INSTRUMENTS

 INTRO  –  BASIC  COCKPIT  INSTRUMENTS  

BASIC  T  
 
Airspeed   Attitude   Altimeter  
 
DI  

BASIC  6  
 
Airspeed   Attitude   Altimeter  
 
Turn  Cord   DI     VSI  

PRESSURE  
 
!"#$%
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒  (𝑃𝑎) =   !"#$  
• Can  be  measured  in:  
o hPa  (1  hPa  =  100  Pa)  
o Bar  (1  mbar  =  1/1000  bar)  
o PSI  (Pounds  per  square  inch)  
o In  Hg  (Inches  of  mercury)  

ATMOSPHERIC  VARIATIONS  
 
• Pressure  
• Density  
• Humidity  
• Temperature  
 
• ISA  gives  us  a  datum  point  from  which  we  
can  measure.  
 INSTRUMENTS  1  –  PITOT  STATIC  SYSTEMS  

ISA   BLOCKS  AND  LEAKS   GENERAL  ERROR  TYPES  

     
• Pressure  MSL  =  1013.25  hPa  /  1013.25  mb   • Pitot-­‐static  system  can  become  blocked   • Applies  to  all  instruments.  
/  29.92  In.Hg  /  14.7  PSI   through  ice,  debris,  insects  etc.   • Instrument  –  Due  to  imperfections  in  the  
• Density  MSL  =  1.225  Kg  /  m3   • A  blockage  will  trap  the  pressure  in  the   mechanical  construction  /  limitations.  
• Temperature  MSL  =  15  0  C   system.   • Manoeurve  –  Due  to  constantly  changing  
  o Exception  if  the  blockage  is  forward  of   position.  (Unpredictable)  
• All  instruments  are  calibrated  to  ISA.   the  drain  hole  =  pressure  dissipates.   • Position  –  Due  to  location  of  sensors.  
• Leaks  can  also  occur  if  the  light  alloy  piping   (Predictable)  
network  fractures  or  becomes  detached  
STATIC  PRESSURE   from  bulkhead  mountings.
  PITOT-­‐STATIC  ERRORS  
• Exerted  in  all  directions,  all  the  time.    
• Located  on  side  of  fuselage.   COMBINED  PITOT-­‐STATIC  HEAD   • Position  Error  
• A  static  port  can  be  fitted  on  each  side:     o Disturbance   from   airflow   around  
o Balance  out  errors  from  side-­‐slipping   • Not  often  used  as  turbulent  air  can  form   aircraft.  
o Removes  need  for  a  standby  vent   around  the  static  opening.     o Will   vary   with   angle   of   attack   and  
o Reduced  the  effect  of  turbulence  and     airspeed.  
crosswinds.   • Manoeuvre  Error  
o Disturbance   of   airflow   around   the  
ports   during   and   shortly   after  
PITOT  PRESSURE   manoeuvres.  
 
• PITOT  =  STATIC  +  DYNAMIC  
• Called  total  pressure.   REDUNDANCY  
• Dynamic  can  be  calculated  by  total  –  static.    
! • Commercial  aircraft  have  3  sets  of  pitot-­‐
• Dynamic  Pressure  =  ! 𝜌  𝑣 !  
static  ports:  
o v2  is  TAS   o Captain  
o F/O  
o Emergency  (Located  on  tail)  
 INSTRUMENTS  2  –  PRESSURE  ALTIMETER  

PURPOSE   PRESSURE  CHANGES   ALTIMTER  ERRORS  

     
• Measures  vertical  distance.   • Altimeter   is   calibrated   for   a   non-­‐linear   • Instrument   –   Due   to   mechanical  
• Ensures  separation  from  other  aircraft.   decrease  in  pressure  with  height.   imperfections.  Larger  with  height  as  capsule  
• Ensures  clearance  from  terrain.   • A   change   in   the   sub-­‐scale   however   will   changes  become  smaller.  
always   vary   by   30’   as   the   datum   being   • Pressure  –  Includes  maneuver  and  position  
changed  it  at  ‘sea  level’.   error.  Due  to  error  in  sampling  of  static  air.  
ANEROID  CAPSULE   • Temperature  –  Corrective  calculus  needed  
  • Barometric   –   Minimised   by   ensuring  
• Sealed  and  partially  evacuated.   DATUMS   correct  datum  is  set.  
• When   climbing,   static   pressure   outside   is     • Lag   /   Hysteresis   –  Most  dangerous  during  
less  than  inside  capsule  and  it  expands.   • Altimeter  indicates  vertical  distance  from  a   a  rapid  descent.  
• A   linkage   system   converts   this   movement   selected  datum.   • Orographic   –  Pressure  variation  in  vicinity  
into  a  display  on  the  altimeter.     of  high  ground.  Lower  pressure  on  leeward  
• Multiple   capsules   can   be   used   to   amplify   • Height   side  compared  and  higher  on  winward  side.  
the   expansion   and   contraction,   giving   • Altitude   • Blockages  /  Leaks  of  static  system.  
greater  sensitivity.   • Flight  Level  
• ‘D  spring’   /  ‘Leaf   spring’  used  to  correct  for    
cockpit  temperature  variations.   • Indicated  altitude  and  true  altitude  are  only   SERVO  ALTIMETER  
the  same  when  everything  is  perfect  (ISA).    
• Removes   some   of   the   time   lag   and  
  instrument  error.  
• More   sensitive   (especially   at   higher  
altitudes)  
• Easier  to  digitalise  
• Capsule   Expands   à   Asymmetry   between   E  
&   I   bars   à   DC   Flow   to   servo-­‐motor   à  
Digital   Reading   à   Cam   driven   to   realign  
bars  
 INSTRUMENTS  2  –  PRESSURE  ALTIMETER  

ALTERNATE  STATIC  SOURCE   STATIC  BLOCKAGE  (DUAL  PORTS)    

   
• Cabin   pressure   is   slightly   lower   than   • A   blockage   of   the   left   static   port   will   cause  
outside  in  an  unpressurised  aircraft.   an  over-­‐read  when  side  slipping  left.  
o Due   to   low   pressure   on   the   outside   o The  right  port  is  reading  a  lower  than  
creating   a   suction   effect   within   the   normal  pressure  (higher  air  velocity)  
cabin.  
• Use   of   alternate   static  source  will  therefore  
cause   a   slightly   increase   in   altimeter  
reading.    

PRESSURISED  AIRCRAFT  LEAK  

 
• Higher   static   pressure   will  enter   the  system  
and   cause   altimeter   to   decrease   to   cabin  
pressure  level.  

MECHANICAL  (SENSITIVE  TYPE)  

 
• Seal  Level:  ±  50  ft  
• 10,000  ft:  ±  175  ft  
• 40,000  ft:  ±  600  ft  

SERVO  ALTIMETER  ACCURACY  

 
• Seal  Level:  ±  30  ft  
• 20,000  ft:  ±  50  ft  
• 40,000  ft:  ±  100  ft  
 INSTRUMENTS  5  –  VERTICAL  SPEED  INDICATOR  

THE  VSI   INSTANTANOEUS  VSI  (IVSI)   ERRORS  

     
• Measures   the   rate   of   change   of   static   • A.K.A  Inertia  Lead  VSI   • Instrument  Error  
pressure.   • Small  accelerator  pump  (dashpot)  is  fitted.   o Error  increases  with  altitude  
• Can  use  either  a  linear  or  logarithmic  scale.   • Creates   an   artificial   pressure   change   o Hysteresis   and   friction   contribute   to  
immediately   when   vertical   acceleration   lag  within  the  VSI.  
occurs.    
CONSTRUCTION   • EG/  At  start  of  a  climb,  PS  is  decreased  from   • Pressure  Error  
  within  capsule  and  increased  within  casing.   o Manoeuvre   –   Sudden   change   in  
• Metering   unit   creates   a   lag   in   static   attitude   disturbs   airflow   around  
pressure  entering  the  case.   static   port.   Gives   large,   short   lived  
  errors.  
• Climb   =   Capsule   o Position  –  Change  of  speed  may  cause  
contracts   temporary  error  in  VSI.  
   
• Descent   =   Capsule   • Time  Lag  (VSI)  
expands   o Takes   time   for   a   pressure   difference  
to  occur  between  capsule  and  case.  
o VIS  is  slow   to   respond   at   start   or  end  
of  a  climb  or  descent.  
• Lag  has  been  practically  eliminated.  
METERING  UNIT    
• Steeply   banked   turns   could   create   a   false  
  • Temperature  Error  
reading   as   the   dashpot   is   displaced  
• An   orifice   and   capillary   device   o Causes  rigidity  and  elasticity.  
however.  
compensate  for  changes  in  viscosity  (due  to    
temperature  and  density  changes).       • Blockage  
  o VSI  returns  to  zero.  
o IVSI  may  fluctuate  with  dashpot  
 
• Leakage  
o Pressurised   –   Rapid   descent  
indicated  as  higher  pressure  enters.  
o Unpressurised  –  No  problems.  
 INSTRUMENTS  3  –  THE  AIRSPEED  INDICATOR  (ASI)  

CONSTRUCTION   AIRSPEED  CORRECTIONS   PRESSURISED  LEAKAGES  

     
• ASI  measures  dynamic  pressure.   • Indicated  (IAS)  –  Shown  on  the  ASI   • Pitot  Leak  
• Static  pressure  in  the  casing  cancels  out  the   • Calibrated  (CAS  /  RAS)–  IAS  corrected  for:   o Capsule  expands  and  over-­‐reads  
static  within  the  capsule  to  give  dynamic.   o Position  error  (due  to  location  of  pitot   • Static  Leak  
  head  and  static)   o Capsule  contracts  and  under-­‐reads  
o Instrument  error  (due  mechanical  
workings  of  ASI).  
• Equivalent  (EAS)  –  CAS  corrected  for:   UNPRESSURISED  LEAKAGES  
o Compressibility  Error  (when    
TAS>300kts  or  ALT>10,000ft).   • Pitot  Leak  
o Not  applicable  less  than  this  as  air   o Capsule  contracts  and  under-­‐reads  
assumed  incompressible.   • Static  Leak  
• True  (TAS)  –  EAS  corrected  for:   o No  change  
o Density  error  
 
• ICE  -­‐  T   ASI  MARKINGS  
ASI  ERRORS    
  • White  Arc  
• Instrument  Error   o VSO  =  Stall  Speed  Full  Flap  
• Pressure  Error  (Manoeurve  +  Position)   TAS  VS  EAS  RELATIONSHIP   o VFE  =  Max  Flap  Extension  Speed  
• Compressibility  Error     • Green  Arc  
• Density  Error   𝜌  𝐼𝑆𝐴  𝑚𝑠𝑙 o VS1  =  Stall  Speed  Clean  
𝑉!"# =   𝑉!"#  ×  !   o VNO  =  Max  Normal  Operating  Speed  
𝜌  𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
• Yellow  Arc  –  Calm  Operating  Range  
     
• Red  Line  -­‐  VNE    Never  Exceed  Speed  

BLOCKAGES  
  OTHER  V  SPEEDS  
• Pitot  Block    
o Under-­‐read  during  descent  (PUD)   • VRA  =  Max  Speed  Turbulent  Air  (Not  on  ASI)  
• Static  Block   • VLO  =  Max  gear  operating  speed  (<  VLE)  
o Over-­‐read  during  descent  (SOD)   • VLE  =  Max  speed  with  landing  gear  down  
 INSTRUMENTS  4  –  MACHMETER  

MACHMETER  FORMAULAS   ERRORS   PITOT  /  STATIC  ERRORS  

     
𝑇𝐴𝑆  (𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒  𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) • Compressibility,   density   and   temperature   • Same  as  the  ASI  
𝑀=  
𝐿𝑆𝑆  (𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙  𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑  𝑜𝑓  𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑) errors   are   all   cancelled   out   by   the   ratio  
  calculation.  
𝐿𝑆𝑆   = 38.95  ×  !𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒  (𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛)   • Instrument   Error   –   Tolerance   should   not   OAT  EFFECTS  
  exceed  M.01    
• Pressure   Error   –   Inaccurate   sampling   of   • Mach   &   CAS   not   affected   by   temperature.  
𝑃! −   𝑃! static  pressure.   Only  TAS  varies  with  temperature  changes.  
𝑀 = 𝑓  !  
𝑃!

CLIMB  /  DESCENT  WITH  CONSTANT  M   CAS,  TAS  &  MACH  RELATIONSHIP  

CONSTRUCTION      
  • Climbing  with  constant  mach  means  IAS  (PT   • Cover   up   the  one   that  stays   constant.   If   the  
• It  can  be  seen  the  Machmeter  essential  uses   –  PS)    must  decrease  as  PS  decreases.   line   is   to   the   left   then   it   decreases   in   a   climb  
the   ASI   components   (PT   –   PS)   and   those   of   • Descending   with   constant   mach   means   IAS   and  increases  in  a  descent.  
the  Altimeter  (PS).   must  increase  as  PS  increases.   • If   line   is  to   the   right,  it   increases   in   a   climb  
• Mach  speed  is  unitless.   and  decreases  in  a  descent.  
• Climbing   at   a   constant   IAS   means   the   ASI    
CRITICAL  MACH  NUMBER  
capsule   remains  constant  and  the  Altimeter  
 
expands,  thus  increasing  the  mach  number.  
• Free   stream   mach   number   when   the   local  
• Contains  two  diagraphams  with  only  that  of  
mach   number   first   becomes   sonic  
the  Altimeter  part  being  of  the  aneroid  type  
anywhere  on  an  aircraft.  
(sealed  and  partially  evacuated)  
• Local  mach  is  different  as  air   is   accelerated  
over  the  wing  for  example.  
• Flight  above  MCR  is  possible.          
• MMO  (Max  Operating  Mach  Number)  will  be  
slightly  higher  and  is  an  absolute  limit.  

MAX  TAS  
 
• Occurs  at  CAS  =  VMO  &  M  =  MMO  
• “Changeover  point”  
 INSTRUMENTS  6  –  GYROSCOPES  

PRINCIPLE  1:  RIGIDITY  IN  SPACE   TYPE  2  -­‐  RATE  GYRO’S   APPARENT  (EARTH)  WANDER  
     
• Maintains  a  fixed  orientation   • 1  gimball  &  1  degrees  of  freedom   • Max  Drift:  Polar  Horizontally  Tied  
• Rigidity  is  dependent  on:   • Turn  Indicator   • Max   Topple:   Equator   Vertically   Tied   and  
o Mass   Equator  Horizontally  Tied  (With  Parallel)  
o Mass  Distribution  (Radius)  
o Speed  of  Rotation  (RPM)            
APPARENT  (TRANSPORT)  WANDER  
• Rigidity  ∝ 𝐼  (𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎)  𝜔  (𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟  𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)  
WANDER    
o Inertia  =  Radius  x  mass  
  • Greatest   effect   when  travelling   east  (with  
• Movement  of  the  gyro  spin  axis  away   from   direction  of  the  earth’s  rotation)  
the  chosen  datum.  
CONSTRUCTION   • Wander  can  be  real  or  apparent.  
  • Wander  in  horizontal  plane  =  Drift  
• Bearings   AIR  DRIVEN  (PNEUMATICAL)  GYRO  
• Wander  in  vertical  plane  =  Topple  
o Normally  5    
• Gimballs   • Suction  Pump  provides  main  drive  
o DOF  =  Degrees  of  freedom  (excludes  the   REAL  WANDER   • Only  requires  1  power  source  (engine)  
basic  plane  of  rotation)     • Relatively   complex   and   requires   lots   of  
o X  1  =  1  DOFs  (2  Planes)   • Movement  of  axis  due  to  an  actual  force.   construction  parts.  
o X  2  =  2  DOFs  (3  Planes)   • Friction   • Depends  on  air  density  
• Mechanical  Imperfections   • Has  a  longer  start-­‐up  time  
• Instability  of  gimbals  
TYPE  1  -­‐  DISPLACEMENTS  GYRO’S   • Hard  manoeuvres  /  turbulence  
  ELECTRICAL  GYRO  
• “We  did  it”  (Intentional)  
• 2  gimballs  &  2  degrees  of  freedom    
• Space  Gyro’s   • Electric  motor  provides  main  drive  
o Free  to  maintain  their  own  direction   APPARENT  WANDER   • Requires  2  power  sources  (engine  +  gen)  
o Not  aligned  to  an  external  datum     • Relatively  simple  
o Not  useful  for  aviation   • Movement   of   axis   due   to   earth’s   rotation   • Can  achieve  a  higher  rpm  (more  rigidity)  
o “Perfect   with   no   influences   of   and  shape   • Although   better   than   air   driven,   both   types  
torque,  or  other  external  forces”   • Earth  Rotation   are  used  for  redundancy.  
• Tied  Gyro’s   • Transport  (Gyro  is  moving)  
o Fixed  orientation  
o Horizontal  Gyro  (DI)  
o Vertical  Gyro  /  Earth  Tied  (AI)  
 INSTRUMENTS  6  –  GYROSCOPES  

PRINCIPLE  2:  PRECESSION   ERECTION  PLATE  METHOD   ERECTION  VS  LEVELLING  

     
• Change   of   direction  (angular   change)  of   the   • Since   the   wedge   is   in   a   fixed   position,   a   • Erection  
plane   of   rotation   of   the   rotor   cause   by   an   precession  will  act  on  the  gyro.   o Used  on  AI  
applied  force.   o Maintains  the  rotor  axis  vertical  
o Aligns  rotor  with  horizontal  gimball  
• Levelling  
o Used  on  DI  
o Maintains  the  rotor  axis  horizontal  
o Aligns  rotor  with  vertical  gimball  

           
ELECTRICAL  DRIVEN  ERECTION  
 
• Torque   motor   and   commutator   motor  
are  mounted  on  an  outer  gimball.  

ERECTION  JET  METHOD   CAGING  KNOB  

   
• The   basic   mechanism   for   driving   the   gyro   • Allows  for  the  initial  erection  
will  cause  it  to  self-­‐level.   • Locks  inner  and  outer  gimbals  at  900  
• A   component   (red)   of   the   air   jet   will   act   at  
right  angles  to  the  rotor.  
• A  precession  is  induced  which  will  erect  the   ROTATION  SPEEDS  
gyro.    
• Air  Driven  =  9,000  –  12,000  rpm  
• Electrical  =  22,000  rpm  
 INSTRUMENTS  7  –  DIRECTIONAL  GYROSCOPE  

RANDOM  DRIFT  (REAL)   LATITUDE  NUT  (REAL)   “LONGITUDINAL  ACCELERATION”  

     
• Mechanical  Imperfections   • This  is  the  “intentional”  real  error.   • Longitudinal  acceleration  does   not   affect   a  
o Friction   in   gimbal   bearings   and   • Latitude   nut   can   be   calibrated   to   apply   a   DG  as  you  are  travelling  with  the  meridians.  
imbalances.   torque  to  the  inner  gimbal.  
  • Through   precession,   this  will   act   in  opposite                
• Gimballing  Error   direction  of  the  expected  apparent  drift.  
o When   aircraft’s  heading   is   aligned   with   • LN  (0/hr)  =  ±  15.04  x  sin(lat)  
the   gimbals   (90   degrees),   maneuvers   • Opposite  signs  compared  with  ER  formula.  
can  take  place  without  disturbing  gyro.  
o When   on   any   other   heading   (not   90   +  
degrees),   maneuvers   cause   forces   that  
result  in  small  amounts  of  real  drift.   -­‐  
 
• A  “mechanically  perfect”  DG  can  be  assumed  
to  have  to  random  drift.  
TRANSPORT  DRIFT  (APPARENT)  
 
EARTH  ROTATION  (APPARENT)   • Will   cause   indicated   heading   to   decrease  
  (like  ER  in  NH)  when  travelling  to  east  in  the  
• Drift  is  max  at  the  poles  and  zero  at  EQ.   NH  (direction  of  earth  rotation).  
• It  is  assumed  the  earth  rotates  at  15.040  /  hr   • Results  from  convergence  of  meridians.  
which   is   a   combination   of   the   earth’s   • TD  (0/hr)  =  ±  GS  /  60  x  tan  (lat)  
rotation  and  the  orbit  round  the  sun.    
• ER  (0/hr)  =  ±  15.04  x  sin(lat)   +   -­‐  
• Subtract  if  NH  /  Add  if  SH  
-­‐   +  

-­‐  
+   TOTAL  DRIFT  
 
• Total  Drift  =  RD  ±  ER  ±  LN  ±  TD  
 INSTRUMENTS  8  –  ATTITUDE  INDICATOR  

BASIC  CONSTRUCTION   PENDULOUS  VANE  ERECTION  SYSTEM   ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  

     
• Casing  mounted  to  the  outer  gimbal.   • Air   flows   from   Outer   Gimbal   -­‐-­‐-­‐>   Inner  
• For  roll,  the  aircraft  symbol  and   scale  move   Gimbal  (rotor)  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  Pendulous  Unit  
around  the  fixed  horizon  bar  and  pointer.   • When   vertical,   all   vanes   are   half   covered  
• For   pitch,   the  outer   gimbal   pitches  with   the   and  the  forces  are  balanced.  
aircraft  and  the  horizon  bar  moves.   • When   toppled,   some   are   closed   and   some  
• A   pendulous   unit   allows   outflow   of   suction   open  so  the  force  is  unbalanced.  
air  from  casing.   • Force   is   applied   to   the   pendulous   unit   (1)  
and  will  erect  gyro  through  precession  (2).  
• The   pendulous   vane   also   has   a   slightly  
shifted  CoG   so  gyro  rests  in  the  vertical  axis  
(Aids  in  start-­‐up  orientation).  

• During   steep   turns,   the   mercury   may   pool  

at   the   ends   and   no   contact   is   made,   thus  
preventing  erection  if  required.  
TORQUE  MOTOR  ERECTION  SYSTEM   • Secondary   contacts   are   installed   on   some  
  AIs   to   provide  a  fast   erection  should   the   AI  
• Used  on  an   electrical   AI   where  there   is   no   topple  in  steep  turns.  
pendulous  unit.   o Should   not   be   activated   for   more   than  
• Mercury   switches   are   used   to   control   two   30  –  60  secs  due  heat  build  up.  
torque  motors.   o Normal  erection  =  2  –  40  /  min  
• When   the   gyro   topples,   multiple   contacts   o Fast  erection  =  60  –  1200  /  min  
are  made  on  the  switch  (eg/  B  +  C)  and  the    
                torque  motors  are  operated.   • Low   angle   of   bank   turns   should   be  
• Precession   causes   them   to   act   in   the   avoided   as  the  torque  motors  will  cause  an  
‘opposite  sense’   overcorrection.  
 
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv  
 INSTRUMENTS  8  –  ATTITUDE  INDICATOR  

                 
ACCELERATION  ERROR  
 
• Pitch   error   is  caused   by   a   lag   in  the  lateral  
vanes.  
o They  swing   back  towards   the   pilot  and  
close   the   port   slot   whilst   opening   the  
starboard  slot.  
o Precession   causes   the   base   to   move  
towards  the  pilot  and  results  in  a  pitch  
up  indication.   ELECTRICAL  VS  AIR  DRIVEN  ERRORS  
• Roll   error   is   caused   by   a   lag   in   the    
weighted  base  due  to  interia.   • Errors   present   in   both   types   although  
o Precession   causes   the   gyro   base   to   minimised  with  electrical  type.  
move  to  the  right,  causing  a  roll   right   o Absence  of  heavy  base  
indication.   o High  rotor  speeds  
  o Cut  out  switches  

GIMBALL  LIMITS  
 
• Old  Designs:  ±  1110  Roll  &  ±  600  Pitch  
• So,   Acceleration   =   Pitch   Up   &   Roll   Right   • New  Designs:  3600  Roll  &  ±  850  Pitch  
Indication  (Approx  2-­‐3  degrees)   • Gyro  will  topple  when  these  are  exceeded  
• Deceleration  =  Pitch  Down  &  Roll  Left   • Unless  a  fast  erect  is  present,  gyro  will  take  
• The  above  assume  an  anti-­‐clockwise  gyro.   10  -­‐  15  mins  to  re-­‐erect  itself.  

TURNING  ERROR   REMOTE  VERTICAL  GYRO  

   
• In  a  turn,  a  centripetal  force  exists  towards   • Uses  a  syncro   system   to  convert  pitch   and  
the  centre  of  the  turn.   roll  data  into  a  digital  output.  
• The   centrifugal  reaction  acts   on   the  vanes   • Displayed  on  a  Attitude  Director  Indicator  
and   weighted   base   causing   pitch   and   roll   • Can  be  used  by  multiple  systems.  
errors.  
• Magnitude   of   errors   varies   with   speed,  
rate  of  turn  and  length  of  turn.  
 INSTRUMENTS  9  –  TURN  AND  BALANCE  INDICATOR  

BALANCE  INDICATOR   RATE  ONE  TURN   TURN  INDICATOR  ERRORS  

     
• For  slip,  think  banking  but  with  no  turn   • 1800  /    Min  =  30  /    Sec   • Any  TAS  different  to  the  calibrated  TAS  will  
o Centrifugal  force  not  enough   • Angle  of  bank  required  for  rate  one  turn:   result  in  an  under-­‐read.  
o Ball  falls  to  the  inside  of  the  turn     • There  is  also  rotor   speed   and  loop   (pitch)  
• For  skid,  think  turning  without  bank   𝑻𝑨𝑺 error  that  is  present.  
𝑨𝒐𝑩 =   + 𝟕  
o Centrifugal  force  too  great   𝟏𝟎
o Ball  pushes  to  outside  of  turn    
• Step  on  the  ball  to  correct   • Turn   indicator   is   calibrated   to   a   fixed  
• A  fluid  is  present  within  the  glass  case:   airspeed.  
o Damping  agent   • Above  formula  can  also  be  used  if  given  IAS.  
o Reduces  friction  

PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY  PRECESSION  

                     
• The   gyro   is   denied   movement   in   the   TURN  COORDINATOR  
yawing  plane.    
• When  a  yaw   to  the   right   occurs,   a  force  F1  is   • Gimball  is  tilted  upwards  by  300  –  400  
applied   to   the   gyro   which   results   in   a   • Now  sensitive  to  both  yaw  and  roll  
precession  P1  causing  the  gyro  to  tilt  left.   • Can   be   difficult   to   determine   however  
• The  spring  force  now  causes  a  force  F2  to  be   whether  indication  is  due  primarily  to  bank  
applied   which   results   in   precession   P2   or  yaw.  
acting  in  the  direction  of  yaw.    
• Gimball   continues   tilting   until   spring   force  
TURN  INDICATOR  
produces  precession  equal  to  rate  of  turn  of  
 
the  aircraft.  
• Horizontally  tied  rate  gyro  
• When   balanced,   tilt   stops   and   a   steady  
• Situated  parallel  to  the  lateral  axis   indication  of  turn  rate  is  provided.  
• One  gimball  &  one  DoF  
• Denied  freedom  in  yaw  axis  
• Measurement   is   accurate   for   the   yaw   rate  
at  low  bank  angles.  
• Does  not  drift  or  topple  
 INSTRUMENTS  10  –  TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM  

MAGNETIC  FIELD   MAGNETIC  FIELD  CHANGES   MAGNETIC  DIP  

     
• Space   around   the   magnet   in   which   • Long  Term  (Secular)  Changes   • Total   Field   =   Horizontal   +   Vertical  
magnetic  influence  is  felt.   o Moves  approx  10  nm  /  yr   Component  
o Poles  swap  positions  every  10,000  yrs   • The  Horizontal  component  is  the  “directive  
• Short  Term  Changes  -­‐  Predictable   force”  
EARTH’S  MAGNETIC  FIELD   o Earth’s  orbit  around  the  sun  (annual)   • The  vertical  component  causes  dip  
  o Ionosphere  height  changes  (daily)   • Dip   is   greatest   at   the   poles   where   the  
• The   magnetic   meridian   is   the   horizontal   • Short  Term  Changes  -­‐  Random   horizontal   component   is   least   and   the  
component  of  the  earth’s  field.   o Solar  activity   vertical  at  max.  
• A   freely   suspended   magnet   will   align   its   • Isoclinals  –  Lines  of  equal  dip  
north   seeking   pole   with   the   magnetic   • Aclinic   –   Line   of   zero   dip   (magnetic  
meridian.   VARIATION  
equator)  
• To   keep   our   convention   of   flux   flowing    
• When   the   horizontal   component   drops  
North   to   South,   it   can   seen   we   must   imagine   • Westerly  variation  described  as  –  ve  
below  6  micro  tesla,   the   compass   becomes  
the  magnet  to  be  turned  upside  down  within   • Easterly  variation  described  as  +  ve   too  unreliable.  
the  earth.   • Isogonal  joins  places  of  equal  variation   o Occurs  above  70  N/S  
• The   “earth’s   magnet”   is   slightly   curved   at   • Agonic  line  shows  zero  variation  
the  true  south  pole  =>  not  anti-­‐podal  
B/E  TYPE  DIRECT  READING  COMPASS  
 
• Circular   compass   card   attached   directly   to  
the  magnet  assembly.    

                     
TERRAIN  EFFECTS  
 
• Due   to   terrain   magnetism,  magnetic   north  is  
not  in  a  fixed  direction.  
 INSTRUMENTS  10  –  TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM  

REQUIREMENT  1  -­‐  HORIZONTALITY   COMPASS  LIQUID  PROPERTIES   ANDS  –  Accelerate  North  /  Decelerate  South  
   
• Compass   is   kept   horizontal   by   means   of   • Low  coefficient  of  expansion  
pendulous  suspension.   • Low  viscosity  
• Centre   of   gravity   of   assembly   is   lower   than   • Transparency  
the  supporting  pivot.   • Low  freezing  point  
• When   magnetic   dip   (force   Z)   occurs,   the   • High  boiling  point  
weight   of   the   assembly   will   oppose   the   dip   • Non-­‐corrosiveness  
moment  due  to  the  offset  CoG.   • Good  lubrication  
• The  result  of  this  is  that  residual  dip  (actual   • Size  of  error  depends  on:  
dip   experience   by   compass)  is  less  than   the   o Heading    
dip  due  to  the  magnetic  vertical  component.   ACCELERATION  ERROR   o Magnitude  of  acceleration  
    o Design  of  magnet  system  
• Due   to   magnetic   dip,   the   CoG   is   always   o Magnetic  latitude  
displaced   towards   the   equatorial   side   of  
the  pivot.  
• Inertia   causes   the  magnet  to  swing  around   TURNING  ERROR  
it’s  pivot  point.    
• In  NH,  acceleration   results  in   an   apparent   • Centripetal  force  acts  on  pivot  
turn  towards  north.   • Centrifugal  force  acts  on  CG  
• In   NH,   deceleration   results   in   an   apparent   o  Pull  GC  towards  outside  of  the  turn  
turn  towards  south.   • Error  is  max  when  turning  through  N  /  S  
REQUIREMENT  2  -­‐  SESNSITIVITY   • Reserved  for  SH.   • Error  is  min  when  turning  through  E  /  W  
  • Acceleration   in   north   /   south   results   in   no   • Error  increases  with  magnetic  latitude  
• Improved  by  using  more  magnets   error   however   due   to   no   turning   around    
• Improved   by   keeping   pivot   friction   to   a   pivot.  
minimum.  
• Must  be  within  ±  100  

                       
REQUIREMENT   3  -­‐  APERIODICITY  
 
• Use  of  fluid  to  dampen  oscillations.  
 INSTRUMENTS  10  –  TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM  

LIQUID  SWIRL                            
 
• Will   increase   turning   error   when   turning  
through  the  nearer  pole.  
• Will   decrease   turning   error   when   turning  
through  the  further  pole.  
• Liquid  in  compass  bowl  will  tend  to  swirl  in  
the  same  direction  of  the  turn.  
o  Like  turning  a  glass  full  of  water  

TURNING  ERROR  –  NORTHERN  HEMIS  

 

LIMITATIONS  
 
• Errors  
• Closeness  to  sources  of  deviation  
• Self  contained  unit  
o Cannot   be   used   to   feed   readings   to  
other  equipment.  
 INSTRUMENTS  11  –  AIRCRAFT  MAGNETISM  

DEVIATION   COEFFICIENT  B   CALCULATING  THE  COEFFICIENTS  

     
• Difference   between   compass   north   and   • Component   of   permanent   deviation   • An   initial   compass   swing   takes   places   in  
magnetic  north.   resolved  on  the  longitudinal  axis   order  to  calculate  the  coefficients.  
• Easterly  deviation  is  expressed  +  ve   • Maximum  on  East  /  West  Headings   • A   datum   compass   is   used   to   align   the  
• Westerly  deviation  is  expressed  -­‐  ve   • Zero  on  North  /  South  Headings   aircraft  with  N  /  E  /  S  /  W.  
• B  =  BMAX  x  sin  (HDG)   • The   readings   of   the   aircraft   compass   are  
then   noted   and   the   coefficients   are  
CAUSES  OF  DEVIATION   calculated  as  follows:  
 
• Hard  Iron  Magnetism  (Permanent)  
o Permanently   present   throughout   the  
flight  
o Not  affected  by  heading  /  latitude    
o EG/  Electrical  circuits  
o Can   be   resolved   separately   on   the  
longitudinal   (coefficient   B)   and   lateral  
COEFFICIENT  C  
(coefficient  C)  axis.  
 
• Soft  Iron  Magnetism  (Temporary)  
• Component   of   permanent   deviation  
o Temporary  by  nature  
resolved  on  the  lateral  axis  
o Induced  from   flying   through   the   earth’s  
• Maximum  on  North  /  South  Headings  
• Zero  on  East  /  West  Headings  
• C  =  CMAX  x  cos  (HDG)  
COEFFICIENT  A  
  POSTIVE  /  NEGATIVE  COEFFICIENTS  
• Due  to  mechanical  misalignment    
• Error  the  same  on  all  headings   • Coefficient   A   is   positive   if   the   longitudinal  
component  is  towards  the  nose.  
                            • Coefficient  B  is  positive  towards  the  right.  
 INSTRUMENTS  11  –  AIRCRAFT  MAGNETISM  

DEVIATION  ON  GIVEN  HEADING                                

 
A  +  BMAX  sin  (HDG)  +  CMAX  cos  (HDG)  

CORRECTING  THE  COMPASS  

 
• Coefficient   A   is   corrected   for   by   physically  
realigning  the  compass.  
• Coefficient   B   &   C   are   corrected   by  
introducing   a   compensating   magnetism   at  
the  compass.  

RESIDUAL  DEVIATION  
 
• Even   once   A,   B   and   C   have   been   ‘factored  
out’   by   correcting   the   compass   there   will  
still  be  some  unexplained  deviation.  
• A   second   compass   swing   takes   place   with  
the   aircraft   being   turned   through   300  
heading  intervals.  
• A   compass   deviation   card   is   then   created  
which  summarises  the  residual  deviation.  
 INSTRUMENTS  13  –  REMOTE  INDICATING  COMPASS  (RIC)  

REQUIREMENT   SYNCHRONISATION  
   
• The   RIC   is   an   attempt   at   taking   the   best   of   • EMF   changes   from   the   flux   valve   are  
both  worlds  from  a  DIC  and  DG.   transferred   to   coils   on   a   selfsynchronous  
• Long   term  accuracy  of  the  DIC   –   retaining   (selsyn)  unit  which   forms   part   of   the  error  
alignment  with  magnetic  north.   detector.  
• Short   term   accuracy   of   the   DG   –   • This   essentially   replicates   the   flux  
unaffected  by  short  term  maneuvers.   detectors  output.  
    • The  error  detector  checks  the  position  of  the  
HSI.  
LOCATION   • The  AC  frequency  used  is  carefully  chosen  to  
bring  both  legs  just  short  of  saturation.   • If  it  detects   the  HSI   is   not   aligned  correctly,  
 
it   operates   a   torque   motor   to   re-­‐align   the  
• Installed  on  the  wings   /   tail   section  where   • When  the  earth’s  magnetic  field  is  present,  it  
gyro  as  required.  
interference  from  aircraft  is  at  a  minimum.   will   cause   one   of   the   legs   to   become  
• Compensation   circuit   can   be   fitted   to   saturated.  
counter   any   magnetism   that   may   remain   • There  is  now  a  resultant  flux  present.  
even  once  it  has  been  remotely  located.   • An   EMF   is   now   induced   within   the  
secondary   pick-­‐up   coil   at   the   points   where  
the   resultant   flux   changes   (dips   in   green  
DETECTION  UNIT  (FLUX  VALVE)   line).  In  accordance  with  Faraday’s  law.  
  PENDULOUS  COMPENSATION  
• Consists  of  three  flux  valve  legs.    
• The   primary   coil   is   excited   with   an   AC   • The   detection   unit   is   suspended   from   a  
current   and   a   magnetic   flux   is   induced   in   Hooke’s  joint.  
both  the  A  and  B  legs.   • Allows  freedom  of  250  in  pitch  and  roll.  
• The   flux   in   each   leg   will   be   equal   in   • It   is   suspended   within   a   liquid   base   to  
magnitude   but   opposite   in   direction,   so   the   provide   damping   and   reduce   the   tilt   that  
resultant  flux  is  zero.   results  from  maneuvers.  
• No   current   is   induced   in   the   secondary  
pick-­‐up  coil  due  to  zero  resultant  flux.     DEVIATION  
• The  flux  valve  remains  stationary  when  the    
aircraft  turns.   • Max  deviation:  ±  10  
• When   aircrafts   heading   changes,   different  
                                EMFs   are   induced   within   each   of   the   3  
secondary  windings.  
 INSTRUMENTS  13  –  REMOTE  INDICATING  COMPASS  (RIC)  

MODES   ADVANTAGES                                    
   
• Slaved   • Reduced  deviation  
o Uses  the  remote  indicating  compass   • Reduced  turning  and  acceleration  errors  
o Torque   motor   and   leveling   switches   • Improved  presentation  
will  automatically  precess  the  gyro  at  a   • Power  output  of  heading  
rate  of  2  -­‐4  degrees  per  minute.  
• DG  Mode  
o Used   as   a   reversionary   mode   or   when   DISADVANTAGES  
operating  close  to  magnetic  poles.    
o A   slew   switch   is   used   to   align  the   HSI   • AC  power  required  
manually   every   15   mins.   A   precession   • Heavier  
rate  of  60  –  120  degrees  per  minute  is   • More  expensive  
used.   • More  complex  to  maintain  

SLEW  SWITCH  
 
• As  well   as   using   the  slew  switch   when  in   DG  
mode,   it   can   be   used   in   slaved   mode   as   a  
fast  erect  method.  
• This   is   used   when   manually   re-­‐aligning   the  
gyro   in   case   of   gross   misalignment   /    
toppling   after   maneuvers  or  on   start-­‐up   for  
example.  

ANNUNCIATOR  
 
• Deviates   from   vertical   alignment   when   HIS  
is  not  aligned  with  selsyn  unit.  
• Auto-­‐alignment  occurs  in  slaved  mode.  
 INSTRUMENTS  14  –  AIR  DATA  COMPUTER  &  SENSORS  

TRANSDUCER   ADC  ADVANATGES   TAT  PROBE  

     
• Device   that   converts   mechanical   /   physical   • Improved  displays   • Sensing  element  acts  as  a  transducer.  
changes  into  an  electrical  signal.   • Reduced  instrument  and  lag  error   • Radiation  shield  stops  heating  from  the  sun.  
• Error  correction   • De-­‐Icing  Heaters  prevent  icing  effects.  
• Central  source  for  other  systems    
ANALOGUE  /  DIGITAL  CONVERTER  (A/DC)   • Clean  design  /  less  maintenance   • When   stationary,   engine   bleed   air   is   used   to  
  • Failure  warning   induce  an  airflow  into  the  probe.  
• Device  that  converts  an  electrical  signal  into  a   • Modular  replacement  is  possible  
digital  output.  

TEMPERATURE  SENSING  
AIR  DATA  COMPUTER  ARCHITECTURE  
 
  HELICAL  BI-­‐METALLIC  SENSOR  
   
• One   metal   will   expand   more   than   the   other   • The  electrical  output  could  be  interpreted  using  
when  temperature  increases.   a  Wheatstone  Bridge  design  but  this  requires   a  
• When   wound   into  a  coil  and  fixed  at  one  end,  a   constant  supply  voltage.  
temperature  change  will  cause  it  to  rotate.   • Instead,  a  ratiometer  thermometer  is  used.  
• Used   on   small   aircraft   that   do   not   need   to   take   o Supply  voltage  variations  affect  both  coils  
into  account  ram  rise.   o Output   from   probe   will   change   magnetic  
field  around  the  right  coil  thus  causing  the  
magnetic  indicator  to  move.  
ADC  REDUNDANCY   o Subject  to  small  vibrations  in  flight  
 
• Captain  and  F/O  have  a  separate  ADC  each.  
• Each  ADC  is  fed  by  a  separate  set  of  probes.  
• In  case  of  discrepancy,  readings  can  be  checked  
against   the   standby   instruments   to   confirm  
which  ADC  is  functioning  correctly.  
o Selector   can   then   be   changed   from   BOTH  
to  either  ADC  1  or  ADC  2  as  appropriate.                                      
 INSTRUMENTS  14  –  AIR  DATA  COMPUTER  &  SENSORS  

SAT,  TAT  AND  RAT   ERRORS  IN  TEMPERATURE  MEASURING   STALL  WARNING  SYSTEM  
     
• SAT  (Static  Air  Temperature)  is  the  temperature   • Instrument  Error   • Warns  flight  crew  of  an  impending  stall.  
of  the  free  stream  air  that  we  want  to  measure.   o Manufacturing  imperfections.   o Stick  Shaker  
• Due  to   compressibility   at  high  speeds,  there  is   • Environmental  Errors   o Audible  Warning  
an   increase   in   temperature   due   to   adiabatic   o Solar  heating  /  ice  accretion.   o Warning  Display  
heating.  This  is  known  as  the  Ram  Rise  (RR).   • Heating  Errors  
• TAT  =  SAT  +  RR  (Where  TAT  =  Total  Air  Temp)   o Ram   Rise   or   frictional   effects   of   being   too  
  close  to  aircraft  skin.   STALL  PROTECTION  SYSTEM  
• Imperfections  in  probe  mean  it  does  not  pick  up    
all  the  ram  rise  however.  The  amount  picked  up   • Prevents  the  stall  from  occurring.  
by  the  probe  is  the  MMR  (measured  ram  rise)   ANGLE  OF  ATTACK  SENSORS   • Operates   on   activation   of   the   stall   warning  
• The   Recovery   Factor   (Kr)   is   the   ability   of   the   system.  
probe  to  pick  up  ram  rise.   • Manual  Flight  /  Autopilot  System  
• MRR  =  Kr  x  RR  (Where  Kr  <  1  |  Usually  0.8)   ERRORS  IN  TEMPERATURE  MEASURING   o Stick  Push  
    o Auto  deployment  of  leading  edge  devices  
• The   temperature   as   sensed   by   the   probe   is   • Vane  Type   • Fly  By  Wire  System  
called  the  Ram  Air  Temperature  (RAT):   o Orientates  freely  with  relative  airflow   o AP  +  AT  used  to  maintain  appropriate  pitch  
• RAT  =  SAT  +  MRR   • Pressure  Differential  Type   attitude  and  keep  speed  above  stall  speed.  
• Conical  Probe  Type  
o Cone   will   rotate   in   order   to   equalize                                        
RAM  RISE  RULE  OF  THUMB   pressure  
 
𝑻𝑨𝑺 𝟐
𝑹𝑹   ≈   ! !   STALL  WARNING  
𝟏𝟎𝟎
 
• Activates  when  within  5%  of  stall  speed  or  5  
kts,  whichever  is  greater.  
CORRECTION  FORMULA  
 
𝑺𝑨𝑻 𝟏
=    
𝑻𝑨𝑻 𝟏 + (𝟎. 𝟐  𝑴𝟐 )
 
𝑺𝑨𝑻 𝟏
=    
𝑹𝑨𝑻 𝟏 + (𝟎. 𝟐  𝑲 𝒓  𝑴𝟐 )
 
Temperature  must  be  in  Kelvin  (K)  
 INSTRUMENTS  15  –  RADIO  ALTIMETER  

PURPOSE   CONE  EMISSION  

   
• Measures   the   height   /   distance   of   aircraft   • In  a  turn,  if  only  one  vertically  aligned  antenna  is  
above  the  ground.   used  the  distance  measured  will  be  greater  than  
• By  comparison,  the  pressure  altimeter  measures   in  reality  and  an  over-­‐read  will  occur.  
distance  from  a  set  datum  and  not  the  ground.    
• Can   be   used   to   provide   AGL   height   and   rate   of   • Multiple   antennas   are   used   to   sense   the   return  
height  change  to  other  aircraft  systems.     that  provides  the  lowest  height.  
• This   cone   emission   provides   accurate   readings  
up  to  ±  40 0  bank  and  ±250  in  pitch  
PULSE  V S  CONTINOUS  RADAR  
 
• Pulse  radar  has  one   antenna  for  both  receiving  
and   transmitting.   It   cannot   do  both   at  the  same  
time.   MODULATION  SWEEP  RATE  
• At   low   altitude,   a   reflection   may   return   to   the    
aircraft  before  it  has  switched  to  RX  mode,  thus   • If   t1   is   the   time   a   particular   frequency   is  
missing  the  return.   transmitted,  this  will  be  returned  to  the  aircraft  
  at  both  t2  and  t3  
• Continuous  radar  uses  two   antenna  (one  to  TX   • An  equal  frequency  is  said  to  exist.  
and  one  to  RX),  thus  overcoming  this  problem.   • The   time   gap   between   t2   and   t3   needs   to   be                                          
prevented   from   coming   too   close   otherwise  
ambiguity  as  to  the  correct  signal  will  exist.  
FMCW  OPERATION    
  • The   modulation   sweep   rate   is   essentially   the  
• As   a   continuous   transmission   is   used,   some   time  taken  to  complete  one  cycle  
method   of   distinguishing   between   returns   is   • A  low  sweep  rate  (longer  time  period)  is  used  to  
required.   increase  the  distance  between  t2  and  t3  
  • Typically  a  sweep  rate  of  0 .01s  is  used.  
• Radio   altimeter   transmissions   are   of   the  
frequency  modulated  continuous  wave  type.  
• Carrier  Wave  =  4300  MHz  (SHF)   DEPTH  OF  MODULATION  
• FM  Modulated  with  50  MHz    
o Produces  a  100  MHz  bandwidth   • This   is   the   bandwidth   that   results   from  
o 4250  –  4350  MHz   frequency  modulation.  
• The   time   difference   between   the   transmitted   • A  large  depth  of  modulation  is  used  to  prevent  
and   received   frequency   is   measured   to   give   apparent   changes   in   frequency   due   to   the  
distance.   Doppler  effect.  
 INSTRUMENTS  16  –  INERTIAL  NAVIGATION  

INTRODUCTION                                             RIG  PROCESS  

   
• Allows   navigation   independent   of   any   • Force  applied  (F1)  
external  aids.   • Precession  Occurs  (P1)  
• INS  =  Inertial  Navigation  System   • Reactionary  force  from  viscous  fluid  (RF)  
• Given   a   known   starting   point   plus   the   distance   • Reactionary  precession  (RP)  
and   direction   travelled,   our   position   can   be   • Gyro  cannot  tilt  b ut  can  only  roll  to  an  equal  and  
obtained.   opposite  force  must  be  applied  (F2)  
• Accelerometers   measure   the   distance   and   • This  is  precessed  and  gyro  movement  is  stopped  
direction  travelled.   (P2)  
• IRS  =  Inertial  Reference  System  
o INS  +  Attitude  &  Heading  Info  +  Display  

RATE  INTEGRATING  GYRO  (RIG)  

 
REDUNDANCY   • A   normal   gyro   (as   fitted   in   a   turn   indicator)  
  measured  the  rate  of  movement.  
• 2  IRSs  are  installed  for  redundancy.   • Rate   integrating   gyro   measures   amount   of  
• Left  IRS  utilised  by  left  FMC.   movement.  
• Right  IRS  utilised  by  right  FMC   • 2  cylinders  are  separated  b y  a  viscous  fluid  

1 ST  GENERATION  INS   VISCOUS  FLUID  

 
• Allows  for  cylinder  rotation  
STABILISED  PLATFORM   • Provides   a   calibrated   resistance   (like   the  
  spring  in  a  turn  indicator)  
• 3  Accelerometers  aligned:   • The  viscous   fluid  is   only   calibrated   when   at   the  
o N/S   correct  temperature.  
o E/W   o When  the  gyro’s  are  spun  up,  friction  force  
o Vertical   heats  the  fluid  to  the  correct  temperature.  
• 3  Rate  Integrating  Gyro’s  
o Sense   displacement   and   drive   torque  
motors   as   required   to   ensure   GAIN  EFFECT  
accelerometers  remain  aligned.    
•  3  Torque  Motors   • The   movement   in   the   input   axis   is   amplified  
  and  a  large  movement  in  the  output  axis  results.  
• Stabilised  platform  is  orientated  to  true  north   • This   is   transferred   to   the   torque   motors  
which  ensure  the  platform  remains  stabilised.  
 INSTRUMENTS  16  –  INERTIAL  NAVIGATION  

RING  LASER  GYRO  ADVANTAGES  

 
                                            • Reduced  spin  up  time  
• Insensitive  to  G-­‐Force  
• Small  Size  
• Lower  power  consumption  
• Greater  MTBF  (Mean  time  between  failures)  

RING  LASER  GYRO  DISADVANTAGES  

 
• Laser  lock  (prevented  with  dither  motor)  
• Drift  caused  by  imperfections  in  mirror  
 INSTRUMENTS  16  –  INERTIAL  NAVIGATION  

STBY  CONTROL   2 ND  GENERATION  –  WANDER  PLATFORM   INTERTIAL  REFERENCE  SYSTEM  

 
• This  is  the  caging  stage  of  the  alignment  process.  
• Only  present  on  systems  with  RIGs.   WANDER  PLATFORM   REDUNDANCY  
• RLGs  do  not  need  to  be  caged.      
• The  1st  generation  INS  suffers  from  errors  when   • 2  IRS  units  are  installed  to  redundancy.  
operating  near  to  the  poles.   • Should  the  axis  in  one  IRS  fail,  the  axis  from  the  
LATITUDE  LIMITS  DURING  ALIGNMENT   • Near   the   poles,   the   stabilised   platform   will   be   other  IRS  can  be  used.  
  continuously  re-­‐aligned  with  true  north.   • Failure   of   the   same   axis   in   both   units   can   be  
• Topple  is  greatest  at  the  equator  (due  to  greater   • This  results  in  gimballing  errors.   overcome  by  tilting  the  unit  450  
earth  rotation)  b ut  negligible  at  the  poles.    
• Alignment   not   possible   above  70  N/S  as  gyro   • The  initial  displacement  from  true  north  can  be  
compassing  is  ineffective.   calculated  during  the  alignment.   IN-­‐FLIGHT  RE  ALIGNMENT  
• Instead  of  continuously  re-­‐aligning  the  platform,    
the   initial   ‘error’   can   be   factored   into   the   • Aircraft   fitted   with   GPS   can   re-­‐align   to   IRS   in  
POSITION  ENTER  ‘DOUBLE  CHECKS’   outputs  and  the  correct  readings  obtained.   flight  if  required.  
  • Requires   more   computing   power   but   allows  
• When   shutdown,   the   INS   remembers   it’s   last   more  reliable  navigation  in  polar  regions.  
position.   ADIRU  
• If  on  next  alignment  a  LAT  /  LONG  is  input  that    
differs   from   this,   it   will   ask   you   to   re-­‐enter   the   • Air  Data  Inertial  Reference  Unit  
3RD  GENERATION  –  STRAPDOWN  PLATFORM  
LAT  /  LONG  as  a  double  check.  
• ADIRU  =  IRS  +  ADC  
 
 
• The   gyro’s   can   sense   topple   and   compute   the   STRAPDOWN  PLATFORM   • The  IRS  provides  HDG,  TRK  &  G/S  Inputs  
aircraft’s  latitude.     • The  ADC  provides  TAS  
• If  a  different  latitude  is  entered,  it  will  ask  you  to   • This   above   principle   is   taken   one   step   further   • Wind   can   now   be   calculated   be   the   ADIRU   and  
re-­‐enter  the  LAT  /  LONG.   and  used  to  correct  for  platform  ‘tilt’.   the   complete   set   of   components   in   the   wind  
• If   the   latitude   still   differs   on   the   second   input,   • There  are  now  no   torque   motors   or   platform   triangle  is  obtained.    
the  system  will  not  enter  N AV  mode.   required.  
• A  box  containing  3  accelerometers  and  3  RLGs  
is  strapped  down  to  the  aircraft.   LONGITUDE  CALCULATION  
ALIGNMENT  TIMES    
  • Since   our   distance   is   obtained   via   the   2nd  
• INS  =  15  Minutes   INTERTIAL  REFERENCE  SYSTEMS   integration,  the   departure   formula  is  used   by  
• IRS  =  10  Minutes     the   IRS  to  calculate  the  change  in  longitude  and  
• This   3rd   generation   marks   the   beginning   of   the   obtain   the   correct   LAT   /   LONG   at   any   given  
                                              IRS  system.   moment  in  time,  
• INS  =  Stabilised  /  Wander  Platform  +  RIGs   • CH  Long  =  Departure  /  cos  (lat)  
• IRS  =  Strapdown  System  +  RLGs  
 INSTRUMENTS  16  –  INERTIAL  NAVIGATION  

IRS  CORRECTIONS   TRUE  /  MAGNETIC  HEADING   ADIRU  CONTROLS  

   
• Coriolis  Effect   • An   AUTO   /   MAN   switch   is   provided   to   select  
o Adjusting   for   the   different   rotational   between   true   heading   or   magnetic   heading   MODE  SELECTOR  UNIT  (MSU)  
velocities  at  different  latitudes.    
output  from  the  IRS.  
  • STBY  –  Caging  and  POS  ENTER  
• In   AUTO   mode,   magnetic   heading   is   used  
• Centripetal  Effect   operating   away   from   the   poles.   The   IRS   uses   a   • ALIGN  –  Levelling  &  Gyro  Compassing  
o Without   adjusting   for   the   centripetal   effect   variation   database   to   convert   from   True   to   • READY  NAV  illuminates  once  align  complete  
(as   the   aircraft   follows   the   curvature   of   the   Magnetic.   • NAV  –  Selected  after  alignment  and  system  now  
earth)  the  IRS  will  think  the  aircraft  is  higher   • When   within   a   certain   radius   of   true   north,   ready  to  use.  
than  it  really  is.   heading  output  is  automatically  changed  to  true.    
  • When   within   an   inner   ‘key   hole’,   MAN   mode   • ATT   –   Uses   the   gyro’s   to   provide   attitude  
• Schuler  Oscillation   should  be  selected  to  force  true  heading.   information  only  to  instrumentation.  Used  if  IRS  
o The   IRS   position   is   adjusted   for   oscillation   computers   fail   preventing   full   normal   NAV  
which  occurs  with  a  period  of  84.4  mins.   functioning.  
  • BATT  –  In  event  of  electrical  failure,  IRS  will  use  
• Transport  Wander   it’s   own   battery.   Illuminates   when   the   IRS  
• Earth  Rotation   battery  is  about  to  die.  
 
 
IRS  ERRORS    
   
• Total  Error  =  Bounded  +  Unbounded  Errors    
   
• Bounded  (Remain  constant  with  time)  
o Initial  Leveling  Error  
o 1st  Integration  Error  
                                               
o Faulty  Accelerometers  
 
• Unbounded  (Get  worse  with  time)  
o Initial  Alignment  Error  
o 2nd  Integration  Error  
o Gyro  Drift  
 INSTRUMENTS  16  –  INERTIAL  NAVIGATION  

CONTROL  DISPLAY  UNIT  (CDU)                                                    

 
• TK/GS  –  Track  &  Groundspeed  
• HDG  /  DA  –  Heading  &  Drift  Angle  
• XTK   /   TKE   –   Cross   Track   Dist   &   Track   Error  
Angle  
• POS  –  Present  LAT  /  LONG  
• WPT  –  Waypoint  Display  
• DIS  /  TIME  –  Distance  &  Time  (To  next  WP)  
• WIND  
• DSR   TK   /   STS   –   Desired   TRK   (To   next   WP)   &  
System  Status  Code  
 
• AUTO   /   MAN   –   Toggles   between   automatic  
waypoint  advancing  or  manual.  
o MAN  used  to  overfly  a  waypoint  
• TK  CHG  –  Allows  manual  selection  of  next  WP  
 
• ALERT  –  Illuminates  2  mins  before  next  WP  
• BATT  –  Illuminates  when  running  on  BATT  
• WARN  –  Illuminates  when  a  fault  exists  
 
 
 
 
 
 INSTRUMENTS  17  –  FLIGHT  MANAGEMENT  SYSTEM  

INPUTS  AND  OUTPUTS   COMPOSITE  FIX   REQUIRED  NAVIGATION  PERFORMANCE  

     
• At   the   heart   of   the   FMS   is   the   FMC   (Flight   • The   FMC   will   compute   the   position   of   the   • Each  block  of  airspace  will  have  a  published  RNP  
Management  Computer)   aircraft  by  taking  inputs  from  the  IRS,  GPS,  DME   value.  
• The   FMC   communicates   with   multiple   other   and  VOR  fixes.   • To   operate   within   the   airspace   using   area  
systems  as  in  the  diagram  below.   • IRS   position   is   very   accurate   initially   but   then   navigation,   the   ANP   must   be   less   than   the  
  decreases  with  time.   RNP.  
  • For   the   other   inputs,   GPS   is   the   most   accurate,  
  followed  by  DME  then  VOR.  
  • During   earlier   stages   of   the   flight,   more   weight   B-­‐RNAV  &  P-­‐RNAV  STANDARDS  
  is  given  to  the  IRS  and  GPS  position  and  in  latter    
  stages  more  weight  is  given  to  the  GPS,  VOR  and   • B-­‐RNAV  (Basic  Area  Nav)  =  RNP  of  5  miles  
  DME  positions.   • P-­‐RNAV  (Precision  Area  Nav)  =  RNP  of  1  mile  
• A   kalman   filter   is   used   to   apply   the   correct  
weightings  and  derive  a  composite  fix.                                                      
• The  system  will  also  indicate  the  accuracy  of  the   COST  INDEX  
aircraft   position   at   any   moment   in   time.   This   is    
knows   as   the   ANP   (Actual   Navigation   • Fuel  vs  Everything  Else  (Flight  Time)  
FMS  ARCHITECTURE   Performance)   • Cheap  Fuel  =  High  CI  =  Fly  Fast  
    • Expensive  Fuel  =  Low  CI  =  Fly  Slow  
• The   FMS   is   comprised   of   two   FMCs   for   • IRS  +  GPS  +  DME  +  VOR   -­‐-­‐-­‐>  Kalman  Filter  -­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐>    
redundancy.   Composite  Fix  -­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐>  ANP   • Low  CI  for  m ax  range  
 
• The  FMS  can  operate  in  several  modes.  
• DUAL  –  FMC’s  are  in  sync.   AREA  NAVIATION  (R-­‐NAV)   EFIS  DISPLAYS  
• Independent   –   No   communication   between      
FMCs   • Area   navigation   is   navigation   that   is   not   • Boeing  =  EADI  &  EHSI  
• Single  –  Only  one  FMC  operational   restricted   to   flying   from   ground   based   aid   to   • Airbus  =  PFD  &  ND  
  ground  based  aid.  
  • Ghost   waypoints   can   be   created   via   LAT   /  
  LONG,  VOR/VOR  or  VOR/DME  fixes.   FLIGHT  DIRECTORS  
   
  • V  Bar  (Single  Cue)  
  • Cross  Bar  (Split  Cue)  
 INSTRUMENTS  17  –  FLIGHT  MANAGEMENT  SYSTEM  

EHSI  MODES                                                        
 
• MAP  (TRK  /  HDG  Up)  
• EXP  NAV  (CDI  +  MAP)    
• PLAN  (North  Up)  
• FULL  NAV  (HSI)  

EFIS  COLOURS  
 
• GREEN  –  Low  Priority  
• WHITE  –  Scales  &  present  status  info  
• MAGENTA  –  Command  Information  
• CYAN  –  Off  Route  Waypoints  
• RED  –  Warnings  
• YELLOW  –  Cautions  
• BLACK  –  Blank  Areas  
 INSTRUMENTS  1  –  INTRODUCTION  TO  AFCS  

AFCS                                                           FD  FUNCTIONALITY  
Loop  Combinations  
   
• Automatic  Flight  Control  System   Inner   Outer   Mode   • FD  Display  
• AFCS  =  A/P  +  A/T  +  FD   • FD  Control  Panel  
✗   ✗   Hand  Flying   • FD  Computer  

CONTROL  LOOPS   ✗   ✓   HF  with  FD  

  AUTOTHROTLLE  
• Closed  loops  have  feedback   ✓   ✓   Autoflight    
  • Controls  speed  and  thrust  
• Outer  Loop  =  FD   ✓ ✗   CWS   • At   64   kts,   servos   disengage   and   THR   HOLD   is  
o Controls  flight  guidance     entered   in   order   to   prevent   servo’s   moving  
• Inner  Loop  =  Autopilot   FMA’s   throttle  in  case  of  RTO.  
o Controls  attitude  (pitch  +  roll)      
  • GREEN  =  Active  
• The   flight   director   essentially   decides   on   the   • WHITE  =  Armed  
target   attitude   and   the   autopilot   actually   flies   • Once  made  active,  the  FMA  is  boxed  for  10s  
the  target  attitude.  

MODE  ENTRY  
CLOSED  VS  OPEN  LOOPS    
  • Manually  –  MCP  Selection  
• Closed  loops  have  feedback   • Automatically  –  ALT  AQR  -­‐>  ALT  HOLD  
• Outer  Loop  =  FD   • Pre-­‐Arming   –   Manually   armed   then  
o Controls  flight  guidance   automatically  engaged  (VOR  LOC)  
• Inner  Loop  =  Autopilot  
o Controls  attitude  (pitch  +  roll)  
MODE  EXIT  
 
• Press  mode  select  a  second  time  
• Enter  a  different  mode  
 INSTRUMENTS  –  AUTOPILOT  MODES  

LEVEL  CHANGE   SPEED  REVERSION   SPEED  LIMITING  

     
• Speed  too  low   • Speed  too  high  
• Can  occur  during  a  VS  climb  with  a  too  high  ROC   • Can   occur   during   a   VS   descent   with   a   too   high  
selected.   ROD  selected.  
   
• Cautionary   Range   –   Yellow   • Red  Bricks  –  VMO  /  MMO  
speed  range  on  speed  tape.  Top    
of  range  is  1.3  VS    
   
• Red   Bricks   –   Critical   angle   of   • Speed   limiting   is   triggered   when   airspeed   falls  
VERTICAL  SPEED  
attack   into  the  cautionary  range.  
  o Flashing  b lock  in  MCP    
• Speed  reversion  is  triggered  when  airspeed  falls   o MCP  speed  window  shows  flashing  block  
into  the  cautionary  range.   o Clacker  sounds  
o Speed  b ox  turns  amber   o A/T  =  RETARD        |      A/P  =  MCP  SPD  
o MCP  speed  window  shows  flashing  ‘A’   o Aircraft   will   pitch   to   give   5   kts   below   the  
o A/T  =  N1        |      A/P  =  MCP  SPD   red  bricks  
o Aircraft   will   pitch   to   give   5   kts   above   the  
cautionary  range                                                            
o Once   pilot   has   intervened   and   aircraft  
accelerates   15   kts   clear   of   the   cautionary  
range,  the  flashing  A  disappears.  
 INSTRUMENTS  –  AUTOPILOT  

AXIS  CONTROL   OTHER  AUTOPILOT  SYSTEM  TYPES   SERVOMECHANISM  

   
• Controls  the  pitch  and  roll  axis   • Duplex  System                                                              
• Yaw  damper  (separate  system)  controls  yaw   o  Not   possible   to   determine  whether  AP1   or   SERVOMECHANISM  
AP2  has  failed.    
  • Sense   a   small   movement   and   create   a   large  
SINGLE  PILOT  IFR   • Duplex  System  (With  Cross  Coupling)   output  by  applying  gain.  
  o  AP1   monitors   AP2’s   actuators   and   vice-­‐
• Requires  a  minimum  of:   versa.  
o Altitude  Hold   o  When  runway  is  sensed,  the  system  in  that  
axis  can  now  be  disconnected.   RESPONSE  TIME  
o Heading  Hold    
o  Since  control  is  handed  back  to  the  pilot  in  
that  axis  this  is  a  standard  autopilot.     • High  Gain  =  Fast  Response  (Lightly  Damped)  
  o Oscillates  too  much  
AUTOPILOT  TYPES  
• Triplex  System    
 
o  Contains  AP1,  AP2  and  AP3   • Low  Gain  =  Slow  Response  (Heavily  Damped)  
• Standard   -­‐  In  the  event  of  failure,  full  control  is  
o  Allows   a   majority   vote   to   be   cast   and   the   o Takes  too  long  
handed  back  to  the  pilots.  
faulty  autopilot  disconnected    
 
  • Critical  Gain  
• Operational  –  Built-­‐in  redundancy  
•  Pseudo-­‐Triplex   o Balance  of  high  and  low  gain  
o  Adding   a   third   autopilot   is   very   heavy   and   o Highest  gain  that  results  in  no  oscillation  
expensive  however.    
PREVENTING  CONTROL  RUNWAY  
o  A   computer   is   added   which   can   determine   • Optimal  Gain  
 
the   faulty   autopilot   and   disconnect   it   from   o Critical  gain  is  still  too  slow  
• Biggest  danger  with  a  single  autopilot  system  
the  system.   o Optimal   allows   a   slight   but   acceptable  
 
overshoot  
• Authority  Weighting  
o  Manual   inputs   are   given   more   weighting  
than  autopilot  inputs  so  it  can  be  forcefully  
overcome  if  required.  
 
• Comparators  
o  If  sensors  feel  a  movement  in  a  plane  that  is  
opposite   to   the   actuator   movement,   the  
system  is  disconnected.  
 
• Rate  Triggers  
o  System   disconnected   when   a   too   rapid  
change  in  aircraft  attitude  is  sensed.  
 INSTRUMENTS  –  AUTOPILOT  

GAIN  CONSTANT   TRIM  SYSTEM   AUTOPILOT  SYNCRONISATION  

   
Error  x  K  =  Input   • Allows  for  smooth  engagement  of  the  autopilot  
  TRIM  RUNAWAY   • Prevents  control  snatching  
• K  is  the  constant  set  by  the  system  to  determine    
to  gain  applied.   • Prevented  by  use  of  two  switches  
  INTERLOCKS  
• If  K  does  not  vary  =  Constant  System    
• If  K  varies  =  Variable  System   STAB  CUT-­‐OFF  SWITCHES   • Set   of   required   parameters   needed   for  
o Used  to  reduce  gain  when  near  to  VOR  for     autopilot  engagement  and  continued  operation.  
example.   • Can   be   used   to   disconnect   the   pitch   trim   in   the  
                                                             
  event  of  runaway  occurring.  
  AUTOPILOT  SELECTION  
   
AUTO-­‐TRIM   • Selection   of   AP2   will   disengage   AP1   unless   in  
  approach  mode.    
• When   autopilot   is   in   operation,   auto-­‐trim   takes  
place  in  pitch  only  
  TOUCH  CONTROL  STEERING  (TCS)  
• Reduces   control   surface   deflection   thus    
SERVO-­‐ACTUATOR  TYPES   increasing  efficiency   • AFCS  remains  syncronised  during  maneuvers  
 
• Prevents   control   snatch   when   A/P   unlike  CWS.    
• Pnuematic   disconnected  
• Mechanical    
• System   • Fitted  in  parallel  to  servo  control  and  actuators  
• If   manual   pitch   trim   is   used   whilst   A/P   is  
engaged  the  autopilot  will  be  disconnected  

MACH  TRIM  
 
• Helps  prevent  mach  tuck  
• As   mach   number   increases,   a   small   amount   of  
pitch  up  trim  is  gradually  applied.  
 INSTRUMENTS  –  GPWS  

Purpose   Warnings                                                                  
Excessive  Descent  Rate   SINK  RATE  /  WOOP  WOOP  PULL  UP  
Excessive  (Rising)  Terrain  Closure   TERRAIN  /  WOOP  WOOP  PULL  UP  
TOGA  Height  Loss   DON’T  SINK  
TOO  LOW  GEAR  (4A)  &  TOO  LOW  FLAPS  (4B)  /  
Terrain  Clearance  (Not  in  landing  config)  
TOO  LOW  TERRAIN  
Glideslope  Deviation   GLIDESLOPE  
Advisory  Callouts   ONE  THOUSAND  /  MINIMUMS  /  BANK  ANGLE  
Windshear   CAUTION  WINDSHEAR  /  WINDSHEAR  
 
WARNING  TYPES  
 
• Mandatory  Aural  Warnings  
• Optional  (Additional)  Visual  Warnings  

SYSTEM  INPUTS  
 
• Received  from  ADC  

GPWS  RANGE  
 
• Ground  –  2500  ft  
 INSTRUMENTS  –  AUTOLAND  

AUTOPILOT  FAILURES                                                                        
 
Fail  Operational  
V  
Fail  Passive  
V  
Manual  Flight  

AUTOLAND  PROCEDURE