Academic year 2021-2022

Lab session
Practical optimization of a cogeneration (CHP) system

Ahmed ALREWENY
ahmed.alreweny@kuleuven.be

Supervisor: prof. Lieve Helsen,

Dept Mechanical Engineering, div. Appl. Mech. & Ener. Conv.,
Celestijnenlaan 300A, 3001 Heverlee,
Email: lieve.helsen@mech.kuleuven.be

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Introduction
Context
Combined heat and power (CHP) or cogeneration is more and more referred to as a means of
saving primary energy and as a solution for (too) high CO2 emissions. This potential for
saving primary energy has been demonstrated for large industrial applications. Furthermore,
the technology for that purpose has been perfected. Currently, the possibility to use mini and
micro CHP in the tertiary and residential sectors is being examined. For this purpose too,
technology exists. However, it remains an open question whether this technology has matured
enough for optimal use. Moreover, the potential to save primary energy in these applications
is far from demonstrated. Therefore, this lab session takes a closer look at one of the
suggested technologies: micro CHP using an internal combustion engine.

CHP with internal combustion engine

The principles of CHP using an internal combustion engine are illustrated in Figure 1 and
Figure 2.

radiation
~25%

Pmechanic
~25%
hot exhaust fumes
combustion engine ~25%

fuel
100%
cooling water
~25%

Figure 1: functioning internal combustion engine

radiation

Pelectric
~25%

Pmechanic
~25%
cooled exhaust
fumes
combustion engine

fuel
100%
cooling water
~60%

Figure 2: CHP application of internal combustion engine

Figure 1illustrates the energy flow management in a classic internal combustion engine.
Basically, fuel is transformed in mechanical power. The engine needs cooling during this
process, which is realized by means of radiation on the one hand, and with the help of a
cooling circuit (due to insufficient heat transfer through radiation). This cooling circuit
usually looks as follows: the engine is cooled with oil, this oil is cooled in a heat exchanger
by means of cooling water and this cooling water is cooled with air in a second heat

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exchanger (that can have a fan). As a rule of thumb, 25 to 40% of the supplied fuel is
converted into mechanical power, whereas the rest is wasted. These losses are equally
distributed among radiation, cooling circuit and hot exhaust fumes (order of magnitude
700°C). So, all unused energy is lost as heat tot the surroundings. If only the mechanical
power is of interest this heat should be evacuated as efficient as possible to avoid engine
damage.

The purpose of combined heat and power exists in using a similar combustion engine to
produce both electricity (or mechanical power) and heat. Therefore, lost heat is recovered as
much as possible, which is schematically illustrated in Figure 2. Heat recovering is realized in
different ways. A first cycle of heat transfer happens in the cooling circuit of the engine.
Instead of evacuating this heat to the surroundings, it is used to provide hot water.
Subsequently, the heat contained in the hot exhaust fumes can be recycled in a second heat
transfer. If the electric generator needs cooling, this cooling water too can be recycled. A
final means of recycling useful heat consists of thermal (and acoustic) insulation of the
engine. This way the radiation losses are trapped near the engine, allowing further heating of
the cooling water. Evidently, not all lost heat can be recycled. In practice, insulation does not
perfectly eliminate all heat losses and the exhaust fumes cannot be cooled down to ambient
temperature (to prevent formation of corrosive liquids in the gasses). Most combustion
engines used for CHP have electrical efficiencies (E) of about 25 to 30% and thermal
efficiencies (th) ranging from 60 to 65%. The total fuel utilization rate (E+th)
approximates 80 to 90%.

Lab session objectives

A test setup with a SenerTec gas engine in CHP mode is available in the lab. However, due to
the lock-down, we cannot enter the lab. Therefore, the measurements needed for the exercise
are provided.
The main objectives are:
1. To understand the operation of CHP by means of energy flow balances
2. Hands on optimization of the CHP for a specific case study
3. To estimate and evaluate the impact of CHP deployment in the Belgian energy system.

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The lab equipment
The equipment consists of a CHP unit that generates electricity and hot water by burning
natural gas. The hot water is then fed to a convector, that basically works as a heat exchanger
to cool down the hot water from the CHP by heating up the air in the room, and the cooled
water is fed from the convector again to the CHP unit, forming a loop.

Convector

SenerTec

Figure 3: Lab CHP system. Top Schematic CHP-Convector. Bottom. Real lab equipment

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This thermal system, meaning the production of heat by the engine and the supply of through
the convector, is fully measurable (temperatures and flow rates). Additionally, the natural gas
flow rates, and the ambient pressure and temperature are also monitored. The convector
represents the customer who has a given heat demand. In reality the convector is just a heat
exchanger that conveys heat to the surroundings (the building). The lab setup is shown in
Figure 3 (bottom).

Operating the SenerTec gas engine

The following technical values were provided by the manufacturer of the SenerTec gas
engine (Table 1).

PE PQ Pgas E Q
5.5 kW 12.5 kW 20.5 kW 27% 61%
Table 1: Technical features according to the SenerTec engine manufacturer

These values have been measured for rich gas or high caloric gas (H gas). The gas in the lab
is L gas, which has a different composition and a reduced lower heating value compared to H
gas. Therefore, it is not sure a priori that the manufacturer’s values are applicable in this lab.
The real values will have to be checked with proper measurements.

The electricity generated by the engine is metered on a traditional electricity meter that only
registers the electricity production minus the CHP’s own power consumption (which is
negligibly small). Thermal power is indirectly measured through a flow meter and several
thermocouples read in on the computer. The gas consumption is registered on the gas meters.

Lab executables
Objective
The main objective of the lab session on CHP is to economically optimize the operation of a
CHP satisfying given demands for heat and electric load. Furthermore, the role of thermal
storage is highlighted.
Before performing the actual optimization, the validation or correction of the technical
parameters of the CHP is necessary. This is done in preparatory exercises. All exercises have
report forms added at the end of the exercise description. The problem statement for the
assignment is included as well.

Preparatory exercise 1:
Energy balance CHP and system
A first experiment maps power, efficiency, energy and loss factors. These data will serve as
input for the development of a theoretical optimization strategy. The particular experiment
meters the configuration in which the CHP directly delivers heat to the convector. The energy
balance over the CHP will be made by assuming stationary regime.

From the data provided, you are expected to make an energy balance so that you are able to
find:
• Electric power generated by CHP,
• Thermal power generated by CHP,
• Thermal power delivered to the convector,
• (Pipeline) losses,
• Primary power (gas),
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• Electric and thermal efficiency CHP,
• The convector efficiency and the effective heating power (compared to total gas
consumption)
• Fuel utilization rate

During start up from cold to stationary regime, the CHP shows transient behavior. Sketches
of the evolution of the instant efficiencies over one hour are expected to show understanding
of this typical behavior of the electric efficiency E and the thermal efficiency Q. Motivate
the specific paths of both curves.

Make sure you are working with the actual heating value and not the provided value at
standard conditions (0ºC en 1 atm). The real ambient temperature and pressure can be read
from the meter in an adjacent TME lab, but they are given to you in the Table of ex1.
(assume the same pressure and temperature in the CHP lab).

Preparatory experiment 1.
a. In this part, natural gas from the grid is burned in a CHP unit, that generates
electricity directly, and heats up water. The hot water generated in the CHP is fed to a
convector, that cools down the water by heating up the air in the room. The water
flow between the CHP and the convector is constant (closed loop). You can see a
sketch of the setup in figure 3(top). You are expected to calculate all the parameters in
the left column by using the data provided in the right column, that is obtained by
measurements over the CHP-convector tandem working in a stationary regime. First,
you must calculate the LHV of the gas under experimental circumstances using the
ideal gas law before performing the rest of the calculations.

Lower Heating Value gas (standard) 33.7 MJ/m3(n) at 1.013 bar and 0 ºC
LHV experimental circumstances …… MJ/m3 at…1.024…bar and 25ºC

Duration experiment 6 min gas consumption 0.226 m3

Stationary regime Measurements

CHP PE kW T CHPhot 74.06°C
PQ kW CHPcold 50.85°C
Pprim kW Convhot 72.06°C
E % Convcold 54.5°C
Q % Flow rate 0.406 m3/h
Convector PQ kW Electric meter
Q % Initial Value 5443 kWh
Pipe losses % Final Value 5443.55 kWh

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 b. Above only the stationary regime of the CHP-convector unit is analyzed (reached
after 45 minutes of CHP operation). From the working principle described at the
beginning of the guidelines, could you deduce the transient behavior of the electric
and heat efficiencies over time (plot both efficiencies in the figure shown below)?
Give a short justification of your answer.

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Transient regime
70

60

50
Instant efficiencies
E and th [%]

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60
time [min]

Method + remarks (add pages if necessary)

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Preparatory exercise 2:
Thermal storage
The second exercise focuses on the role of thermal storage. Heat can be stored relatively easy
as hot water in a well insulated storage vessel. Stored heat can be extracted at a later time
when an actual heat demand occurs.

In the first part of the experiment the CHP does not supply heat to the convector, but to the
storage vessel. Secondly, the CHP is switched off and the convector receives heat from the
storage unit. Map the energy flows in the total system: CHP, convector, storage, electrical
and thermal. Do not forget the losses.

Preparatory experiment 2.
In this part, an additional energy balance is made over a CHP-storage tank-convector setup.
The system works in two steps. The first step stores the hot water in a storage tank. In a
second step, the water inside the storage tank is used to feed the convector that releases the
heat into the air. You should:
a. Calculate all requested parameters of part 1 & 2. Complete the Sankey diagram
b. Is the law of conservation of energy satisfied throughout the injection/withdrawal
process? Which situation could lead to an excess/lack of energy in the balance ?

Data

Efficiencies T_stor_cold 20 °C
αE = 27 %
αQ = 61% Storage withdrawal
duration 20 min
Storage injection flow rate cycle 2 0.3 m3/h
duration 30 min T_stor_cold 30 °C
flow rate cycle 1 0.4 m3/h T_stor_hot 67 °C
T_chp_hot 70 °C T_conv_hot 65 °C
T_chp_cold 20 °C T_conv_cold 31 °C
T_stor_hot 68 °C

Part 1: thermal storage

Duration real min
CHP Q kWh
Prim kWh

Part 2: heat supply from storage

Duration real min
Convector Q kWh

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Results

ECHP : kWh

gas input CHP storage Qconvector : kWh

kWh QCHP → stor: kWh

loss pipelines
kWh
loss CHP loss pipelines
kWh kWh

Method + remarks (add pages if necessary)

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Part 3: Theoretical Economic optimization
This third part looks at the optimal running scheme for the CHP to satisfy given heat and
electric power demands.
Electric demand is a need for power, meaning that the demand should be instantly satisfied
by either the CHP or the power grid (or a combination of both). Electricity that is not
consumed can be sold to the grid at a specified price.
The heat demand here is defined as a need for energy. Therefore, the exact timing and
duration of the thermal power supply is not relevant, as long as the total amount of energy is
delivered over the considered horizon (e.g. one hour). In the experiment, for reasons of
guaranteeing thermal comfort between 40 % and 60 % of the total heat has to be delivered in
the first half hour.
Heat is delivered through the convector, which can extract heat from the CHP or from the
storage tank, provided enough stored heat is present.
Following paths are possible:

Electricity demand
CHP

Heat demand
Electric power grid

Thermal storage

Heat
Electricity

Discuss an optimal operation strategy (excluding the use of thermal energy storage). Other
useful parameters, such as electricity prices, gas prices etc can be found in the next pages.

The strategy you consider optimal is noted down and completely calculated theoretically. For
the calculations you can assume stationary regime.

Part 3: Theoretical Economic Optimization

Following equipment is available to supply energy (heat, electricity) to a residential area: the
SenerTec CHP, a thermal energy storage vessel and an electricity grid. The illustration below
shows the possible pathways. Note: the storage vessel cannot be metered and should not be
included in the solution constructed and tested. Considerations about thermal energy storage
should be added later

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 electricity demand
CHP

heat demand
electricity grid

Storage vessel

heat
electricity

The residential demand for one specific hour is illustrated below

heat demand 5 kWh

electricity demand 10
8
kW 6
4
2

10 20 30 40 50 60 min

Remember that electricity demand is a demand for instant power. The power demand should
be satisfied continuously and instantly.
The heat demand, on the other hand, is an energy demand. Over the course of the hour a
specific amount of heat should be provided via the convector, without specification of the
exact timing. For reasons of guaranteeing thermal comfort, between 40 % and 60 % of the
total heat demand should be supplied in the first half hour.
Electricity demand should be met exactly, whereas a margin of +/- 5 % deviation is
acceptable with reference to the heat demand.
a. The objective is to determine an optimal running scheme for the CHP taking into
account all given parameters and data. The CHP parameters have been metered in the
previous experiments. Assume a stationary regime for the CHP. Do not consider in
this first optimization the utilization of a thermal energy storage vessel. The
assumptions and motivation for your optimal solution should be discussed.

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 Theoretical solution
Use these sheets (blank cells) to note down your theoretical solution. Think carefully which
components of the system (CHP, pipelines, convector) are relevant.

period energy price

[minutes] [kWh] [€]
primary fuel gas
0 – 10 CHP heat production
electricity production
heat CHP → demand (o)
storage → demand (o)
CHP → storage (o)
electricity CHP → demand
grid → demand
CHP → grid
remarks

primary fuel gas

10 – 20 CHP heat production
electricity production
heat CHP → demand (o)
storage → demand (o)
CHP → storage (o)
electricity CHP → demand
grid → demand
CHP → grid
remarks

primary fuel gas

20 – 30 CHP heat production
electricity production
heat CHP → demand (o)
storage → demand (o)
CHP → storage (o)
electricity CHP → demand
grid → demand
CHP → grid
remarks

(o) Remember to take into account all losses over your energy system (CHP, pipelines, storage, etc.). The relevant kWh
are those delivered by the convector (the client) or to the storage.

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Theoretical solution (continued)
period energy price
[minutes] [kWh] [€]
primary fuel gas
30 – 40 CHP heat production
electricity production
heat CHP → demand (o)
storage → demand (o)
CHP → storage (o)
electricity CHP → demand
grid → demand
CHP → grid
remarks

primary fuel gas

40 – 50 CHP heat production
electricity production
heat CHP → demand (o)
storage → demand (o)
CHP → storage (o)
electricity CHP → demand
grid → demand
CHP → grid
remarks

primary fuel gas

50 – 60 CHP heat production
electricity production
heat CHP → demand (o)
storage → demand (o)
CHP → storage (o)
electricity CHP → demand
grid → demand
CHP → grid
remarks

(o) Remember to take into account all losses over your energy system (CHP, pipelines, storage, etc.). The relevant kWh
are those delivered by the convector (the client) or to the storage.

Storage 0 kWh

Total heat supplied to client kWh

Total electricity supplied to client kWh
Total cost €

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Extra questions:

a. How would the availability of thermal energy storage affect your solution or what
would need to be different for storage to be useful (prices, demand profile, etc.)?

b. What are the effects of your optimal solution with storage on the overall energy use
and the overall greenhouse gas emissions (GHG)? To assess the impact a comparison
should be made with a reference. The reference for electricity is the grid (and the
reference central electricity generation system) and all heat is delivered by a
conventional boiler with an efficiency of 90 %. The boiler pipelines are similar to the
CHP pipeline system.
Assess the differences with reference to electricity production and gas consumption.
Use the chronological diagram presented on the data sheet in the lab text to determine
the active electricity production system during the hour that you have to optimize.
Think carefully what the actual differences are between the reference and the CHP
system and how these differences should be evaluated.
The energy demand takes place during 17h00 and 18h00.
c. Even when most of the tests use CHP in stationary regime to check the theoretical
solution, all students in the past have obtained higher/lower heat amounts than
expected. What could explain this difference between theoretical and experimental
optimization?

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 Data: gas
Lower heating value 33.7 MJ / Nm3(n)
Standard conditions (Nm3(n)) at 1 atm en 0ºC
GHG emissions for complete combustion 56.1 kg CO2 / GJprim
Gas price 0.50 € / m3

Data electricity
Buy from the grid 0.15 € / kWh
Sell to the grid 0.05 € / kWh
Chronological central electricity generation diagram for a winter day (Ref.: Elektriciteit en
haar toepassingen op de nijverheid, Prof. Van Dommelen)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 GW
15
Gas turbine

coal
10
CCGT

nuclear

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 0
In this diagram nuclear plants provide base load. Part of the coal fired power plants and
CCGTs complete the base load provision, because these units are not shut down for shorter
periods (<24h). The interpretation is as follows: a minimal part of each plant is always
running, e.g., a coal fired plant is not operated below 30 % of full capacity, whereas the
remaining capacity is used for mid and peak load. If the electricity demand decreases
production should respond with a decrease as well. The first response is done with
modulation of power plants (lowering the load). Gas turbines can be shut down and restarted
more frequently and for shorter periods compared to the base-load plants.

The full load efficiency and modulation efficiency of different power plants can be found in
the left table below. The right hand side table provides the carbon emissions per fuel type.
Be careful when interpreting the efficiencies!

full_load modulation CO2 emissions

Gas turbine 28% 30% kgCO2 / GJprim
coal 40% 47% gas 56.1
CCGT 55% 63% coal 91.5
nuclear 33% - nuclear 0

The full load efficiency represents the average efficiency of the power plant at full load,
whereas the modulation efficiency is the marginal efficiency of the last zone of operation
(e.g. a power plant has two operating zones 200-600MW and 600-800MW).

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