Professional Documents
Culture Documents
An Examination and Explanation of Paranormal Phenomena As A Legit
An Examination and Explanation of Paranormal Phenomena As A Legit
ScholarWorks at WMU
8-1977
Part of the Communication Technology and New Media Commons, and the Mass Communication
Commons
Recommended Citation
Sowers, Leonard O., "An Examination and Explanation of Paranormal Phenomena as a Legitimate and
Significant Area of Communication Studies" (1977). Master's Theses. 2293.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/2293
by
Leonard O. Sowers, Jr.
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Faculty of The Graduate College
in partial fulfillment
of the
Degree of Master of Arts
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the many others at Western Michigan University, who have given much
ii
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
IN FO R M A TIO N TO USERS
This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While
the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document
have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original
submitted.
1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document
photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing
page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages.
This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent
pages to insure you complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it
is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have
moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a
good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being
photographed the photographer followed a definite method in
"sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper
left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to
right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is
continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until
complete.
4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value,
however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from
"photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver
prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing
the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and
specific pages you wish reproduced.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I m p o r t a n c e ...................................... 18
Conclusion T w o .................................. 39
Recommendations.................................. 43
R E F E R E N C E S ...................................... 45
B I B L I O G R A P H Y .................................... 47
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
questions.
tion?
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2
probably question the need for any such examination of paranormal phe
nomena in the first place. There are those who "intuitively know" that
those who have no doubt that such phenomena are, of course, impossible.
portance and need for the study. Attitudes (especially in the United
area: " . . . the true believer also presents a problem for the dedi
nomena often disbelieve because they find the true believers so un
(p. 190).
The need for the study was further underscored by the lack of a
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the literature it will he seen that there were practically as many
date in the United States (as well as elsewhere in the world) had
phenomena.
aside as the terms have been popularly misused and contribute to the
Psychic
the universe. This meaning has come to be the popular usage of the
term. However, as Sanderson (1970) pointed out such phenomena are not
"psychic" at all.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
<4
referred to as "psychic:"
paranormal phenomena.
Parapsychology
ena that violate the known laws of the universe. Literally, "parapsy
chology" is the study of phenomena which are like but beyond those of
a psychic nature. As was the problem with "psychic," the term "para
nomena .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5
Extrasensory Perception
sensory perception:"
Paranormal Phenomena
of the universe.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
normal phenomena. These three areas are the same as those laid out by
LEGITIMACY
Telepathy
sions, and mental states of another person." (p. 9). Wagenfeld (1976)
"thoughts from one person to another without using the usual sensory
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
At this point, both definitions have certain merits; both have
using the usual sensory channels" has njerit, since it properly de
scientific approaches.
cy of telepathy.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
e m day researcher" of paranormal phenomena. Bemheim, who was a pro
fessor at the Nancy medical school during the late.1800's, posed such
came forth in the following years with the results of their experi
Zener and Rhine designed a special deck of cards for these tele
circle, cross, rectangle, solid star and two sets of parallel wavy
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
a square and. one set of wavy lines. This has remained as the standard
deck of ESP testing cards, and they are now referred to as Zener
cards.
runs a subject makes then the more correct calls he/she has to make
Table 1
6.0 25 150
6.5 12 78
6.8 8 55
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
ability.
chology student, A.J. Linzmayer. Linzmayer called the first nine cards
of the deck correctly; the odds against such an occurence are about
to decline, but his overall average for the entire series of tests
was 119 out of 300 calls or approximately 9.9 hits per 25 cards.
vinity student, Hubert Pearce. On his first 5,000 calls Pearce aver
for a period of over two years. Although Pearce was not generally
known for making long runs of nine or ten correct calls in a row, in
the most phenomenal thing he had ever observed. The odds against such
male, was the receiver). Zirkle averaged 13.6 hits in each run of 25
hits out of 25 calls the first day; 16 hits out of 25 calls the
second day, and 16 hits out of 25 calls the third day. Turner achieved
these results while being separated from Ownbey by two hundred and
fifty miles.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11
that if fraud (or anything else, for that matter) is a possible al
against the Communists' research has been the credibility of the re
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
12
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13
Karlis, 1970; Ware and Butler, 1971; Palmer, 1971) contribute addi
Psychokinesis
and his "Geller Effect." The investigator carefully examined both the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
14
it was found that Geller is one of the most controversial if not most
been prolific and for a variety of audiences. Geller has been studied
insist that Geller's "stunts" are accomplished through stage magic and
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
15
PK abilities are (1) a case of psychic fraud and (2) the product of a
Many volumes have been written (both pro and con) concerning the
legitimacy of Uri Geller and his alleged abilities. Taylor (1975) doc
umented an account in which Geller could not have tampered with any
of the items. On November 22, 1974, Geller appeared on the Jimmy Young
Show, which was televised and aired on radio throughout Britain. The
jects get bent near Geller, but they also do so at considerable dis
tances. Numerous viewers and listeners had found cutlery twisted out
of shape and broken, or watches going which had not been working for
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
grade II consists of both children and adults. The most powerful man
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
17
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18
hypotheses and theories. Additional data from other phenomena may take
IMPORTANCE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19
mal research and (2) the number of scholarly journals treating this
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20
levels: (l) university and college curricular offerings, and (2) text
General Studies offers Science and Parascience (432), and the Social
versities and colleges is similar at best. Some will offer one or two
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21
curate analysis.
Schroeder concluded "If even a part of the boom-time talk one hears
distances - into space, under the oceans, and under emergency condi
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
could play an important role in the future. One such practical ap
endless. Remote viewing could provide the location of new and valuable
one such example. Price is employed to expand the company's coal re
sources, and he uses his remote viewing abilities to locate new coal
deposits. Price was only one of many such examples discussed by Ham
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
used to increase "both the quantity and the quality of man's education
Mental Perspective
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
24
occurs (l) when other forms of communication are frustrated, and (2)
might be some other energy which is peculiar to the mind that is very
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25
part of one mind interacts with that of another within a field of in
vous system other than its own, and telepathy is like any other nor
tions with a nervous system which is outside the body that "shin"
(p. 15) indicated that there was great similarity and that the main
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
reality which transcends time and space." (p. 192). While not a full
Physical Perspective
were not interested at any rate in conducting such research; (2) pro
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
obvious bias concerning the mental perspective; and (3) Communist
(2) occupying nonphysical space, and (3) which somehow interacted with
scientific proof for any of the three assumptions. Thus, Taylor con
with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
energy source), since there was no scientific proof for the existence
all at the microscopic level for such a fifth force. Nor is there any
Taylor was left with only one possible source of physical force
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
cles.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Additional Soviet theories of paranormal phenomena were consid
Relativist Perspective
ferent view of reality and the universe. The mental and physical
tive are the notions of mind and body. The classical viewpoint (i.e.
the mental and physical perspectives) would view mind and body as
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
classical and m o d e m .quantum physics.
tive were Koestler (1974)* Pearce (1971, 1974), Buxby (1967) and
LeShan (1974).
Buxby found people who view reality in the unitary manner produced
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Dr. Kozyrev's theories...move with great sweep and
depth. The cosmology he is developing includes a
place for such supposedly paranormal things as PK
and even levitation. These and other manifestations
of psi, he believes, will be explained with thorough
understanding of the energy of Time, an energy that
does not propagate, but which is immediately every
where. (p. 188).
agreement with Kozyrev and have attempted to test his ideas in their
cluded his report on the review of the literature. The data provided
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER THREE
REINTERPRETATION OF THE DATA
of communication.
such phenomena are entities with both physical and nonphysical char
33
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
34
Conclusion Cue
study. It will be recalled from his review of the literature that the
on a two-part raionale.
specifically:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
35
and their clients to test for both empathy and telepathy. In this
present. The investigator noted it would have been more useful (a) to
have selected a much larger target group initially and test for
telepathic ability, and then (b) from these subjects (i.e. the new and
struct dyads and later re-test these new dyads to determine if a sig
important variable to the psi conducive state (p. 19). Wagenfeld addi
Wagenfeld did not even attempt to measure whether such a state of re
laxation had ever been achieved. Such measurements could have been
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36
receiver; (b) the level of noise, rate of speed, feedback and number
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Finally, Hansel's objection (infra, p. 13) should be considered.
ternative explanation for the result, then that experiment could not
investigator further concluded that the proof of any one such phenom
have not achieved the same degree of recognition. While it is true that
pp. 16-7), the investigator observed that these objections were not
abilities.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38
as Leathers (1976, p. 178) has pointed out Randi and the rest of
sending objects flying through the air, making images appear on un
others. Geller's explanation of the source of his talents was even more
tigator was forced to conclude with those who personally tested Geller
to move nonmagnetic and nonmetallie objects which has been tested under
(1970). Leathers (1976, p. I84) has noted prior the problem of relying
on the reports of Ostrander and Schroeder; these reports often lack the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
After watching a film of the great Russian
sensitive Nina Kulagina (Mikhailova) moving
objects by gestures only or with her eyes,
Felicia Parise of the staff of the Maimonides
Dream Laboratory in Brooklyn performed some of
the same feats under controlled conditions.
(p. S4).
authentication of psychokinesis.
Conclusion Two
cited prior (infra, pp. 20-5). The investigator further reaffirms his
admits that some inroads to scientific acceptance have been made here
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
40
made, however, has been slow and met with considerable setbacks. The
Skinner, Sagan and Randi) who contend that (1) all paranormal phenom
ena are the products of psychic fraud and trickery, and (2) treatment
Conclusion Three
spective postulating that such phenomena are entities with both physi
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
41
other type of nonphysical phenomena, per sej and (3) even if one of
based his conclusion on the fact that there was no scientific proof
electromagnetic energy.
Taylor and others (e.g. Ostrander and Schroeder, 1976) were significant,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42
and (2) Taylor did not even attempt to extend his explanation beyond
phenomena.
m o d e m quantum physics.
deal more sense than the mental and physical explanations offered
(1971, 1974) and Buxby (1967). There were, of course, problems with
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
result of an altered state of consciousness. LeShan applied his expla
two living and thinking beings. The investigator failed to see, how
quate.
RECOMMENDATIONS
gator freely speculates that such research will lead to the eventual
around such natural phenomena and their powering energy sources. The
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
44
mal abilities, and (5) currently, practice does not allow for inform
her test trials (i.e. the calls which were successes and the calls
phenomena.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
REFERENCES
Frank, J., Persuasion and Healing. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1973.
Hammond, D., The Search for Psychic Power. New York: Bantam Books,
Inc., 1975.
Koestler, A., The Heel of Achilles. New York: Random House, Inc., 1974.
LeShan, L., The Medium, the Mystic and the Physicist. New York: The
Viking Press, 1974.
Lozanov, G., quoted in Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L., The ESP
Papers: Scientists Speak Out From Behind the Iron Curtain. New York:
Bantam Books, Inc., 1976.
45
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Mogchev, G., in Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L., The ESP Papers;
Scientists Speak Out From Behind the Iron Curtain. New York: Bantam
Books, Inc., 19767'"§4-6.
Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L., Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron
Curtain. New York; Bantam Books, Inc., 1970.
Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L., The ESP Papers: Scientists Speak Out
From Behind the Iron Curtain. New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1976.
Pearce, J., The Crack in the Cosmic Egg. New York: The Julian Press,
Inc., 1971.
Pearce, J., Exploring the Crack in the Cosmic Egg. New York: The
Julian Press, Inc., 1974.
Thouless, R., and Weisner, B., "On the nature of psi phenomena."
Journal of Parapsychology. 194-6, X, 107-19-
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agee, D., Edgar Cayce on ESP. New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1969.
Anand, B., Chhina, G., and Singh, B., "Some aspects of electroenceph-
alographic studies in yogis." Electroencephalography and Clinical
Neurophysiology. 1961, XIII, 4-52-6.
Anderson, M., and White, R., "ESP score level in relation to students
attitude toward teacher-agents acting simultaneously." Journal of
Parapsychology. 1958, XXII, 20-8.
Burt, C., ESP and Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Son, 1975.
47
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Casper, G., "Effect of receiver's attitude toward sender in ESP tests."
Journal of Parapsychology. 1952, XVI, 202-18.
Estabrooks, G., Hypnotism. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., Inc., 1943>
1957.
Ettinger, R., Man Into Superman. New York: Avon Books, 1972.
Fahler, J., "ESP card test with and without hypnosis." Journal of
Parapsychology. 1957, XXI, 179-85.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
49
Hobana, I., and Weyerbergh, j., UFO's From Behind the'Iron Curtain.
New York: Bantam Books/ Inc., 1972.
Humphrey, B., and Pratt, J., "A comparison of 5 ESP test procedures."
Journal of Parapsychology. 1941* V, 267-92.
Jung, C., "On the nature of the psyche," 1946, in The Structure and
Bynames of the Psyche. Translated by Hull. New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1972.
Koestler, A., The Heel of Achilles. New York: Random House, Inc.,
1974.
LeCron, L., Self Hypnotism. New York: The New American Library, Inc.,
1964.
LeShan, L., The Medium, the Rustic and the Physicist. New York: The
Viking Press, 1974.
Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L., Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron
Curtain. New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 197CL
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L., The ESP Papers: Scientists Speak
Out From Behind the Iron Curtain. New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1976.
Pauwels, L., and Bergier, J., The Morning of the Magicians. New York:
Ayon Books, I960.
Pearce, J., The Crack in the Cosmic Egg. New York: The Julian Press,
Inc., 1971.
Pearce, J., Exploring the Crack in the Cosmic Egg. New York: The
Julian Press, Inc., 1974.
Reik, T., Listening with the Third Ear. New York: Arena Books, 1972.
Rice, G., and Townsend, J., "Agent percipient relationship and GESP
performance." Journal of Parapsychology. 1962, XXVI, 211-7.
Sagan, C., The Cosmic Connection. New York: Dell Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1973.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Soal, S., "Experiments in supernormal perception at a distance."
Procedures of Social Psychology Research. 1932, XL, 165-362.
Stearn, J., Yoga, Youth and Reincarnation. New York: Bantam Books
Inc., 1965.
Stearn, J., Edgar Cayce - The Sleeping Prophet. New York: Bantam
Books, Inc.,1967.
Stearn, J., A Prophet in His Own Country. New York: Ballantine Books,
1974.
Stuart, C., "GESP experiments with the free response method." Journal
of Parapsychology. 1946, X, 21-35.
Thouless, R., and Weisner, B., "On the nature of psi phenomena."
Journal of Parapsychology. 1946, X, 107-19.
Tompkins, P., and Bird, C., The Secret life of Plants. New York:
Avon Books, 1973.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Tyrrell, C., "Reason, inspiration and telepathy." Hibbert Journal.
1947, XLV, 327-33.
VandeCastle, R., "A review of ESP tests carried out in the class
room. " International Journal of Par^sychology. 1959, II, 84-102.
Wilhelm, J., The Search for Superman. New York: Pocket Books, 1976.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.