional or unintentional; the family may not be
conscious of the messages it transmits, but these messages nonetheless contribute to
the child’s socialization. Children learn continuously from the environment that adults
create, including gender norms.

For example, a child who grows up in a two-parent household with a mother who
acts as a homemaker and a father who acts as the breadwinner may internalize these
gender roles, regardless of whether or not the family is directly teaching them. Likewise,
if parents buy dolls for their daughters and toy trucks for their sons, the children will learn
to value different things.

In a paper published by Dr. Campbell Leaper, entitled Parents’ Socialization of

Gender in Children he evaluated the influence of parents on children’s gender
development by raising four questions:

 Do parents tend to have gender-stereotypical expectations for their

children?
 Do parents tend to model traditional gender-role behaviors to their children?
 Do parents tend to encourage gender-stereotyped behaviors and to
discourage cross-gender stereotyped behaviors in their children?
 Do gender-related variations in parents’ expectations and behaviour have
causal influences on children’s gender development?

So what were the findings of his research? They are in the boxes below.

Parents’ gender-stereotypical expectations.

Gender-typed expectations may occur regarding personality traits (e.g., “boys are
aggressive”), abilities (e.g., “girls are good at reading”), activities, and roles (e.g., “men
are scientists”). As gender equality has increased in many cultures during the last several
decades, there has been a corresponding increase in adults’ endorsement of gender-
egalitarian attitudes. There is now more variation among parents with some holding
traditional expectations and some expressing egalitarian expectations for their daughters
and sons. Also, some parents may support egalitarian views about some domains (e.g.,
occupations) but remain more traditional about other domains (e.g., family roles). Finally,
parents (especially fathers) tend to be more rigid in their expectations for sons than
daughters.
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Parents’ gender-role modeling.
One of the dramatic social changes in much of the industrialized world in the last
50 years has been in the entrance of women into the labor force. In contemporary
industrialized societies, most women with children work outside of the home. Men’s
average involvement in childcare and housework has also increased, although domestic
responsibilities continue to be handled mostly by women in most dual-career families.
Research finds that fathers’ childcare involvement is negatively related to children’s
gender stereotyping. Through active involvement in childcare, fathers demonstrate that
the adult male role may include nurturing as well as instrumental activities.

The potential influence of parental gender-role modeling has also been implicated
in studies of children raised by lesbian or gay parents. Compared to children raised in
two-parent heterosexual families, children raised by same-gender parents tend be less
likely than to endorse certain gender stereotypes. However, when same gender parents
divided labor with one parent as primary caregiver and the other parent as the primary
breadwinner, their children were more likely to express stereotyped views about adult
roles and occupations.

Parents’ differential treatment of daughters and sons.

In many parts of the world, parents with limited financial resources have a strong
preference for sons. As a result, priority for resource opportunities ranging from health
care to education may be given to sons over daughters. This stark contrast in the
differential treatment of sons and daughters is generally not seen in wealthier countries.
Nonetheless, there are common ways that parents in these societies may socialize girls
and boys differently.

According to one comprehensive review of studies conducted in western countries,

the most consistent manner by which parents treat girls and boys differently is through
the encouragement of gender-stereotyped activities. This includes the types of toys that
parents might purchase or the kinds of activities that they promote. For example, parents
are more likely to provide toy vehicles, action figures, and sports equipment for their sons;
and they are more likely to give dolls, kitchen sets, and dress-up toys to their daughters.
Once children begin to request particular toys (usually by around 3 years of age), it is
unclear how much parents are shaping their children’s play activity preferences as
opposed to acceding to their children’s stated preferences.

There are also subtle ways that parents may reinforce gender stereotypes even
when they are not overtly encouraging them. This is commonly seen in parents’ use of
essentialist statements about gender. Examples would be “Girls like dolls” or “Boys like
football.” In these instances, the parent is expressing what is known as a descriptive
stereotype (i.e., describing general patterns or “essences” about each gender) rather than
prescriptive stereotype (i.e.,stating what should occur). Research suggests that even
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middle-class mothers who held gender-egalitarian attitudes often used essentialist
statements with their preschool-age children. Also, they rarely challenged gender
stereotypes (e.g., “It’s ok if a girl wants to play basketball”).

On the average, parents in many industrialized cultures are more flexible about the
play activities they consider acceptable for daughters than sons. (Relatively little research
has examined parental attitudes toward girls’ and boys’ play in non-western or non-
industrialized countries.) Also, fathers tend to be more rigid than mothers in encouraging
gender-typed play (especially in sons). For example, many American parents encourage
athletic participation (a masculine-stereotyped activity) in their daughters. In contrast, few
parents encourage doll play (a feminine-stereotyped activity) in their sons. Indeed, many
parents are alarmed in such cases. However, evidence suggests that some parents are
more tolerant of cross-gender-typed behaviors in sons than seen in earlier decades.

Conclusion
Dr. Leaper also provided his own conclusion on how dramatic transformations in
women’s and men’s roles inside and outside of the family have occurred and changed
brought about by industrialization. The traditional image of the two-parent heterosexual
family with the father serving as the provider and the mother as the homemaker is no
longer the norm in many industrialized countries. Instead, most mothers pursue jobs
outside of the home and many fathers are involved in childcare. In addition, many children
are raised by single parents and by lesbian/gay parents. Despite these role changes,
there remain relatively few truly egalitarian parenting arrangements. Also, his studies
suggested that parents with gender-egalitarian attitudes may nonetheless act differently
with daughters and sons. Longitudinal studies suggest that parents’ treatment of sons
and daughters may have an influence on some aspects of their gender development.

Implications for Parents

Parents may wish to foster more flexible gender roles in children to help them
develop a broader repertoire of socio- emotional and cognitive skills. Although parents
can have an influence on children’s gender development, their impact can sometimes be
overestimated. Because gender is a social category that organizes virtually every
segment of society, there are multiple sources of socialization in children’s gender
development. Besides parents, these potentially include other family members, peer
groups, friends, the media, and teachers. As children get older and become more
autonomous, the influences of peers and the media often become especially powerful.
Parents can try to encourage their children to play with a combination of feminine-
and masculine-stereotyped toys and play activities during early childhood; however, they
may find their efforts run counter to children’s attitudes once they are exposed to peers
and the media. In addition, parents can be mindful of the kinds of peers with whom their
children affiliate. They may be able to foster greater gender-role flexibility through
encouragement of organized mixed-gender activities in which girls and boys learn to work
together as equals.
Finally, parents can make a concerted effort to discuss and challenge gender
stereotypes with their children.
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LESSON 2.2
Gender Issues in the Family

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. cited the different forms of abuses happening and existing in the household;
2. analyzed the different forms of abuses that are commonly existing in the
household; and
3. expressed solutions on the different forms of domestic and household abuses
through a written pledge.

Introduction

From the previous lesson, you were informed of how crucial the family is in the
development of a person. This lesson will widen your idea on how the home itself serves
as the first witness to the different forms of abuses, stereotyping, inequalities and issues
that later radiate to the bigger society. In this lesson, we will be learning gender related
issues happening within the household and the selected laws that protect members of the
family.

Families are arenas for sharing and caring, but they are also arenas of power
relations. Both love and exploitation can occur in families. The balance of these dynamics
depends considerably on socio-economic dimensions that give rise to differential access
to resources on the basis of gender and age. It also depends on the extent to which
people can enter and exit from relationships. The potential for exploitation is much higher
if some members control decisions about the formation or dissolution of the family, and if
there is limited alternative support for those who remove themselves from their family
setting (Beujot, et.al. 2017).

Gender inequality permeates society at all levels and in the context of most social
institutions. One institution in which gender inequality remains resistant to change is the
family. Over time, various theories have examined the causes of gender inequality
generally, including biology, sex roles, and “doing gender,” each of which has also been
applied to gender inequality in the family (Adams, 2018).

We have different common forms of abuses or issues existing in the household.

Much of it are experienced by women and their children. One common example is on
gender pay gap. Social expectations that women manage childcare contribute to the
gender pay gap and other limitations in professional life for women. Because women are
expected to handle childcare, they choose jobs with greater flexibility and lower pay.

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 The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and workplace
characteristics between women and men (education, hours worked, occupation etc.), as
well as direct and indirect discrimination in the labor market (gender stereotypes,
customer and employer bias etc.).

Health care for children and a flexible schedule that enables women to take care
of their children for which they are still overwhelmingly responsible may take priority over
pay. Moreover, many women are disinclined to take jobs that require travel or are
hazardous. On average, women take more time off and work fewer hours, often due to
the unequal distribution of childcare and domestic labor. Family obligations tend to pull
down on women’s earnings as they proceed through the life course and have more
children. The earning gap tends to widen considerably when men and women are in their
early to mid-thirties, or when people start to have children, and reaches its widest point
when men and women are in their fifties.

With the many gender issues existing within the household, this lesson will isolate
the scope to domestic forms of abuses and violence. When most people think of domestic
violence, they imagine a situation where the abusive partner physically hurts the victim.
However, physical harm is only one form of abuse and there are various types of domestic
violence as it can be physical, emotional/psychological, sexual, or economic.

Violence may take different forms at the individual, community, and the societal
level. The most common forms of violence include that of rape, domestic violence,
stalking, sexual harassment, human trafficking, forced prostitution, state violence, and
female genital mutilation.

Physical Violence
Physical violence involves the use of physical force against another. Examples
include hitting, shoving, grabbing, biting, restraining, shaking, choking, burning, forcing
drug/alcohol use, and assault with a weapon, etc. Physical violence may or may not result
in an injury that requires medical attention.

Sexual Violence
Sexual violence involves the violation of an individual’s bodily integrity (sexual
assault), including coercing sexual contact, rape, and prostitution, as well as any
unwelcome sexual behavior (sexual harassment), and including treating someone in a
sexually demeaning manner or any other conduct of a sexual nature, whether physical,
verbal, or non-verbal. Sexual abuse also includes behavior which limits reproductive
rights, such as preventing use of contractive methods and forcing abortion.

Psychological/ Emotional Abuse

Psychological abuse is often characterized as intimidation, threats of harm, and
isolation. Examples include instilling fear in an intimate partner through threatening
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behavior, such as damaging property or abusing pets, constant supervision, or controlling
what the victim does and who they talk to. Spiritual abuse may be included as a type of
psychological abuse. It involves the misuse of spiritual or religious beliefs to manipulate
or exert power and control over an intimate partner (i.e., using scripture to justify abuse
or rearing the children in a faith or religious practice the partner has not agreed to).

Emotional abuse involves undermining an individual’s sense of self-worth.

Examples of emotional abuse include constant criticism, name-calling, embarrassing,
mocking, humiliating, and treating like a servant.

Economic Abuse
Economic abuse involves making or attempting to make the victim financially
dependent on the abuser. Examples of economic abuse include preventing or forbidding
an intimate partner from working or gaining and education, controlling the financial
resources, and withholding access to economic resources.

Impacts of Violence on Children

Violence against women affects the whole family.

Many children exposed to violence in the home are also victims of physical abuse
(Modi, M.N., et. al, 2014). Children who witness domestic violence or are victims of abuse
themselves are at serious risk for long-term physical and mental health problems (Gilbert,
L.K, et. al, 2015). Children who witness violence between parents may also be at greater
risk of being violent in their future relationships. If you are a parent who is experiencing
abuse, it can be difficult to know how to protect your child.

So what are some of the short-term effects of domestic violence or abuse on

children?

Children in homes where one parent is abused may feel fearful and anxious. They
may always be on guard, wondering when the next violent event will happen. (Domestic
Violence Roundtable, n.d.). This can cause them to react in different ways, depending on
their age:

A. Children in preschool. Young children who witness intimate partner

violence may start doing things they used to do when they were younger,
such as bed-wetting, thumb-sucking, increased crying, and whining.
They may also develop difficulty falling or staying asleep; show signs of
terror, such as stuttering or hiding; and show signs of severe separation
anxiety.

B. School-aged children. Children in this age range may feel guilty about
the abuse and blame themselves for it. Domestic violence and abuse
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 hurts children’s self-esteem. They may not participate in school activities
or get good grades, have fewer friends than others, and get into trouble
more often. They also may have a lot of headaches and stomachaches.

C. Teens. Teens who witness abuse may act out in negative ways, such
as fighting with family members or skipping school. They may also
engage in risky behaviors, such as having unprotected sex and using
alcohol or drugs. They may have low self-esteem and have trouble
making friends. They may start fights or bully others and are more likely
to get in trouble with the law. This type of behavior is more common in
teen boys who are abused in childhood than in teen girls. Girls are more
likely than boys to be withdrawn and to experience depression (Child
Welfare Information Gateway, 2014).

What are the long-term effects of domestic violence or abuse on children?

Children are at greater risk for repeating the cycle as adults by entering into
abusive relationships or becoming abusers themselves. For example, a boy who sees his
mother being abused is 10 times more likely to abuse his female partner as an adult. A
girl who grows up in a home where her father abuses her mother is more than six times
as likely to be sexually abused as a girl who grows up in a non-abusive home (Vargas,
L., J., Dickson, S., 2005).
Children who witness or are victims of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse are at
higher risk for health problems as adults. These can include mental health conditions,
such as depression and anxiety. They may also include diabetes, obesity, heart disease,
poor self-esteem, and other problems (Monnat, S.M., Chandler, R.F., 2015).

Knowing and watching for signs of possible exposure to violence

No single behavior proves that a child has been exposed to violence, but you can
watch for physical signs such as bruises, unexplained changes in behavior and motional
signs such as depression, mood swings, and fearful or anxious behavior. Depending on
the age of the child, you can observe if a young child is crying more than usual, is difficult
to calm, startles easily, or screams and panics during sleep.

School-age children may become more aggressive and fight a lot, return to old
fears or develop new ones, become apprehensive about going home, express a wish that
the teacher were the parent, or become overly active.

Teenagers may use violence to get what they want, rebel in school, stop being
concerned about their appearance, or refuse to follow rules

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LESSON 2.3

Laws and Issuances: RA 9262 and RA 8972

Lesson Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should have:
1. analyzed and critiqued the implementation of the selected laws;
and

2. effectively suggest means to increase awareness of the people

on VAWC campaigns.

Introduction

In the preceding lessons under this unit, you became familiar with the different
forms of gender issues happening in the family. This lesson will help enlighten you on
how to protect two of the marginalized groups in the country, the women and their children
and the solo parents.

Wife beaters has something to beware of and the solo parents has something to
be thankful of, thanks to RA 9262 and RA 8972.

The Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act of 2004 (RA 9262) is a
law spearheaded by female political figures and signed at the day when we
commemorated the International Women’s Day in 2004. Under the law, men who abuse
their female partners or their children can get up to 16 years in jail. In contrast, the
common crime of inflicting injury on another person is punishable by only six years in jail.

The passage of the law was a response to the need to address the violence women
and children experience due to unequal power relations. Republic Act 9262 was signed
on May 8, 2004 by then President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, with full support from
women’s rights and feminist groups. The law charges tougher penalties for abusive
husbands and men and marks the declaration of the State’s valuation to “the dignity of
women and children and guarantees full respect for human rights” (Sec. 2).

Senator Loi Ejercito was the principal author of Senate Bill 2723 or the Anti- VAWC
bill in the Senate while Rep. Bellaflor Angara-Castillo was the principal author of House
Bill 5516 at the House of Representatives. Obviously, we have a lot of provisions found
in the law. It is now time for you to look at some of the common questions about the law.

In the case of the Solo Parent Act, it was promulgated on November 7, 2000 at the
time of Pres. Joseph Estrada. Solo parents are those who are left alone with the
responsibility of rearing their children regardless of marital status. Based on National
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Statistics Office (NSO) data, there are about 14 million solo parents in the Philippines.
The increasing number of solo parents has led the national government to pass Republic
Act 8972, or the Solo Parents’ Welfare Act of 2000. While being a solo parent can be
difficult, the passage of RA 8972 has somehow made it rewarding (Patajo- Kapunan, L.,
2015).

RA 9262 OR THE ANTI- VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ACT

What is Republic Act 9262?

RA 9262 is the Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children Act of 2004. It
seeks to address the prevalence of violence against women and children (VAWC),
abuses on women and their children by their intimate partners like:
„ Husband or ex-husband „ Live-in partner or ex-live in partner
„ Boyfriend/girlfriend or ex-boyfriend/ex-girlfriend
„ Dating partner or ex-dating partner

The Act classifies violence against women and children (VAWC) as a public crime.

What is VAWC under the law?

It refers to “any act or a series of acts committed by any person against a woman
who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the person has or had a
sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has a common child, or against her child
whether legitimate or illegitimate, within or without the family abode, which result in or is
likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse
including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment or arbitrary
deprivation of liberty.
It includes, but is not limited to, the following acts:

 “Physical violence” refers to acts that include bodily or physical harm;

 “Sexual violence” refers to an act which is sexual in nature, committed against a
woman or her child. It includes, but is not limited to:

a. rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness, treating a woman or

her child as a sex object, making demeaning and sexually suggestive
remarks, physically attacking the sexual parts of the victim’s body,
forcing her/him to watch obscene publications and indecent shows or
forcing the woman or her child to do indecent acts and/or make films
thereof, forcing the wife and mistress/lover to live in the conjugal home
or sleep together in the same room with the abuser;

b. acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to engage in any sexual

activity by force, threat of force, physical or other harm or threat of
physical or other harm or coercion;

c. prostituting the woman or her child.

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 “Psychological violence” refers to acts or omissions causing or likely to cause
mental or emotional suffering of the victim such as but not limited to intimidation,
harassment, stalking, damage to property, public ridicule or humiliation, repeated
verbal abuse and marital infidelity. It includes causing or allowing the victim to witness
the physical, sexual or psychological abuse of a member of the family to which the
victim belongs, or to witness pornography in any form or to witness abusive injury to
pets or to unlawful or unwanted deprivation of the right to custody and/or visitation of
common children.

 “Economic violence” refers to acts that make or attempt to make a woman

financially dependent. This includes but is not limited to the following:

a) withdrawal of financial support or preventing the victim from engaging in

any legitimate profession, occupation, business or activity, except in
cases wherein the other spouse/partner objects on valid, serious and
moral grounds as defined in Article 73 of the Family Code;

b) deprivation or threat of deprivation of financial resources and the right to

the use and enjoyment of the conjugal, community or property owned in
common;

c) destroying household property;

d) controlling the victim’s own money or properties or solely controlling the

conjugal money or properties.

Children - those below 18 years of age or older but are incapable of taking care of
themselves (as stated in Republic Act 7610). It includes the biological children of the victim
and other children under her care.

Dating relationship - one which has a romantic involvement. It means that a relationship
existed between a woman and a partner who is abusive or has previously abused her,
whether or not the relationship was formal.

Sexual relations - refer to a single sexual act which may or may not result to a bearing of a
child.

Who gets protected under the law?

The law recognizes the unequal relations of a man and a woman in an abusive
relationship where it is usually the woman who is the disadvantaged. Thus, the law
protects the woman and her children.

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 The victim, the child who is a minor (legitimate and illegitimate), and a person aged
18 years and beyond who doesn’t have the ability to decide for herself/himself because
of an emotional, physical and mental illness can make full use of the law.

Any child under the care of a woman is also protected under the law.

Is VAWC committed by men alone?

Women can also be liable under the law. These are the lesbian partners/ girlfriends
or former partners of the victim with whom she has or had a sexual or dating relationship
(Source: Barangay Protection Order RA 9262 A Primer. Department of Interior and Local
Government, National Barangay Operations Office. 2004).

What if the female victim commits violence against her partner?

The law acknowledges that women who have retaliated against their partners or
who commit violence as a form of self-defense may have suffered from battered women
syndrome (BWS).

BWS is a “scientifically defined pattern of psychological and behavioral symptoms

found in women living in battering relationships as a result of cumulative abuse” (Salient
Features. A Guide to Anti-Violence against Women and their Children [RA 9262].
Philippine Information Agency and National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women.
2004)

Any victim who suffers from BWS should be diagnosed by a psychiatric expert or
a clinical psychologist. This will also help the victim in obtaining a just decision in her
case. The law does not allow the offender to have custody of minor children. Their care
is still entrusted to the woman even if she is found to have BWS.

What is the male spouse/ partner complains about abuses committed by his wife/
partner?

He may file a complaint or case under the Revised Penal Code.

What are the penalties for committing VAWC?

If the courts have proven that the offender is guilty of the crime, he may be
imprisoned and will be obliged to pay P100,000 to P300,000 in damages. The length of
imprisonment depends on the gravity of the crime.

The offender is also obliged to undergo psychological counselling or psychiatric

treatment.

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 Being drunk or under the influence of prohibited drugs cannot be taken as an
excuse for committing VAW.

What can women and children do under the law?

The law allows women and their children to secure barangay protection order
and/or temporary or permanent protection order from the courts. They can also file an
independent civil action for damages and criminal action for the violation of anti-VAWC
Act.

What is a protection order?

It is an order prescribed in the Anti-VAWC Act to prevent further abuse of or
violence against a woman and her child. It also provides them relief from said abuse or
violence.

Who may file the protection order?

Anyone of the following may also file the protection order in behalf of the victim/s:

a. parent or guardian h. counselors

b. grandparents i. therapists
c. children and grandchildren j. health care providers (nurses,
d. relatives (aunts, uncles, doctors, barangay health
cousins, in-laws) workers)
e. local officials and DSWD social k. any two people who have
workers personal knowledge of the
f. police crime
g. lawyers

RA 9072: THE SOLO PARENT’S WELFARE ACT

What is the Solo Parent’s Welfare Act?

RA 8972 or the Solo Parent’s Welfare Act provides for benefits and privileges to
solo parents and their children. It aims to develop a comprehensive package of social
development and welfare services for solo parents and their children to be carried out by
the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), as the lead agency, various
government agencies including NSO and other related NGOs.

Who are considered solo parents?

A solo parent is any individual who falls under any of the following categories:
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 1. A woman who gives birth as a result of rape and other crimes against chastity
even without a final conviction of the offender, provided that mother keeps and
raises the child.

2. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to the following
circumstances:
a. Due to death of spouse.
b. Spouse is detained or is serving sentence for a criminal conviction for at
least one (1) year.
c. Physical and/or mental incapacity of spouse as certified by a public
medical practitioner.
d. Legal separation or de facto separation from spouse for at least one (1)
year, as long as he/she is entrusted with the custody of the children.
e. Declaration of nullity or annulment of marriage as decreed by a court or
by a church as long as he/she is entrusted with the custody of the
children.

3. Unmarried mother/father who has preferred to keep and rear her/his

child/children instead of having others care for them or give them up to a welfare
institution.

4. Any other person who solely provides parental care and support to a child or
children.

5. Any family member who assumes the responsibility of head of family as a result
of the death, abandonment, disappearance or prolonged absence of the parents
or solo parent.

Who are considered as “children?”

“Children” refer to those living with and dependent upon the solo parent for support
who are unmarried, unemployed and not more than eighteen (18) years of age, or even
over eighteen (18) years but are incapable of self-support because of mental and/or
physical defect/disability.

What are the conditions for the termination of the privileges of a solo parent?

A change in the status or circumstances of the parent claiming benefits under this
Act, such that he/she is no longer left alone with the responsibility of parenthood, shall
terminate his/her eligibility for benefits such as change in the status with marriage, the
concerned parent is no longer left alone with the responsibility of parenthood, etc.

Does the Solo Parent Act apply to those whose spouse is abroad?
The law did not consider this as one of the categories of solo parent since the other
spouse still exercises duties over his/her family. However, if the other parent is abroad
17
and has lost contact with his/her family for a year or more, the other parent who is left
with the custody of the family, may be considered as solo parent, provided proofs are
presented to qualify as such.

What are the employment-related benefits available to solo parents?

Flexible work schedule. This refers to the right of a solo parent employee to vary
his/her arrival and departure time without affecting the core work hours as defined by the
employer. The employer shall provide for a flexible working schedule for solo parents, as
long as it shall not affect individual and company productivity. In case of certain
meritorious grounds, the employer may request exemption from DOLE.

No work discrimination. Employer are prohibited from discriminating against any

solo parent employee with respect to terms and conditions of employment on account of
his/her status.

Parental leave. “Parental leave” means leave benefits granted to a solo parent to
enable him/her to perform parental duties and responsibilities where physical presence is
required. In addition to leave privileges under existing laws, parental leave of not more
than seven (7) working days every year shall be granted to any solo parent employee
who has rendered service of at least one (1) year.

What other benefits are available to solo parents?

Subject to income thresholds (“poverty threshold”) set by the National Economic
and Development Authority (NEDA) and subject to the assessment of the DSWD worker
in the area, “solo parents” shall be entitled to the following:

Educational benefits, including scholarship programs for qualified solo parents and
their children in institutions of basic, tertiary and technical/skills education, and non-formal
education programs appropriate for solo parents and their children.

Housing benefits, including allocation in government low-cost housing projects,

with liberal terms of payment.

Medical assistance, with comprehensive health care programs for solo parents and
their children to be implemented by the DOH through their retained hospitals and medical
centers and the local government units (LGUs) through their
provincial/district/city/municipal hospitals and rural health units (RHUs).

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An Excerpt from the ISAT U – GE ELEC 7 Module.

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does-it-matter/

Beaujot, R. Liu, J, Ravane, Z., (2017). Gender Inequality in the Family Setting.
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Bussey K., Bandura A. (1999) Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development

and Differentiation. Psychological Review; 106: 676-713.

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2014). Domestic Violence and the Child
Welfare System. Washington, DC: Children’s Bureau, Administration for
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Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and
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Cromdal, Jakob (2006). "Socialization". In K. Brown (ed.). Encyclopaedia of

Language and Linguistics. North-Holland: Elsevier. pp. 462–66.
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CSC Memorandum. CSC Memorandum Circular No. 8, s. 2004 - “Guidelines on

the Grant of Parental Leave to Solo Parent.” March 24, 2004

Domestic Violence Roundtable. (n.d.). The Effects of Domestic Violence on

Children (link is external).

Gilbert, L.K., Breiding, M.J., Merrick, M.T., Parks, S.E., Thompson, W.W.,
Dhingra, S.S., Ford, D.C. (2015). Childhood Adversity and Adult Chronic
Disease: An update from ten states and the District of Columbia, 2010.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine; 48(3): 345-349.

Leaper, Campbell (2014). Parents’ Socialization of Gender in Children.

Encyclopaedia on Early Childhood Development. http://www.child-
encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/2492/parents-socialization-
of-gender-in-children.pdf

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Modi, M.N., Palmer, S., Armstrong, A. (2014). The Role of Violence against
Women Act in Addressing Intimate Partner Violence: A Public Health
Issue. Journal of Women’s Health; 23(3): 253-259.

Monnat, S.M., Chandler, R.F. (2015), Long Term Physical Health Consequences
of Adverse Childhood Experiences. The Sociologist Quarterly; 56(4): 723-
752.

Patajo- Kapunan, Lorna. (2015). Solo Parents’ Welfare Act and Work Benefits to
Solo-Parent Employees. Business Mirror.

Republic Act No. 8972 - “An Act Providing for Benefits and Privileges to Solo
Parents and their Children, Appropriating Funds Thereof and For Other
Purposes.” November 2000

Websites:
https://www.dvrcv.org.au/stories/true-stories/stories-women/alexs-story

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/gender-
socialization/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20the%20gender%20roles%20learned,to%20gen
der%2Dspecific%20social%20behavior.

https://www.sparknotes.com/sociology/soci

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-sociology-os/chapter/family-and-gender-
issues/

stopvaw.org/forms_of_domestic_violence

https://pcw.gov.ph/law/republic-act-8972

https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1016556

http://www.sei.dost.gov.ph/images/projects/GAD_RA9262.pdf

https://businessmirror.com.ph/2015/09/13/solo-parents-welfare-act-and-work-benefits-
to-solo-parent-
employees/#:~:text=RA%208972%20was%20enacted%20to,as%20a%20result%20of%
20rape.

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