1

UNI
T-I
CRI
MINALRESPONSI
BILI
TY
I
ntr
oduct
ion:

Gener
alDef
ences:

Def
enses f
or cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity ar
e
ci
rcumst
ancest
hatr
eli
eveanaccusedf
rom
conv
ict
ion of gui
l
t and i
ts consequent
penal
ty.These ci
rcumst
ances exempt a
cr
imi
nalf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity orent
it
le
hi
m/hert
oar
educedpuni
shment
.

Def
enses f
or cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity ar
e
i
ncor
por
ated i
n cr
imi
nall
aw i
n di
ff
erent
way
s.Somear
ecl
ear
lypr
ovi
dedbyt
hel
aw
asdef
enseswhi
l
eot
her
sar
enot
.Thel
att
er
cat
egor
iesar
especi
aldef
enses. Theyar
e
 2

def
enses t
hatappl
yin par
ti
cul
ar cr
ime.
Speci
aldef
ensescoul
dbenon-
ful
fi
ll
mentof
essent
ialcondi
ti
onsoft
hecr
imespr
ovi
ded
i
nthe speci
alpar
toft
he Cr
imi
nalCode.
Accor
ding t
o ar
ti
cle 665 oft
he Cr
imi
nal
Code,f
orexampl
e,t
hecr
imeoft
hef
tisnot
compl
ete unl
ess t
he t
hing abst
ract
ed
bel
ongst
osomebodyel
se.I
ftheaccused
abst
ract
ed hi
s/her pr
oper
ty,he/
she can
r
aise t
his f
act as a def
ense. Speci
al
def
ensescoul
dal
sobedef
ensespr
ovi
ded
f
orpar
ti
cul
arcr
ime.Forex
ampl
e,Ar
ti
cl
e.
640oft
heCr
imi
nalCodepr
ohi
bitobscene
publ
i
cat
ions.Ar
ti
cle642pr
ovi
desdef
enses
f
ort
hecr
imeofobscenepubl
i
cat
ion.Asa
r
esul
t,ar
ti
sti
c,l
i
ter
aryorsci
ent
if
icwor
ksor
obj
ect
s ar
e not consi
der
ed obscene or
i
ndecent
.
 3

Theot
hercat
egor
iesofdef
ensesar
ethose
expr
essl
ypr
ovi
dedbyl
aw asdef
ense.They
ar
egener
aldef
enses.Theyar
eappl
i
cabl
eto
al
l cr
imes. They ar
e excuses and
j
ust
if
icat
ions.The Cr
imi
nalCode of2005
doesnotf
oll
ow t
hisdi
chot
omy
.Howev
er,
wef
oll
ow t
hiscl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
nthi
smodul
e
f
orconv
eni
entunder
standi
ng.

Excusesar
edef
ensest
hatar
isebecauset
he
def
endanti
s notbl
amewor
thyf
orhav
ing
act
ed i
n a wayt
hatwoul
d ot
her
wise be
cr
imi
nal
. Excuses ar
e t
he def
ect
s and
unusualcondi
ti
onsoft
hecr
imi
naldur
ingt
he
commi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime.Thus,i
fper
sons
commi
t cr
ime unwi
l
li
ngl
y, wi
thout
under
standi
ngt
henat
ureandconsequences
 4

oft
hei
ract
,wi
thmi
stakenbel
i
efoff
act
sor
l
aw,t
he l
aw excusest
hem f
rom cr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ity
.Int
hecasesoft
heexcuses,t
he
f
ocus i
s on t
he i
ndi
vi
dualcr
imi
nalr
ather
t
hanont
hecr
imecommi
tt
ed.

Def
ensest
hatar
isewhent
hedef
endant
hasact
edi
nawayt
hatt
hel
awdoesnot
seekt
opr
eventar
ecal
l
edj
ust
if
icat
ion
def
enses.I
n shor
ttheycan becal
l
ed
“
just
if
icat
ions”
.Incasesofj
ust
if
icat
ions,
t
her
ear
epr
eli
minar
ycondi
ti
onst
hatenabl
e
t
hedoeroft
heactt
otakenecessar
yand
pr
opor
ti
onat
eact
ion.Thus,whent
her
eisan
at
tackonl
egal
l
ypr
otect
edr
ight
s,t
hest
eps
t
akent
orev
erset
heat
tacki
sjust
if
iabl
eact
.
Si
mil
arl
y,i
ftheper
sonsf
oundt
hemsel
vesi
n
i
mmi
nentandser
iousdangerandt
hei
ronl
y
 5

choi
ce t
o av
oid t
his si
tuat
ion i
s by
commi
tt
ingacr
ime,t
hei
racti
sjust
if
iabl
eif
t
hey hav
e chosen t
he l
esser har
m. I
n
j
ust
if
icat
ions,t
hef
ocusi
sont
heactr
ather
t
han on t
he cr
imi
nal
. The soci
ety
encour
ages t
hose act
s. Just
if
icat
ions
i
ncl
udeact
srequi
redoraut
hor
izedbyl
aw,
l
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense, necessi
ty and
pr
ofessi
onal
dut
y.

Just
if
icat
ionf
orDef
ences:
Law r
efl
ect
sthe v
alue oft
he soci
ety
.It
puni
shes per
sons bl
amed f
orcommi
tt
ing
har
mful act agai
nst t
he soci
ety
.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,somet
imest
hesoci
etydoes
 6

notbl
amet
heper
pet
rat
orofanactt
hathas
caused har
m t
o i
t when t
hat act i
s
commi
tt
ed i
n cer
tai
n ci
rcumst
ances.The
ci
rcumst
ances i
n whi
ch t
he doerofan
har
mfulactwi
l
lnotbebl
amedar
epr
ovi
ded
byt
hecr
imi
nall
aw asdef
ensef
orcr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ity
.Thebasi
creasonf
ort
heexi
stence
oft
hedef
ensei
sthati
tisnotj
ustt
ohol
d
per
sons gui
l
tyf
ora cr
ime f
orwhi
ch t
he
soci
etydoesnotbl
amet
hem asacr
imi
nal
.
I
tist
hebasi
cpr
inci
pleofcr
imi
nall
aw t
hat
t
her
eisnocr
imeunl
essal
lit
sel
ement
sar
e
f
ulf
il
led.Ar
ti
cle23(
2)oft
heCr
imi
nalCode
pr
ovi
des t
hata cr
ime i
s onl
y compl
eted
when al
lit
slegal
,mat
eri
aland mor
al
i
ngr
edi
ent
sar
epr
esent
.Theabsenceofone
oft
hesei
ngr
edi
ent
snecessar
il
yimpl
i
est
he
absence ofcr
ime.I
fper
sons commi
ta
 7

cr
imeundert
heci
rcumst
ancest
hatpr
ovi
de
t
hem wi
thdef
enses,oneoft
hei
ngr
edi
ent
s
oft
hecr
imei
slacki
ng.Asar
esul
t,t
her
eis
nocr
imecommi
tt
ed.Forexampl
e,homi
ci
de
i
s a cr
ime.A per
son commi
ts homi
ci
de
whenhe/
sheki
l
lsacr
imi
nalwhohasbeen
sent
encedt
odeat
hpenal
ty.Yet
,ther
eisno
cr
ime of homi
cide as execut
ing deat
h
penal
tyi
sal
awf
ulact
.Thus,j
ust
if
icat
ions
ar
e def
enses f
or cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity
.In
j
ust
if
icat
ions,t
he l
egali
ngr
edi
entoft
he
cr
imei
snotpr
esent
.Si
mil
arl
y,t
heacti
s
shor
tofmor
alel
ementwheni
rr
esponsi
ble
per
sons commi
t i
t. Consequent
ly,
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
s an excuse.Thus,wher
e
ei
thert
hel
egalort
hemor
alel
ementi
snot
pr
esent
,iti
snotl
egal
l
yaccept
abl
etopuni
sh
per
sonsf
ort
hei
rdeeds.
 8

Obj
ect
ivesoft
heuni
t

Undert
hef
oll
owi
ngsect
ionoft
hisUni
t
st
udent
swi
l
lbeabl
eto:
 Def
inecr
imi
nal
responsi
bil
i
ty
 Knowt
hatani
nsaneper
soni
scr
imi
nal
l
y
i
rr
esponsi
ble
 Knowt
hataper
sonwhoi
scr
imi
nal
l
y
i
rr
esponsi
blef
orhi
sact
sshal
lnotbe
puni
shed
 Under
standt
hecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
chan
adul
tmayber
egar
dedasi
rr
esponsi
ble
 Knowt
hel
egal
eff
ect
sofcr
imi
nal
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

Bur
denofPr
oofi
nCasesofDef
enses:
Thegener
alr
ulei
sthati
tist
hedut
yoft
he
 9

pr
osecut
ion t
o pr
ovet
he accused’
s gui
l
t
andi
fatt
heendofandont
hewhol
eoft
he
case,
ther
eisar
easonabl
edoubtcr
eat
edby
t
heev
idence,
giv
enbyei
thert
hepr
osecut
ion
ort
hedef
ense,ast
owhet
hert
heaccused
had commi
tt
ed t
he cr
ime or not
,the
accused i
s ent
it
led t
o acqui
tt
alon t
he
oundofbenef
gr itofdoubt(
Wool
mingt
onv
.
D.
P.P.
, 1935 A.
C. 462)
. Howev
er,“
the
danger
sofexagger
ateddev
oti
ont
other
ule
ofbenef
itofdoubtatt penseofsoci
heex al
def
enseandt
othesoot
hingsent
imentt
hat
al
lacqui
tt
alsar
eal
way
sar
egoodr
egar
dless
ofj
ust
icet
othev
ict
im andt
hecommuni
ty,
demand speci
al emphasi
s i
n t
he
cont
empor
arycont
extofescal
ati
ng cr
ime
andescape.Thej
udi
ciali
nst
rumenthasa
publ
i
c account
abi
l
ity
. The cher
ished
 10

pr
inci
plesorgol
dent
hreadofpr
oofbey
ond
r
easonabl
e doubtwhi
ch r
unst
hrough t
he
web of our l
aw shoul
d not st
ret
ched
mor
bidl
ytoembr
aceev
eryhunch,hesi
tancy
and degr
ee of doubt
. The excessi
ve
sol
i
cit
ude r
efl
ect
ed i
nthe at
ti
tude t
hata
t
housand gui
l
ty men may go, but an
i
nnocentmar
tyrshal
lnotsuf
feri
saf
alse
di
l
emma.Onl
yreasonabl
edoubt
sbel
ongt
o
t
heaccused.Ot
her
wiseanypr
act
ical
syst
em
ofj
ust
ice wi
l
lthen br
eakdown and l
oose
cr
edi
bil
i
tywi
tht
hecommuni
ty.I
funmer
it
ed
acqui
tt
alsbecomegener
al,
theyt
endt
olead
t
ocy
nicaldi
sregar
doft
hel
aw,andt
hisi
n
t
urn,l
eadst
opubl
i
cdemandf
orhar
sher
l
egal pr
esumpt
ions agai
nst i
ndi
cted
‘
per
son’
and mor
e sev
ere puni
shment of
t
hose who hav
e f
ound gui
l
ty.
”(
Per Mr
.
 11

Just
iceKr
ishnaI
yer
)

Butt
hebur
denofpr
ovi
ngt
heexi
stenceof
ci
rcumst
ances br
ingi
ng t
he case of t
he
accusedwi
thi
nanyoft
hegener
alexcept
ion
i
nthecr
imi
nalCode,orwi
thi
nanyspeci
al
except
ionorpr
ovi
socont
ainedi
nanypar
tof
t
heCode,ori
nanyl
awdef
ini
ngt
hecr
imei
s
uponhi
m,andt
hecour
tofshal
lpr
esumet
he
absenceofsuchci
rcumst
ances.I
tmeansi
f
an accused pl
eads def
ense wi
thi
n t
he
meani
ng of ‘
excusabl
e’ or ‘
j
ust
if
iabl
e’
gr
oundsofdef
ense,t
her
eisapr
esumpt
ion
agai
nsthi
m andt
hebur
dent
orebutt
hat
pr
esumpt
ioni
sonhi
m.Thi
sdoesnotmean
t
hat t
he accused must l
ead ev
idence.
Ci
rcumst
ancewhi
chwoul
dbr
ingt
hecaseof
an accused wi
thi
n any of t
he gener
al
 12

def
encesmaybepr
ovedf
rom t
heev
idence
gi
venf
ort
hepr
osecut
ionorot
her
wisef
ound
ont
her
ecor
d.Wher
eanaccusedpl
eadsa
def
encebutt
heev
idencegi
veni
nsuppor
tof
such pl
ea f
ail
s t
o sat
isf
y t
he cour
t
af
fi
rmat
ivel
y of t
he exi
stence of
ci
rcumst
ancebr
ingi
ngt
hecasewi
thi
nthe
gener
alexcept
ionpl
eaded,t
heaccusedi
s
st
il
lent
it
led t
o be acqui
tt
ed i
f upon a
consi
der
ati
onoft
heev
idenceast
hewhol
ea
r
easonabl
edoubti
scr
eat
edi
nthemi
ndof
t
hecour
t,whet
hert
heaccusedi
sori
snot
ent
it
ledt
othebenef
itoft
hesai
dexcept
ion.
I
fiti
sappar
entf
rom t
heev
idenceont
he
r
ecor
d, whet
her pr
oduced by t
he
pr
osecut
ionorbyt
hedef
ence,
thatagener
al
def
encewoul
dappl
ythent
hepr
esumpt
ion
i
sremov
edandi
tisopent
othecour
tto
 13

consi
derwhet
hert
heev
idencesat
isf
act
ori
l
y
showst
hatt
heaccusedi
sent
it
ledt
othe
benef
itoft
hegener
aldef
ence.

Thepr
inci
plesenunci
atedi
nthepr
ovi
si
ons
r
elat
ingt
odef
encest
ocr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityar
e
i
nfactr
ules ofev
idence car
ryi
ng ei
ther
concl
usi
veorr
ebut
tabl
epr
esumpt
ions.They
dealwi
tht
heci
rcumst
anceswhi
chpr
ecl
ude
t
he exi
stence of mens r
ea. They ar
e,
t
her
efor
e,enumer
ati
onoft
heci
rcumst
ances
t
hatar
eincompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heexi
stenceof
mens r
ea. Huda cal
l
s t
hese pr
inci
ples
“
condi
ti
ons non-
imput
abi
l
ity
”, and Kenny
cal
l
sthem “
condi
ti
onsofexempt
ionf
rom
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
”.I
ftheexi
stenceoff
act
sor
ci
rcumst
ancesbr
ingi
ngt
hecasewi
thi
nany
oft
heexcept
ionsi
spr
oved,i
tnegat
ivest
he
 14

exi
stence of mens r
ea necessar
y t
o
const
it
utet
hecr
imeandt
her
ebyf
urni
shesa
gr
oundf
orexempt
ionf
rom cr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
.

Sect
ion1:Cr
imi
nalResponsi
bil
it
yand
I
rr
esponsi
bil
it
y

Responsi
bil
i
tyi
saper
son’
sment
alf
it
nesst
o
answeri
nacour
tforhi
s/heract
ion.Per
sons
ar
e cr
imi
nal
l
y l
i
abl
e onl
y i
fthey ar
e
r
esponsi
blef
ort
hei
ract
s.Thus,t
hecour
t
shoul
d notpuni
sh t
he cr
imi
nal
sunl
essi
t
f
inds t
hem r
esponsi
ble f
or t
hei
r act
s.
Ther
efor
e,t
odet
ermi
net
hegui
l
tofper
sons
i
t i
s necessar
y t
o ascer
tai
n t
hei
r
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty. Responsi
bil
i
ty or
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty i
s concer
ned wi
th t
he
cr
imi
nal
s’awar
enessandt
hei
rcapabi
l
iti
es
 15

t
ocont
rolt
hei
ract
ion.I
fthecr
imi
naldonot
know t
henat
ureandconsequencesoft
hei
r
actori
fthey cannotcont
rolt
hei
ract
s
despi
tet
hei
rawar
eness,t
heyshoul
dnotbe
r
esponsi
blef
ort
he r
esul
toft
hei
ract
s.
Ther
efor
e, bef
ore ascer
tai
ning t
hat t
he
cr
imi
nal
s hav
e commi
tt
ed t
he cr
ime
i
ntent
ional
l
yorbynegl
i
gence,
iti
snecessar
y
t
o assur
e t
he r
esponsi
bil
i
ty or
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty of t
he cr
imi
nal
s.
I
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty may ar
ise i
nthr
ee cases.
Wi
thr
egar
dst
o adul
ts,i
tmayar
isef
rom
i
nsani
tyori
ntoxi
cat
ion,andwi
thr
egar
dst
o
i
nfant
s,i
tmayar
isef
rom t
hei
rimmat
uri
ty.
Responsi
bil
it
yisPr
esumed Byt
heCour
t:
Gener
all
y,whenaper
soni
saccusedofa
cr
imehi
s/herr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
spr
esumedby
t
heCour
t.Thepr
osecut
ionneednotpr
ovei
t.
 16

Thi
smeanst
hatof t
hei
mpor
tantt
hings
necessar
yto make a per
son l
i
abl
efor
puni
shmentwi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t.
49/
1
ar
eest
abl
i
shedt
hei
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
:
1.
The pr
ooft
hatt
he actwas done byt
he
accused-
--
Iti
sthebur
denoft
hepr
osecut
or.
2.
Thef
actt
hatt
heaccusedi
sresponsi
blef
or
hi
sact
s—Thi
sispr
esumedbyt
heCour
t.
Howev
er,t
he quest
ion of i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
ar
isesi
nanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
wosi
tuat
ions:
When t
heaccused i
nvokesi
t,par
ti
cul
arl
y,
dur
ingt
hepr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ionsasperAr
t.
130/
2/goft
heCr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
eCode,on
t
hef
ir
stdayoft
hecr
imi
nal
Proceedi
ng.
Whent
heCour
tisdoubt
fulaboutt
hement
al
condi
ti
onoft
heaccusedduet
opar
ti
alor
compl
ete depr
ivat
ion ofment
alf
acul
ti
es.
TheCour
tmayent
ert
ainsuchadoubtatany
 17

st
ageoft
het
rai
lfr
om t
heconductoft
he
accusedont
het
ri
al.
Once t
he ‘
quest
ion’ar
ises i
t becomes
necessar
ytodeci
det
hef
act
sint
hel
i
ghtof
Ar
ts.48and49.Theni
tbecomest
hebur
den
oft
he def
ence t
o pr
ovet
he accused i
s
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty bey
ond r
easonabl
e doubt
.
Thent
hebur
denoft
hepr
osecut
ioni
sonl
y
t
orai
sear
easonabl
edoubti
nthemi
ndof
t
heCour
tthatt
heaccusedi
sresponsi
ble
anddeser
vespuni
shment
.

1.
1. Absol
uteI
rr
esponsi
bil
it
y:Ar
t.48

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.23(
3),acr
imi
nalof
fense
i
s notpuni
shabl
e unl
ess t
he accused i
s
f
oundgui
l
ty.Mor
eov
er,
noper
soni
sli
abl
eto
puni
shmentunl
esshei
sfoundr
esponsi
ble
 18

f
orhi
sact
s(Ar
t.48)
.Rat
hert
hef
ulf
il
lment
oft
her
equi
rementast
oresponsi
bil
i
tyi
sa
condi
ti
onpr
ecedentt
othef
ulf
il
lmentoft
he
r
equi
rementast
ogui
l
t.Thi
sist
omeant
hat
noper
sonmaybeconv
ict
edofanof
fence
unl
ess,att
het
imeofcommi
ssi
on,hewas
noti
rr
esponsi
blef
orhi
sact
s.I
not
herwor
ds,
bef
ore a cour
tcan deci
de whet
hert
he
accusedact
edi
ntent
ional
l
yornegl
i
gent
ly,i
t
mustsat
isf
yit
sel
fthatt
heaccusedwasnot
i
ncapabl
eofsoact
ing.

Ont
heot
herhand,ast
her
eisconsensus
aboutt
hef
actt
hati
nsaneper
sonscannot
commi
tpuni
shabl
ecr
imes;t
hepr
obl
em of
def
ini
ngcr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyr
emai
nedt
he
mostcont
rov
ersi
alone.Thequest
ionast
o
whoi
sresponsi
bleper
soni
snoty
etset
tl
ed
 19

f
or i
t i
nvol
ves numer
ous ext
ra-
legal
el
ement
s. Phi
l
osopher
s, l
awy
ers and
phy
sici
anshav
edonet
hei
rbestt
olaydown
t
hecr
it
eri
aforr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
hatcoul
dhav
e
been ut
il
ized acr
oss al
l di
sci
pli
nes.
Spi
ri
tual
i
stsandposi
ti
vi
stsaswel
lhav
egot
di
ff
erentopi
nionsast
owhor
esponsi
blei
s.
Thef
ormerdef
inedr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
nter
msof
f
reewi
l
lwhi
l
ethel
att
ert
houghti
nter
msof
det
ermi
nat
ion t
hrough f
act
ors such as
her
edi
ty,
educat
ion,
geogr
aphi
calcondi
ti
ons,
andt
hel
i
ke.Thi
smadet
heef
for
texer
tedt
o
r
eachanent
ir
elycompl
eteandsat
isf
act
ory
def
ini
ti
onofr
esponsi
bil
i
tyaf
uti
l
eexer
cise.
Thus,mor
ethatcoul
d be done was t
o
i
dent
if
ycer
tai
nsi
gnsorsy
mpt
oms,whi
ch,i
f
pr
esenti
n a per
son,shoul
d pr
ohi
bithi
s
bei
ngr
egar
dedasr
esponsi
blef
orhi
sact
s.
 20

Thebasi
sorsour
cesofmanyoft
hesesi
gns
and sy
mpt
oms wer
e some cel
ebr
ated
commonl
aw casest
hati
nvol
vedadef
ense
ofi
nsani
ty.Accor
dingl
ydi
ff
erentt
est
s or
r
uleswer
edev
elopedal
ongeachcaset
hat
ai
med at det
ermi
ning i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.I
n
gener
alr
esponsi
bil
i
tycoul
dnotbedef
inedi
n
aposi
ti
ve,butonl
yinanegat
ivemanner
,
andt
hisi
swhymostcodesi
ncl
udi
ngt
he
Et
hiopi
an Cr
imi
nalCode (
2005) do not
descr
ibe r
esponsi
ble but i
rr
esponsi
ble
per
sons.

1.
1.1.I
nsani
ty:
I
nsani
tyi
sacompl
etedef
enset
oacr
imi
nal
char
ge.I
tisbasedont
heassumpt
iont
hat
onewhoi
sinsanehasnomi
ndandhence
cannothav
ethe necessar
y mens r
ea t
o
 21

commi
tacr
ime.

Bei
ngdepr
ivedoff
reewi
l
l,ani
nsaneper
son
i
spl
acedi
nanev
enwor
secondi
ti
ont
hana
chi
l
d,becauset
hel
att
ercanatl
eastcont
rol
hi
swi
l
landr
egul
atehi
sconduct
,wher
eas
t
hef
ormercannot
.Mor
eov
er,t
heactofan
i
nsane man, bei
ng uni
ntent
ional and
i
nvol
unt
ary
,nopuni
shmentcandet
eri
t.At
t
hesamet
ime,peopl
ear
etobepr
otect
ed
f
rom bei
ng at
tacked by mani
acs and
accor
dingl
y,apr
ovi
sionhasbeenmadei
n
manyj
uri
sdi
cti
onsf
ort
hedet
ent
ionandcar
e
ofi sons.(
nsaneper Gaur
,KD.
,Cr
imi
nalLaw,
CasesandMat
eri
als,4th ed.
,But
ter
wor
ths,
2005,
NewDel
hi,
pp.115-
127)

I
nsani
ty,accor
dingt
omedi
calsci
ence,i
sa
di
sease oft
he mi
nd,whi
ch i
mpai
rst
he
 22

ment
alf
acul
ty of man.I
nlaw,i
nsani
ty
meansadi
seaseofmi
nd,whi
chi
mpai
rst
he
cogni
ti
vef
acul
ty,namel
y,t
he r
easoni
ng
capaci
tyofamant
osuchanext
entast
o
r
enderhi
mincapabl
eofunder
standi
ngt
he
nat
ure and consequences ofhi
s act
.It
excl
udes f
rom i
ts pur
view,t
he i
nsani
ty
caused due t
o emot
ionaland v
oli
ti
onal
f
act
ors.I
tisonl
yinsani
tyofapar
ti
cul
aror
appr
opr
iat
e ki
nd,whi
ch i
sregar
ded as
i
nsani
tyatl
aw t
hatwi
l
lexcuseamanf
rom
cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity
. The l
egal concept of
i
nsani
ty wi
del
y di
ff
ersf
rom t
hatoft
he
medi
cal
concept
.

Theki
ndanddegr
eeofi
nsani
tyav
ail
abl
eas
adef
enset
oacr
imehasmanyt
imesbeen
def
ined.Howev
er,t
hemostnot
abl
eofal
lis
 23

t
he ‘
ri
ghtand wr
ong t
est
’for
mul
ated i
n
Mc`
Naught
en’
scase.I
twasani
nter
est
ing
case,wor
thr
emember
ing.Accor
dingt
othe
summar
yoft
hecaseDani
elM’
Naght
enwas
obsessedbyt
hei
deat
hatSi
rRober
tPeel
,by
cr
eat
ingt
heMet
ropol
i
tanPol
i
cei
nLondon,
want
ed t
o dest
roy t
he l
i
ber
ti
es of
Engl
i
shmen.Hehunt
edSi
rRober
ttoki
l
lhi
m,
butmi
stakenl
yshotandki
l
ledhi
ssecr
etar
y.
M’
Naght
en was acqui
tt
ed oft
he mur
der
char
gebyv
irt
ueofi
nsani
ty.

The House of Lor

ds mov
ed by t
he
cont
rov
ersy ar
oused and cl
ari
fi
ed t
he
def
enseofi
nsani
tyasf
oll
ows:
Ev
erymani
stobepr
esumedt
obesane,
andt
opossessasuf
fi
cientdegr
eeofr
eason
t
o be r
esponsi
blef
orhi
scr
ime,unt
ilt
he
 24

cont
rar
ybepr
ovedt
othei
rsat
isf
act
ion;and
t
hatt
oest
abl
i
shadef
enseont
hegr
oundof
i
nsani
ty,
itmustbecl
ear
lypr
ovedt
hat
,att
he
t
ime of commi
tt
ing t
he act
,the par
ty
accusedwassuf
fer
ingundersuchadef
ect
ofr
eason,
from di
seaseoft
he
mi
nd,asnott
oknowt
henat
ureandqual
i
ty
oft
heacthewasdoi
ngor
,ifhedi
dknowi
t,
t
hathedi
dnotknowhewasdoi
ngwhatwas
wr Fr
ong.( edaandot
her
s,1994:91-
93)

Ther
efor
eaccor
dingt
othei
rcl
ari
fi
cat
ion,a
def
endanti
snotgui
l
tyofcr
imei
f,att
he
t
imeoft
heact
,duet
osev
erment
ali
l
lness,
Fi
rst
,incasest
hedef
endantdoesnotknow
t
henat
ureandqual
i
tyofhi
sorheract(
in
ot
herwor
ds,
didnotappr
eci
atewhathewas
doi
ngsot
hatt
he“
actr
equi
rement
”isnot
 25

f
ulf
il
led)
,for exampl
e,a per
son st
ri
kes
anot
herper
son,andi
nconsequenceofan
i
nsanedel
usi
ont
hinkshei
sbr
eaki
ngaj
aror
secondi
ncases,t
hatt
hedef
endantdoes
notknowt
hewr
ongf
ulnessofhi
sorheract
(
inot
herwor
ds,i
fhecoul
dnotf
orm t
he
r
equi
sit
emensr
ea)
,forexapl
e,onemay
,
underi
nsanedel
usi
on,bel
i
eveani
nnocent
manwhom heki
l
ls,t
o beamanwho i
s
goi
ngt
otakehi
sli
fe.

Ont
heot
herhand,t
hei
sol
atedr
efer
encet
o
andappl
i
cat
ionoft
hesecondpar
toft
he
t
estandt
her
esul
tantmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
ice
caused cour
tst
o const
ant
ly change and
r
eshapet
hei
rtest
sofi
nsani
ty.Thef
oll
owi
ng
ar
esomeoft
heshor
t-
li
vedi
nsani
tyt
est
s:
The i
rr
esi
sti
blei
mpul
se addi
ti
on t
othe
 26

M’
Naght
en t
est
: A def
endant may be
acqui
tt
edi
fheorshewasunabl
etocont
rol
t
heact
ionduet
oment
ali
l
lness.
TheDur
ham Rul
e,or“
productt
est
”(1954)
:
Thedef
endantmustbe
acqui
tt
ed i
fthe cr
ime was t
he
pr
oductofment
aldi
seaseordef
ect
.
The Cur
rens Test(
1961)
:The def
endant
mustbe acqui
tt
ed i
fhe orshe “
lacked
subst
ant
ialcapaci
tyt
oconf
orm hi
sconduct
t
other
equi
rement
soft
hel
aw…asar
esul
t
ofment
aldi
seaseordef
ect
.”

Lat
ter i
n 1982 t
he Amer
ican Congr
ess
set
tl
edt
hei
ssue,atl
eastasf
arasf
eder
al
l
aw i
s concer
ned,by pr
ovi
ding f
or an
acqui
tt
albyr
easonofi
nsani
tyi
f“att
het
ime
oft
hecommi
ssi
onoft
heactt
hedef
endant
,
 27

asar
esul
tofsev
erment
aldi
seaseordef
ect
,
was unabl
eto appr
eci
atet
he nat
ure and
qual
i
ty orwr
ongf
ulness ofhi
s act
.”But
maj
ori
tyofst
atesi
nther
egi
onhav
eadopt
ed
t
hev
ersi
on codi
fi
ed i
ntheAmer
ican Law
I
nst
it
ute’
sModelPenalCodeandknownas
t
heALIt
est
:
A per
son i
s notr
esponsi
blef
orcr
imi
nal
conducti
fatt
het
imeofsuchasar
esul
tof
ment
al di
sease and def
ect he l
acks
subst
ant
ialcapaci
tyei
thert
oappr
eci
atet
he
cr
imi
nal
i
ty(
wrongf
ulness)ofhi
sconductor
t
oconf
orm hi
sconductt
other
equi
rement
s
ofl
aw.

Thi
s t
est f
ocuses on t
he def
endant
’s
capaci
tyt
ofor
m t
he necessar
y cr
imi
nal
i
ntentby aski
ng whet
her t
he def
endant
 28

appr
eci
atedt
hewr
ongf
ulnessoft
heact
.It
al
soemphasi
zes,aspar hemensr
toft ea,
t
he def
endant
’sv
oli
ti
onalcapaci
ty:Coul
d
t
hedef
endantr
eal
l
yint
endt
ocommi
tthe
wr
ongf
ulact
?Di
dhehav
ethe“
(subst
ant
ial
)
capaci
ty”“
to conf
orm hi
sconductt
othe
r
equi
rement
sofl
aw”
?

The l
aws,whi
ch t
he Cr
imi
nalCode of
Et
hiopi
a pr
ovi
des r
egar
ding def
ense of
i
nsani
ty,ar
efound i
n Ar
ti
cl
e 48. As
el
abor
atedear
li
eri
nthi
ssect
ion,ourl
awdo
notdescr
iber
esponsi
ble,buti
rr
esponsi
ble
per
son. I
timpl
i
es t
hat an of
fender i
s
pr
esumedt
ober
esponsi
blesol
ongashe
doesnotshowanyoft
hesi
gnsofpar
ti
alor
t
otali
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyenumer
atedi
nthel
aw,
andonl
yanof
fenderwhodoesnotshow
 29

any of t
hese si
gns i
s f
ull
y l
i
abl
e t
o
puni
shment
. Thus, r
esponsi
bil
i
ty of an
of
fenderi
snotanel
ementt
hatt
heal
l
egi
ng
par
ty must al
way
s est
abl
i
sh. I
nst
ead,
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
sal
egal
presumpt
ion.

 Essent
ialCondi
ti
ons t
o Est
abl
ish t
he
Def
enceofI
nsani
ty:
Ar
t.48(
2)r
equi
rest
hepr
oofoft
hedef
ence
ofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
.e.t
hei
ncapaci
tyoft
he
def
endantt
ofor
m agui
l
tyi
ntent
ionbasi
ng
ont
hef
oll
owi
ngi
mpor
tantt
hings:
1.
Nat
ureoft
hei
ncapaci
ty:Thatt
heaccuses
i
sincapabl
eofunder
standi
ngt
henat
ureor
sactorofr
consequencesofhi egul
ati
nghi
s
conductaccor
dingt
osuchunder
standi
ng,
2.Reason of t
he i
ncapaci
ty: That such
i
ncapaci
tyi
sduet
oage,i
l
lness,abnor
mal
 30

del
ayi
nhi
sdev
elopmentordet
eri
orat
ionof
hi
s ment
alf
acul
ti
es,(
one oft
he causes
speci
fi
ed under Ar
t. 49 (
1) i
.e. a
der
angementoran abnor
malordef
ici
ent
condi
ti
on)
.
3.
Timeoft
hei
ncapaci
ty:Thatsuchi
ncapaci
ty
exi
stsatt
het
imeofhi
sactt
hatpr
oduced
t
heconsequencesi
nquest
ion.

The Code r
esor
ted t
o one oft
he t
hree
pr
inci
pal met
hods of def
ini
ng cr
imi
nal
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty, namel
y: The bi
ologi
cal
met
hod,t
hepsy
chol
ogi
calmet
hodandt
he
bi
o-psychol
ogi
cal met
hod. The t
hree
met
hodsdi
ff
eronf
act
orst
hatdeem t
obe
t
hesour
ceofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Thebi
ologi
cal
met
hodconsi
stsi
nspeci
fyi
nganumberof
phy
sicalorment
aldi
sabi
l
iti
es ordef
ect
s
 31

deemed t
orendert
he per
son concer
ned
i
rr
esponsi
ble.Thepsy
chol
ogi
calmet
hodon
t
heot
herhandconsi
stsi
npr
escr
ibi
ngt
hata
per
soni
ncur
snol
i
abi
l
ityt
hat
,att
het
imeof
t
heof
fense,
wasi
ncapabl
eofunder
standi
ng
t
he nat
ure ofhi
s act
s orofcont
rol
l
ing
hi
msel
f. And accor
ding t
o t
he bi
o-
psy
chol
ogi
calmet
hod,f
oll
owed i
n many
moder
nCodesi
ncl
udi
ngt
heCr
imi
nalCode
of Et
hiopi
a, a per
son i
s r
egar
ded as
i
rr
esponsi
ble onl
yif
,att
he t
ime oft
he
commi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime,hewasdepr
ived
ofhi
sment
alf
acul
ti
esi
nconsequenceof
cer
tai
n bi
ologi
caldef
ect
s.I
n ot
herwor
ds
t
her
emustbeacausalr
elat
ionbet
weent
he
bi
ologi
caldef
ect
,whi
cht
heof
fendersuf
fer
s,
andt
hepsy
chol
ogi
calf
ail
ureasar
esul
tof
whi
ch t
he per
son become i
ncapabl
eto
 32

under
standi
nghi
sact
s.Howev
ert
hemer
e
pr
esence of t
he t
wo does not suf
fi
ce.
Aaccor
ding t
othi
s sy
stem r
easons ot
her
t
hanment
aldi
seasesuchasanger
,hat
red
orl
ust
,ar
ecapabl
eofr
ender
ingaper
son
‘
mad’
or‘
i
nsane’
.Int
hepopul
arsenseoft
he
t
erms, t
hey ar
e excl
uded f
rom bei
ng
consi
der
ed as gr
ounds of l
egal
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty

Sub-
Art
icl
e 2 of t
he pr
ovi
si
on cl
ear
ly
pr
ovi
dest
het
estofi
nsani
ty.I
tpr
ovi
desbot
h
t
hebi
ologi
calandpsy
chol
ogi
calt
est
s,whi
ch
ar
eenumer
atedbel
ow:
Age:r
efer
stool
dage,
forseni
l
itymayaf
fect
aper
son’
sment
alf
acul
ti
es;
I
ll
ness:r
efer
stoanyf
orm ofment
alaswel
l
asphy
sicaldi
seaseasar
esul
tofwhi
cha
 33

per
soni
sdepr
ivedofhi
sment
alf
acul
ti
es.
An abnor
mal del
ay i
n t
he of
fender
’s
devel
opment
,whi
chi
ncl
udescasessuchas
i
diot
ism,cr
eti
nism,t
he consequences of
deaf
ness,dumbnesssl
eepi
ngsi
ckness,and
t
hel
i
ke;

Det
eri
orat
ion ofment
alf
acul
ti
es oft
he
of
fender due t
o poi
son,i
ntoxi
cat
ion by
al
cohol or dr
ugs, hy
pnosi
s or
somnambul
i
sm;
Thesub-
prov
isi
onf
urt
hercr
oss-
ref
err
edt
o
t
heunl
i
mit
edbi
ologi
calcausesr
ecogni
zed
underAr
ti
cl
e 49 as capabl
e ofaf
fect
ing
per
son’
sst
ateofmi
nd.
Regar
dingt
hepsy
chol
ogi
calconsequences
i
nmostl
egalsy
stemst
wodi
ff
erentment
al
condi
ti
ons ar
e r
ecogni
zed t
o cl
aim
 34

exempt
ionf
rom cr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
.

Thesear
e:
a)t
heaccusedwasi
ncapabl
eofknowi
ng
t
henat
ureoft
heact
,owi
ngt
ounsoundness
ofmi
nd,
or
b)t
heaccusedwaspr
ecl
udedbyr
easonof
unsoundnessofmi
ndf
rom under
standi
ng
t
hatwhathewasdoi
ngwasei
therwr
ongor
cont
rar
ytol
aw.

I
nthi
sregar
d,ourl
aw i
nthe same sub-
Ar
ti
clespeci
fi
est
hreemani
fest
ati
ons.
Theyar
e:
i
nabi
l
ityt
ounder
standt
henat
ureoft
heact
.
Forexampl
e,i
fper
sonst
ri
kesanot
her
,and
i
nconsequenceofani
nsanedel
usi
onhe
t
hinkst
hathei
sbr
eaki
ngaj
ar.
 35

i
nabi
l
ityt
ounder
standt
heconsequencesof
t
heactf
orexampl
eaper
sonmayki
l
lachi
l
d
underani
nsanedel
usi
ont
hathei
ssav
ing
hi
mfr
om si
nandsendi
nghi
mtoheav
en
i
nabi
l
ityt
oregul
ateone’
sconductaccor
ding
t
osuchunder
standi
ng(
somesuggest
sthi
s
i
mpl
i
est
he not
ion of‘
i
rresi
sti
blei
mpul
se’
whi
chi
ncl
udescaseswher
etheof
fenderi
s
depr
ived oft
he powerofcont
rol
l
ing hi
s
conduct
/Gr
aven)bydi
sease.
These psy
chol
ogi
calf
ail
ures can al
so be
cat
egor
ized i
ntol
ack ofi
ntel
l
igence and
absenceofwi
l
lpower
.Int
hef
ir
stcat
egor
y,
duet
o someki
nd ofdi
seaset
hedoeri
s
depr
ivedofmi
nimum ofi
ntel
l
igence,whi
ch
shoul
dbepr
esenti
nar
esponsi
bleper
son
so ast
o enabl
ehi
m t
o know whathei
s
doi
ng.I
nthesecondcat
egor
y,t
hedoeri
s
 36

depr
ivedmi
nimum of‘
powerofwi
l
l’
,whi
ch
shoul
dbepr
esent
edi
nar
esponsi
bleper
son
soast
oenabl
ehi
mtomakear
easonabl
e
deci
sionort
oacti
naccor
dancet
her
ewi
th.
Foraper
sont
ober
egar
dedascr
imi
nal
l
y
i
rr
esponsi
ble,i
tisnotnecessar
ythatbot
h
hi
sint
ell
i
gence and v
oli
ti
on shoul
d hav
e
beenabol
i
shed.I
tissuf
fi
cientt
oshow t
hat
t
he of
fenderatt
he t
ime oft
he actwas
t
otal
l
ydepr
ivedofei
therhi
sint
ell
i
genceor
v
oli
ti
on.Fur
ther
,iti
s of no i
mpor
tance
whet
hert
hebi
ologi
calcausesar
etempor
ary
orper
manentnat
ure.Onl
ythepr
esenceof
onet
ypeofdi
seaseatt
het
imeoft
heacti
s
r
elev
ant
.

1.
1.2. Pr
ovi
ngI
nsani
ty
 37

I
n addi
ti
on t
o i
ts r
ole i
n det
ermi
ning
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty,i
nsani
typl
ays an i
mpor
tant
r
olei
ndet
ermi
ningwhet
hert
hedef
endanti
s
compet
entt
ost
andt
ri
alornot
.Int
hisl
att
er
caseonl
yrel
ati
vel
ylesscompl
i
cat
ionmay
occuri
nest
abl
i
shi
ngi
nsani
tyf
ori
tisbased
ont
heact
ualst
ateofmi
ndoft
hedef
endant
exi
sti
ng at t
he t
ime of t
ri
al. A mor
e
cont
rov
ersi
alappl
i
cat
ionofi
nsani
tyoccur
s
when oneat
tempt
sto det
ermi
newhet
her
t
hedef
endantwassaneornotatt
het
imeof
t
heact
.Thi
sisbecausei
nsani
tymayhav
e
beencompl
etel
yremov
edatt
het
imeoft
ri
al.
Ther
efor
e,al
thoughi
nbot
hcasesmedi
cal
sci
encehast
hedeci
siv
erol
etopl
ay,
looki
ng
i
ntot
hemot
iveandconductoft
heaccused
bef
ore,dur
ingandaf
tert
hei
nci
denti
smor
e
r
elev
ant i
n est
abl
i
shi
ng i
nsani
tyf
or t
he
 38

pur
pose det
ermi
ning i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.
Accor
dingl
y,Ar
t.51 oft
heCr
imi
nalCode
aut
hor
izedt
hecour
ttoor
derani
nqui
ryt
obe
madeast
othechar
act
er,ant
ecedent
sand
ci
rcumst
ances of t
he accused per
son.
Ther
efor
etheconductoft
hedoerpr
iort
o
t
hei
nci
dentaswel
lasatt
het
imeoft
he
i
nci
dentand subsequentt
othe i
nci
dent
doesnotsuppor
tthecont
ent
iont
hathewas
i
nsaneatt
het
imewhent
heof
fensewas
commi
tt
ed; t
he cour
t may make such
deci
sionsasi
tthi
nksf
it
.Thi
simpl
i
est
hat
‘
l
egali
nsani
ty’i
s nott
he same t
hing as
‘
medi
cali
nsani
ty’
andacaset
hatf
all
swi
thi
n
t
hel
att
ercat
egor
yneednotnecessar
il
yfal
l
wi
thi
nthef
ormer
.

Besi
des,
thel
awpr
esumest
hatev
eryper
son
 39

i
ssaneunl
esst
hecont
rar
yispr
oved.Mer
e
absenceofmot
ivewoul
dnoti
ndi
cat
ethat
t
heaccusedwasi
nsane,ort
hathedi
dnot
hav
et y mens r
he necessar ea f
or t
he
commi
ssi
onoft
heof
fence.Thusi
nacase
wher
epr
eandpostf
act
osi
tuat
ionsshow
l
i
ttl
eornosi
gnofi
nsani
ty,t
hedoerbear
sa
heav
ybur
dent
opr
ovei
tsexi
stenceatt
he
t
imeoft
hecommi
ssi
onoft
heact
.

Atl
ast
,whatt
hel
aw l
aysdowni
snott
hat
t
he accused cl
aimi
ng pr
otect
ion underi
t
shoul
dnotknowanactt
ober
ightorwr
ong,
butt
hatt
heaccusedshoul
dbe‘
i
ncapabl
e’of
knowi
ngwhet
hert
heactdonebyhi
misr
ight
orwr
ong.

The capaci
tyt
o know a t
hing i
s qui
te
 40

di
ff
erentf
rom whataper
sonknows.The
f
ormeri
samat
terofpot
ent
ial
i
ty;t
hel
att
er
i
sther
esul
tofi
t.I
faper
sonpossessest
he
f
ormer
,he cannotbe pr
otect
ed i
nlaw,
what
ever mi
ght be t
he r
esul
t of hi
s
pot
ent
ial
i
ty.I
n ot
her wor
ds, what i
s
pr
otect
ed i
s an i
nher
ent or or
gani
c
i
ncapaci
ty,and notawr
ong orer
roneous
bel
i
ef whi
ch mi
ght be t
he r
esul
t of a
per
ver
tedpot
ent
ial
i
ty.

1.
1.3. Legal Ef
fect
s of Cr
imi
nal
I
rr
esponsi
bil
it
y:

Thel
egalef
fect
sofcr
imi
nali
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
ar
e of t
wo ki
nds. ot
her i
s t
hat an
i
rr
esponsi
bleper
soni
ncur
snol
i
abi
l
itysi
nce,
accor
dingt
osub-
art
.(1)
,“t
hecr
imi
nalwho
 41

i
sresponsi
blef
orhi
sact
sal
onel
i
abl
eto
puni
shment
.Theot
heri
sthathandt
hel
aw
r
equi
red t
he cour
t t
o ensur
e t
he
i
rr
esponsi
bleper
sonwi
l
lnotbeanymor
ea
menace f
orot
her
s.Ther
efor
e,sub-
art
.3
aut
hor
izest
hecour
ttomakeor
der
sunder
Ar
ts.129-
131,
whenev
ert
hesemeasur
esar
e
necessar
yfort
het
reat
mentoft
heof
fender
ort
hepr
otect
ionoft
hepubl
i
corbot
h.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1. Whydoes Ar
t.
48 penal
i
ze onl
ythose
sai
dtober
esponsi
blef
ort
hei
ract
s?Whati
s
t
he f
unct
ion of a t
est of cr
imi
nal
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty?
 42

2. Mustt
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orpr
ovesani
ty
asanessent
ialel
ementofev
erycaset
hat
hebr
ingst
ocour
t?
3. Whati
sthedi
sposi
ti
onofof
fender
sto
becr
imi
nal
l
yir
responsi
bleunderAr
t.
48?
4. Wheni
sonei
ncapabl
eof“
regul
ati
nghi
s
conductaccor
dingt
o…under
standi
ng?

1.
2.Li
mit
edResponsi
bil
it
y:Ar
t.49

I
tisbel
i
evedt
hatt
hef
actt
hatsomewho
commi
tt
ed par
ti
cul
arl
y not
ori
ous cr
imes
i
nvoked i
nsani
tyand escaped j
ust
ice has
pr
ompt
edsev
eralst
atest
opassl
egi
sl
ati
on
pr
ovi
dingf
oranal
ter
nat
ivedi
sposi
ti
on,t
hat
of“
gui
l
tybutment
all
yil
l
.”Thi
snov
eli
deai
s
meantt
ocov
erdef
endant
snotment
all
yil
l
 43

enought
oqual
i
fyf
oranout
ri
ghtacqui
tt
al
“
byr
easonofi
nsani
ty,
”yetnotwel
lenough
t
obef
oundf
ull
yaccount
abl
eand“
gui
l
ty”
.
Ther
efor
e,bet
weeni
nsani
tyandsani
ty,
ther
e
exi
sts i
nter
medi
ary st
ages wher
e an
of
fender
sfacul
ti
esar
eaf
fect
edt
osuchan
ext
entt
hat
,al
thoughhei
scer
tai
nlyabl
eto
under
stand what he does and t
o act
accor
dingl
y,i
tis equal
l
y cer
tai
nthathi
s
i
ntel
l
igenceorwi
l
l-poweri
snott
hatofa
“
nor
mal
”per
sonandt
hathi
sdegr
eeofgui
l
t
i
sconsequent
lyl
essert
hant
hatofsucha
per
son.Such a per
son may nei
ther be
r
eli
eved ofl
i
abi
l
ity
,si
nce he i
s notf
ull
y
i
rr
esponsi
ble,
norshoul
dhebel
i
abl
etoaf
ull
puni
shment
,si
ncehei
snotf
ull
yresponsi
ble.

Unl
i
ke i
rr
esponsi
ble per
sons,who ar
efor
 44

somebi
ologi
calr
easonst
otal
l
ydepr
ivedof
t
hei
r ment
al f
acul
ti
es, semi
-r
esponsi
ble
of
fender
sar
e per
sonswho ar
eforsome
bi
ologi
calr
easononl
ypar
ti
all
ydepr
ivedof
t
hei
r under
standi
ng or v
oli
ti
on. I
tis
t
her
efor
e,t
othi
ski
ndofof
fendert
hatAr
t.
49appl
i
esandi
tappl
i
esonl
ywher
ether
eis
no doubt t
he accused i
s not f
ull
y
i
rr
esponsi
blewi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t.48.

1.
2.1. Char
act
eri
sti
cs of Li
mit
ed
Responsi
bil
it
y

I
t was bel
i
eved t
hat some bi
ologi
cal
di
seases ordef
ect
s ar
eless ser
ious t
o
causeabsol
utei
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Accor
dingl
y
i
twaspr
oposedt
hatt
hebi
ologi
calcauses
ofl
i
mit
edr
esponsi
bil
i
tydescr
ibedunderAr
t.
 45

49,st
atedasader
angementoft
hemi
ndor
under
standi
ng (
e.g.hyst
eri
a),an ar
rest
ed
ment
aldevel
opment(
e.g.i
mbeci
l
ity)andan
abnor
mal or def
ici
ent condi
ti
on (
e.g.
al
cohol
i
cint
oxi
cat
ion) do not have t
he
ef
fect
sspeci
fi
edunderAr
t.48.

Butaccor
dingt
othecont
empor
aryv
iew,
the
causes and char
act
eri
sti
cingr
edi
ent
s of
l
i
mit
edr
esponsi
bil
i
tyar
esi
mil
art
othoseof
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Thequest
ioni
sthatwhet
her
t
heabnor
mal
i
tysubst
ant
ial
l
yimpai
red t
he
def
endant
’s ment
alr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orhi
s
act
sornot
.Thi
sisaquest
ionofdegr
ee.I
n
mostcasesonl
yexper
tev
idencewi
l
lenabl
e
t
hecour
tto deci
dewhet
herand t
o what
ext
entt
he accused i
sir
responsi
ble.But
somecommonl
aw j
uri
sts suchPerLor
d
 46

Par
kerar
guest
hatt
hequest
ioni
nvol
vesa
deci
sionnotmer
elyast
owhet
hert
her
ewas
some i
mpai
rment of t
he ment
al
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heaccusedf
orhi
sact
sbut
whet
hersuchi
mpai
rmentcanpr
oper
lybe
cal
l
ed‘
subst
ant
ial
’
,medi
calev
idenceser
ves
al
i
mit
edpur
pose.Forj
uri
sts,i
tisamat
ter
upon whi
ch j
uri
es may qui
tel
egi
ti
mat
ely
di
ff
erf
rom doct
ors.

Aper
soni
snotpar
ti
all
yresponsi
blef
ort
he
sol
ereasont
hathei
sofl
ow i
ntel
l
igenceor
pooreducat
ion.A medi
ocr
eint
ell
ectdoes
notamountt
ofeebl
e-mi
ndednesswi
thi
nthe
meani
ngofcr
imi
nall
aw.Aper
sonmayhav
e
ani
nsuf
fi
cienteducat
ionorbecapabl
eof
r
eal
i
zingt
hathedoessomet
hingunl
awf
ul.
Ther
efor
e,l
i
keAr
t.48,i
tisr
equi
redt
hatt
he
 47

of
fendershoul
dhav
ebeenatt
het
imeoft
he
of
fensei
nabi
ologi
calabnor
malcondi
ti
on
af
fect
ing hi
s ment
alf
acul
ti
es.I
nfact
,it
suf
fi
cientt
hatt
he of
fender
’s capaci
ty of
under
standi
ng orwi
l
lpowershoul
d hav
e
beendi
mini
shed.

Fur
ther
mor
e, a per
son i
s not par
ti
all
y
r
esponsi
blef
ort
hesol
ereasont
hathei
sof
weekchar
act
erormor
all
yper
ver
ted.“
The
cour
tmustr
educe t
he penal
ty onl
y wi
th
r
egar
dtoanof
fenderwhosuf
fer
sfr
om a
ment
al di
sease or whose ment
al
dev
elopmenti
sincompl
ete,butnotwi
th
r
egar
dtoaweakper
sonwhoi
sawar
eoft
he
unl
awf
ulnat
ureofhi
sactandwhocommi
ts
anof
fenceoutofdi
shonest
y”.
 48

1.
2.2. Legal Ef
fect
s of Li
mit
ed
Responsi
bil
it
y:

Li
ket
hatofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,t
hel
egalef
fect
s
ofl
i
mit
edr
esponsi
bil
i
tyar
eoft
woki
nds:
1.
Theaccusedi
sli
abl
etopuni
shmentsi
nce
hewasnoti
rr
esponsi
bleatt
het
imeoft
he
actandhei
scapabl
eofunder
standi
ngt
he
meani
ng and pur
pose of puni
shment
;
howev
er,t
he penal
ty mustbe r
educed
becauset
heof
fender
’sr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,and
consequent
lyhi
sdegr
eeofgui
l
t,i
sreduced.
Si
nceper
sonswhoar
enotf
ull
yresponsi
ble
f
or t
hei
r act
s may
,li
ke i
rr
esponsi
ble
per
sons,
bei
nneedofmedi
cal
treat
mentor
t
hreat
en publ
i
c saf
ety
,the cour
tmust
,
whenev
ert
henecessi
tyi
spr
esentmakean
or
derunderAr
t.130or131,ast
hecase
 49

maybe.
Thus, unl
i
ke ot
her def
enses, t
he l
egal
ef
fect
s of i
nsani
ty,whet
herabsol
ute or
l
i
mit
ed,showst
hatt
hecour
tisdut
ybound
t
odealwi
tht
hecausesoft
hei
nsani
ty.I
fthe
cour
tor
der
s conf
inementorcompul
sor
y
t
reat
ment
,thati
sfort
he benef
itoft
he
of
fenderhi
msel
fort
hecommuni
tyi
nwhi
ch
t
hedef
endanti
sli
vi
ng.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Whatar
ethedi
ff
erencesbet
weenAr
ts.
48and49?
2.
Why i
sit necessar
yto cr
eat
e an
i
nter
medi
ary bet
ween i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
andr
esponsi
bil
i
ty?
 50

3.
How does t
he cour
t det
ermi
ne t
he
ext
entofment
alr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
he
def
endant
?

Sect
ion.
2. I
ntoxi
cat
ion-
Int
ent
ional or
Cul
pabl
eIr
responsi
bil
it
y:Ar
t.50

The pr
obl
ems i
ntoxi
cat
ion poses t
othe
cr
imi
nal j
ust
ice sy
stem, and t
o l
aw
enf
orcementi
npar
ti
cul
ar,ar
ebynomeans
negl
i
gibl
e.Dr
ug addi
cti
on and al
cohol
i
sm
r
emai
n t
wo of t
he f
oremost
-unsol
ved
pr
obl
ems conf
ront
ing t
he cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice
sy
stem of many count
ri
es. To hol
d
per
pet
rat
ors r
esponsi
ble f
or cr
imes
commi
tt
edundert
hei
nfl
uenceofei
thermay
notbeasol
uti
on,butmayhav
eami
nimal
 51

adv
ant
age ofmaki
ng t
reat
mentser
vices
accessi
blef
ort
hem.

Al
cohol
i
sm may const
it
ute a di
sease
pr
ovi
ded i
thasdamaged t
hebr
aint
o an
ext
entas t
o gr
ossl
yimpai
rthe abi
l
ityt
o
make r
ati
onal j
udgment and emot
ional
r
esponses.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hought
he
t
aki
ng of al
cohol i
nev
itabl
y i
mpai
rs
j
udgmentand t
he abi
l
ityt
o cont
rolt
he
emot
ion,i
tst
ransi
ent ef
fect cannot be
account
ed as a “
disease”
.Ther
efor
e,t
he
quest
ionl
i
esast
ounderwhi
choft
het
wo
condi
ti
ons one i
s exempt
ed of cr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ity
. Fur
ther
, a per
son i
s deemed
v
olunt
ari
l
yint
oxi
cat
ed when he t
akes an
i
ntoxi
canti
ncl
udi
ng al
cohol
,dr
ugs orany
ot
hert
hingbei
ngawar
ethati
tisormaybe
 52

ani
ntoxi
cantandhet
akesi
tinsuchquant
it
y
asi
mpai
rshi
sawar
enessorunder
standi
ng.
Oraper
sonmaybei
nvol
unt
ari
l
yint
oxi
cat
ed
say
,fort
hepur
poseofmedi
cat
ionorbei
ng
undercoer
cion.Thequest
iont
hatr
epeat
s
i
tsel
fher
eist
hatunderwhi
choneoft
he
condi
ti
ons t
he doercan cl
aim exempt
ion
f
rom cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity
? Al
cohol
i
sm,
whenev
er i
t const
it
utes a di
sease,
dependi
ng on t
he ext
enti
taf
fect
ed t
he
abi
l
ityt
o make r
ati
onal j
udgment and
emot
ional r
esponses; i
t woul
d j
ust
if
y
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty or onl
y di
mini
shed
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

2.
1Vol
unt
aryandI
nvol
unt
aryI
ntoxi
cat
ion:

Regar
dingi
ntoxi
cat
ion,whet
herv
olunt
aryor
 53

i
nvol
unt
ary
,mostpenalcodesf
lat
lyst
ate
t
hati
ntoxi
cat
ion i
s notdef
ense whi
ch i
s
act
ual
l
y,nott
rue.I
nvol
unt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion,
f
or exampl
e, because of pr
escr
ipt
ion
medi
cat
ion orcoer
cion can const
it
utea
def
ense.Wher
e an of
fense i
s commi
tt
ed
underi
ntoxi
cat
ioncausedduet
ofr
audor
coer
cion,t
hei
ntoxi
cat
edmanmaynotbe
sai
dtohav
eact
edonhi
sownaccor
d,and
t
her
efor
e, i
s not r
esponsi
ble f
or t
he
consequencesofhi
sact
s.Thej
ust
if
icat
ion
f
or such a pr
ovi
sion i
s based on t
he
cont
ent
iont
hatt
heaccusedhadhi
msel
fnot
cont
ri
but
edt
ohi
sdr
unkenness,whi
chwas
notl
i
kel
yto be r
epeat
ed as i
n case of
v
olunt
arydr
unkenness.

Mostcour
tsi
nAmer
icahav
ehel
dthatev
en
 54

v
olunt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion,when sev
er,may
r
enderaper
soni
ncapabl
eoff
ormi
ngcer
tai
n
speci
fi
cty
pesofcr
imi
nali
ntent
,whi
chi
san
i
ngr
edi
entel
ementoft
hecr
imei
nquest
ion.
Forexampl
e,mur
deri
nthe f
ir
stdegr
ee
r
equi
res,amongot
hert
hings,pr
emedi
tat
ion
anddel
i
ber
ati
on.Manycour
tshav
eal
sohel
d
t
hat i
f a def
endant was so gr
ossl
y
i
ntoxi
cat
ed t
hat he or she coul
d not
pr
emedi
tat
eanddel
i
ber
ate,heorshecanat
bestf
oundgui
l
tyofmur
deri
nthesecond
degr
ee. To t
hat ext
ent
,the l
aw on
i
ntoxi
cat
ion conf
orms t
othe mens r
ea
pr
inci
ple. But Amer
ican l
aw does not
absol
ve i
ntox
icat
ed per
pet
rat
ors of al
l
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
:gr
ossv
olunt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion
maysi
mpl
ylowert
hedegr
eeoft
hecr
ime
commi
tt
ed.(
Adl
er,
Muel
lerandLauf
er)
 55

Gener
all
ythe dev
elopmentoft
he l
aw on
dr
unkenness has passed t
hrough t
he
f
oll
owi
ngt
hreest
ages:

1.
That i
nsani
ty, whet
her pr
oduced by
dr
unkennessorot
her
wise,i
sadef
ense.The
di
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
hedef
enseofi
nsani
ty
i
nthe t
rue sense caused by excessi
ve
dr
inki
ng,andt
hedef
enseofdr
unkenness,
whi
chpr
oducesacondi
ti
onsucht
hatt
he
dr
unkenman’
smi
ndbecomesi
ncapabl
eof
f
ormi
ng speci
fi
c i
ntent
ion, has been
pr
eser
vedt
hroughoutt
hecase.Thei
nsane
per
son cannotbe conv
ict
ed ofa cr
ime.
Ther
ewasno l
aw t
hatt
akesnot
eoft
he
causeofi
nsani
ty.I
fact
uali
nsani
tyi
nfact
super
venesasar
esul
tofal
cohol
i
cexcess,
it
f
urni
shes as compl
ete an answer t
oa
 56

cr
imi
nalchar
geasi
nsani
tyi
nducedbyany
ot
hercause.

2.
That ev
idence of dr
unkenness,whi
ch
r
ender
stheaccusedi
ncapabl
eoff
ormi
ng
t
hespeci
fi
cint
entessent
ialt
oconst
it
utet
he
cr
ime shoul
d be t
aken i
nto consi
der
ati
on
wi
tht
he ot
herf
act
s,pr
oved i
n or
dert
o
det
ermi
newhet
herornothehadt
hei
ntent
.

3.
Thatev
idenceofdr
unkennessf
all
i
ngshor
t
ofa pr
oved i
ncapaci
tyi
ntheaccused t
o
f
ormt
hei
ntentnecessar
ytoconst
it
utet
he
cr
ime,
andmer
elyest
abl
i
shi
ngt
hathi
smi
nd
was af
fect
ed by dr
ink so t
hathe mor
e
r
eadi
l
ygav
ewayt
osomev
iol
entpassi
on,
doesnotr
ebutt
hepr
esumpt
iont
hataman
i
ntends t
he nat
uralconsequences ofhi
s
 57

act
s.(
Gaur
)
Thedef
enseofdr
unkennessandi
tsl
egal
ef
fect
sinEt
hiopi
aispr
escr
ibedunderAr
t.
50 and t
he di
scussi
on ar
efol
l
owed her
e
af
ter
.Thepr
ovi
sioni
schi
efl
yint
endedf
or
per
sons who wi
th some st
ate of mi
nd
cont
rav
ene t
he l
aw whi
l
e underv
olunt
ary
i
nfl
uenceofal
coholordr
ugsoranyot
her
means. I
tis based on t
he r
ule t
hat
i
ntoxi
cat
ioni
snodef
ensei
fcausedbyt
he
of
fender
s’v
olunt
aryact
.

Themai
ndef
erencebet
weenAr
t.50and48,
49i
snott
hebi
o-psy
chol
ogi
calcondi
ti
onof
t
he of
fenderbuti
tist
he condi
ti
on,t
hat
cr
eat
es t
he i
rr
esponsi
ble nat
ure of t
he
of
fender
. Unl
i
ke t
he l
egal
l
y r
ecogni
zed
causesundert
hepr
ecedi
ngar
ti
cl
es,under
 58

t
hisar
ti
cle,i
tist
hedoerwhoput
shi
msel
f
i
nto a condi
ti
on ofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty orof
l
i
mit
edr
esponsi
bil
i
tybymeansofal
coholor
dr
ugs orbyanyot
hermeans. Speaki
ng
obj
ect
ivel
y,t
hedoer
’scondi
ti
onatt
het
ime
of t
he of
fence was t
hatof a ment
all
y
def
ici
entper
son and mayl
ead t
o sayhe
shoul
dbet
reat
edi
nthesamemannerast
he
ment
all
ydef
ici
entaper
sonr
egar
dlessoft
he
f
actt
hathehi
msel
fdel
i
ber
atel
ycr
eat
edt
his
abnor
mal condi
ti
on. But speaki
ng
subj
ect
ivel
y,i
ntent exi
sted bef
ore t
he
of
fencewascommi
tt
ed,si
ncet
heaccused
wascapabl
eoff
ormi
ngaspeci
fi
cint
ent
ion
pr
ior t
oint
oxi
cat
ing hi
msel
f.Under t
his
condi
ti
on,t
he per
son not onl
y di
d he
v
olunt
ari
l
y pl
ace hi
msel
fin an abnor
mal
condi
ti
on,buthedi
dsoi
nor
dert
ocar
ryout
 59

adeci
sionwhi
chhehadf
reel
ymade.Thi
sis
al
so appl
i
cabl
eto ci
rcumst
ances under
whi
chaper
sonv
olunt
ari
l
ypl
aceshi
msel
fin
ast
ateofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tywhenheknows
andaccept
sthepossi
bil
i
tyofdoi
ngwr
ong.
Ther
efor
e,i
nthecasescomi
ngundert
his
condi
ti
on,t
hecour
tmustensur
ethatt
he
caseact
ual
l
ycommi
tt
edi
sthatwhi
cht
he
accuseddi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyi
ntendedwhen
hei
ntoxi
cat
edhi
msel
f.Thi
sisappl
i
cabl
ein
r
elat
iont
obot
hof
fensesofcommi
ssi
on(
if
Adr
inksi
nor
dert lB)oromi
oki
l ssi
on(
ifA,
a
sol
dieron l
eav
e dr
inks so as t
o di
sabl
e
hi
msel
ffr
om goi
ngbackt
ohi
suni
t)
.Ar
t.
50(
1) suppor
ts t
he second concept
ion,
whi
chpr
event
sanaccusedbenef
it
ingf
rom
t
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
ts.
48and49ont
hesol
e
gr
oundt
hathecommi
tt
edanof
fence,whi
l
e
 60

i
nanabnor
malcondi
ti
ont
hatwascr
eat
ed
byhi
msel
f. Thus,t
he f
aul
toft
he doer
oper
ates as an absol
ute pr
ohi
bit
ion f
rom
i
nvoki
ng Ar
ts.
48 and 49.I
nst
ead,i
n such
cases,t
heof
fendermaybeconv
ict
edand
sent
enced as t
hough he had been f
ull
y
r
esponsi
bleatt
het
imeoft
heact
.

Thesecondcondi
ti
onbywhi
chanof
fender
shal
lnotbebenef
it
edf
rom t
hepr
ovi
si
ons
excl
udi
ng orr
educi
ng t
he puni
shmenti
s
whenaper
sonwhocommi
tsanof
fencei
na
st
ateofpar
ti
alorcompl
etei
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
i
n whi
ch he pl
aced hi
msel
f,notf
ort
he
pur
poseofcommi
tt
inganof
fence,
butwhen
heknew orshoul
dandcoul
dhav
eknown
t
hathewasaptt
odowr
ongwhi
l
ebei
ngi
n
anabnor
malcondi
ti
on(
Art
.50/
2).Undert
his
 61

sub-
art
icl
e,a per
son dr
inks orconsume
dr
ugs,t
houghhef
oresees,butr
eject
s,t
he
possi
bil
i
tyofdoi
ngwr
ongorhei
snot
,but
shoul
dandcoul
dbeawar
ethathemaydo
wr
ong.Thi
sther
efor
eisappl
i
cabl
etost
ates
ofnegl
i
gence—adv
ert
entand i
nadv
ert
ent
.
Thei
mpl
i
cat
ionher
eist
hatt
hedoerwi
l
lnot
behel
dli
abl
eift
hewr
onghehasdonei
snot
puni
shabl
e.

Thet
hir
dsi
tuat
ionwi
thwhi
chAr
t.
50deal
sis
t
hatofan accused who,hav
ing pl
aced
hi
msel
f i
n a condi
ti
on of compl
ete
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty commi
ts or at
tempt
s t
o
commi
tanof
fencewi
thwhi
chhedi
dnot
i
ntendt
ocommi
t;norcoul
dandshoul
dhe
hav
efor
eseent
hepossi
bil
i
tyofcommi
tt
ing
i
t.Fori
nst
anceaper
sonmayi
napar
ti
cul
ar
 62

qui
teandcol
dev
eni
ngst
ayi
nghomeal
one
begi
nto dr
ink wi
thi
ntentt
o gethi
msel
f
war
m andr
elaxedbutmaygetcompl
etel
y
dr
unkandcommi
tapuni
shabl
eact
.Insuch
i
nst
ances,t
he accused i
s not l
i
abl
eto
puni
shmentundersub-
art
.3,ast
heper
son
hasnei
thercr
imi
nali
ntent
ionnorcr
imi
nal
negl
i
gence exi
sted bef
ore he i
ntoxi
cat
ed
hi
msel
f.Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
57(
1),heshoul
d,
t
her
efor
e,gof
reebecausehei
snotgui
l
tyof
t
heof
fencecommi
tt
ed.Howev
er,t
heneed
t
oensur
ethepeaceoft
hepubl
i
cjust
if
ies
t
hatt
heof
fendershoul
dbepuni
shedand
shoul
dnotbeper
mit
tedt
oexcusehi
msel
f
ont
hegr
oundt
hathedi
dnotmeant
odo
anyhar
m pr
iort
oget
ti
ngdr
unk.Undersub-
ar
t.
3,t
hisconf
li
cti
ssol
vedbyhol
dingt
he
doer not of t
he of
fence act
ual
l
y he
 63

commi
tt
edbutofaspeci
alof
fenceagai
nst
publ
i
csaf
ety(
Art
.491)
.Ar
t.
491i
sbasedon
t
heassumpt
iont
hatany
onewhoi
ntoxi
cat
es
hi
msel
fisal
way
sal
atentmenacef
orot
her
s
andt
hathei
spuni
shabl
eassoonashe
cr
eat
esaconcr
etedanger
,i.
e.hecommi
ts
anof
fence.

TheDef
enceofI
ntoxi
cat
ionAtAGl
ance:
Su St
ateof St
ate Cr
ime Legal
b- t
he I
nduced Commi
t Consequ
Ar
tDef
endan By t
ed ence
. t
Ar
tAbsol
ute Own I
ntent
io Ful
l
y
. or f
aul
t nal
l
y l
i
abl
eto
50 Li
mit
ed (
Vol
unt
a(I
nor
derpuni
shm
/
1 i
rr
espons r
y t
o…) ent
i
bil
i
ty I
ntoxi
ca
 64

t
ion)
Ar
tAbsol
ute Own Negl
i
ge Puni
sha
50 or f
aul
t nt
ly bl
e f
or
/
2 Li
mit
ed (
Negl
i
ge negl
i
gen
i
rr
espons nce) t
i
bil
i
ty commi
s
si
on of
t
he
cr
ime
Ar
tAbsol
ute Own Acci
dentPuni
sha
. i
rr
espons f
aul
t al
l
y bl
e
50 i
bil
i
ty (
Nei
ther under
/
3 cont
em Ar
t.491
pl
ated pr
ovi
ded
nor t
he
i
ntended cr
ime i
s
) puni
shab
l
ewi
that
 65

l
east 1
y
ear
.
Ar
tAbsol
ute Nof
aul
tWhi
l
e Shal
lnot
. i
rr
espons on hi
sincapablbe l
i
abl
e
50 i
bil
i
ty par
t eof t
o
/
4 (
i.
e.has f
ormi
ng puni
shm
been any ent
coer
ced ment
al
) el
ement

Thef
oll
owi
ngi
mpor
tanti
nfer
encescanbe
dr
awnf
rom t
heabov
elegal
prov
isi
ons:
1.
Vol
unt
arydr
unkennessi
snotdef
iancef
or
t
he commi
ssi
on ofa cr
ime,exceptf
or
mi
nut
evar
iat
ionsi
nthel
i
abi
l
ity
.
2.
Sub-Ar
t.(
2) r
educes t
he def
endant
’s
l
i
abi
l
ityt
o negl
i
gent commi
ssi
on of t
he
cr
ime whi
ch accor
ding t
o Ar
t.59/
2is
 66

puni
shabl
eonl
yift
hel
awexpr
essl
ypr
ovi
des
f
orpuni
shment
.
3.
Su-
Art
. (
3) deal
s wi
th act nei
ther
cont
empl
ated nor i
ntended whi
ch i
s
commi
tt
ed i
n a st
ate of absol
ute
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyand pr
escr
ibespuni
shment
i
naccor
dancewi
thAr
t.491pr
ovi
dedt
hat
suchacti
snor
mal
l
ypuni
shabl
ewi
thatl
east
oney
ear
’si
mpr
isonment
.UnderAr
t.491t
he
def
endanti
spuni
shabl
ewi
thf
ineorwi
th
si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng one
y
ear
,accor
dingt
othedegr
eeofdangeror
gr
avi
tyoft
heactcommi
tt
ed.
4.
Inv
olunt
ary such as, t
he t
hing whi
ch
i
ntoxi
cat
ed hi
m was admi
nist
ered t
o hi
m
wi
thouthi
sknowl
edgeoragai
nsthi
swi
l
l
shal
laf
for
dhi
m av
ali
ddef
enceasi
tdoes
notamountt
oput
ti
nghi
msel
fint
othest
ate
 67

ofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

Vol
unt
ari
ness her
e has t
o be under
stood
cl
ear
ly. Ther
e ar
e t
wo t
hings t
o be
di
sti
ngui
shed:
Vol
unt
ari
nessr
elat
ingt
otheactofget
ti
ng
i
ntoxi
cat
ed,
Vol
unt
ari
nessi
ndoi
ngt
heactsubsequent
t
othei
ntoxi
cat
ion.
Ther
ecana‘
stat
eofi
ncapaci
ty’pr
oduced
ei
therbydr
inki
ngv
olunt
ari
l
yori
nvol
unt
ari
l
y.
Oncet
hest
ateofi
ncapaci
tyi
spr
oducedi
t
meanst
hatt
heper
soni
sincapabl
eofdoi
ng
t
hings v
olunt
ari
l
yi.
e.he i
sir
responsi
ble
ei
therabsol
utel
yorpar
ti
all
y.Howev
er,Ar
t.
50i
sconcer
nedwi
tht
hecombi
nat
ionoft
wo
f
act
ors:
1.
Heshoul
d nothav
ebyhi
sownf
aul
tout
 68

hi
msel
fint
hest
ateofdr
unkenness,
2.
Whi
shmakeshi
m absol
utel
yir
responsi
ble
soast
osat
isf
ytheessent
ial
sofAr
t.48or
par
ti
all
yir
responsi
blesoast
ofi
tint
othe
r
equi
rement
sofAr
t.49.
I
fthedef
endantget
sint
oxi
cat
edv
olunt
ari
l
y:
hei
sful
l
yli
abl
eunderSub-
Art(
1)ofAr
t.50,
hei
sli
abl
efornegl
i
gent
lydoi
ngi
tunderSub
-
Art
.(
2),i
fhei
sawar
e,orcoul
d orshoul
d
hav
e been awar
e of t
he l
i
kel
i
hood of
commi
tt
ingacr
imesubsequent
ly,
he i
sli
abl
eforcommi
tt
ing di
stur
bances
r
esul
ti
ngf
rom act
scommi
tt
edi
nast
ateof
cul
pabl
eir
responsi
bil
it
y underAr
t.
491 of
t
heSpeci
alPar
t,i
fhei
scompl
etel
yunawar
e
oft
he l
i
kel
i
hood ofcommi
tt
ing a cr
ime
subsequentt
oint
oxi
cat
ion.
 69

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.
A per
son who v
olunt
ari
l
y i
ntoxi
cat
ed
hi
msel
fis obj
ect
ivel
yir
responsi
ble whi
l
e
doi
ngwr
ong.Whati
sthent
hej
ust
if
icat
ion
f
orexcl
udi
ngsuchst
ateofcondi
ti
onf
rom
t
heappl
i
cat
ionofAr
t.
48and49?
2.
What di
sti
ngui
shes each of t
he sub-
sect
ionswi
thi
nAr
t.
50?Whatconsequences
r
esul
tfr
om pl
aci
ngani
ndi
vi
dualwi
thi
none
oranot
heroft
hesesub-
sect
ions?
3.
Whatr
elat
ionshi
p exi
stsbet
ween Ar
t.
50
and t
he pr
ecedi
ng Ar
t.
48 and 49? Does
Ar
t.
50excl
udet
heappl
i
cat
ionofAr
t.
48and
49i
nal
lcasesofv
olunt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion?
4.
Ident
if
y t
he t
hree way
s i
n whi
ch
i
ntoxi
cat
ionmaybeusedasadef
ense.
 70

CasePr
obl
em:
Thr
ee f
ri
ends Khal
i
d,Addi
su and Bi
nyam
went t
o a r
est
aur
ant t
o cel
ebr
atet
he
bi
rt
hdayofAddi
su.Theyst
art
edt
aki
ngdr
ink
af
terdr
ink and wer
e enj
oyi
ng t
hei
rti
me.
Dur
ingt
hei
rconv
ersat
iont
heypi
ckedupan
ar
gumentov
eran i
ssue and Bi
niy
am got
r
eal
l
yangr
ywi
th some oft
he ar
gument
s
madebyKhal
i
dandser
iousl
ylef
tthepl
ace
andwentout
.Bi
niy
am wasf
ull
ydr
unkby
t
hatt
ime.Af
tersomet
ime he r
eappear
ed
t
her
eandcont
inuedt
odr
inkwi
thhi
sfr
iends.
Then Khal
i
dteased hi
m ov
ert
he mat
ter
onceagai
n.Bi
niy
am t
hist
imegotenr
aged
andt
ookabeerbot
tl
eandhi
tKhal
i
dhar
don
hi
shead.Khal
i
dhadapr
ofusebl
eedi
ngdue
t
othecutwoundsbyt
heshar
pedgesoft
he
bot
tl
eand wasr
ushed t
othehospi
talby
 71

bot
h Addi
s and Bi
niy
am. Unf
ort
unat
ely
Khal
i
d di
ed af
ter t
wo day
s of medi
cal
t
reat
ment
.
CanBi
niy
am r
aiset
hear
gumentt
hathehi
s
caseshoul
dbet
reat
edunderAr
t.50/
3?
Not
ethesepoi
nts:

1.I
twasacaseofv
olunt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion.
2.Thecommi
ssi
onoft
heactwasnei
ther
cont
empl
atednori
ntendedasi
scl
earf
rom
t
hef
act
s.Theywer
efr
iendsandcel
ebr
ati
ng
abi
rt
hday
.
3.Noev
idenceofpr
evi
ousenmi
tyorev
en
anydi
stur
bancesbet
weent
hem.
4.Assumet
hatpr
ovocat
ion asdef
encei
s
r
uled outasi
twasnota case ofgr
oss
pr
ovocat
ion.
5.Assumi
ng t
hatAr
t.50/
3 can be r
ight
ly
appl
i
edt
othef
act
soft
hecase,cant
his
 72

casebeappr
opr
iat
elybedeal
twi
thunderAr
t.
491?
6.Doy
out
hinkt
hatanycasei
spuni
shabl
e
wi
thatl
eastoney
earofi
mpr
i and
sonment(
above)canr
ight
lybebr
oughtunderAr
t.491?

2.
1.1Doubt
fulCases

Al
thoughnowher
eint
heCodespeci
fi
cal
l
y
sai
dso,ev
eryaccusedi
spr
esumedt
obe
r
esponsi
blef
orhi
s act
s.Ther
efor
e,as a
gener
alr
ule,t
he al
l
egi
ng par
ty need not
pr
ovet
hatt
heaccusedwascapabl
e,att
he
t
imeoft
heof
fence,ofunder
standi
ngwhat
hewasdoi
ngandofbehav
ingaccor
dingl
y.
Thi
spr
esumpt
ion,howev
er,i
sdest
roy
edi
f
doubtar
isesr
egar
dingt
heof
fender
’sment
al
st
abi
l
ity
.Thecour
tmayf
alli
ndoubtabout
 73

t
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heaccusedast
her
e
ar
eobj
ect
iver
easonst
odoubtoranyoft
he
condi
ti
onsi
dent
if
iedbyl
aw ar
efound.And
t
hecour
tcannotpr
oceedbef
orecl
ear
ingt
he
doubtei
thert
hrough medi
calexami
nat
ion
and i
nqui
ryi
ntot
hechar
act
er,ant
ecedent
andci
rcumst
ancesoft
heaccused.Ont
he
basi
soft
hef
indi
ng,t
hecour
tshal
lmake
suchdeci
sion,
asi
tthi
nksf
it
.

 Condi
ti
onswher
etheCour
tFal
lsi
nDoubt
aboutt
heResponsi
bil
it
yoft
heAccused:
The f
ir
st condi
ti
on wher
ethe cour
tis
al
l
owedt
odoubtaboutt
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyof
t
heaccusedbr
oughtbef
orei
tiswhent
he
accuseddi
spl
ayedanysi
gnofi
nsani
ty.I
n
f
actAr
t.
51 (
1)doesnotspeci
fyhow t
he
gr
oundoft
hedoubtshoul
dbeser
ious.But
 74

al
mostcer
tai
nthatamer
einf
ormalconduct
di
spl
ayedi
nthecour
troom i
sinadequat
efor
t
hecour
ttof
alli
ndoubtaboutt
hement
al
condi
ti
on of t
he accused.I
nst
ead t
her
e
shoul
dbeobj
ect
iver
easonsf
ort
hedoubt
(
e.g.t
heaccusedi
sint
erdi
ctedbyci
vi
lcour
t,
t
heaccusedpr
oduceamedi
calpr
ooft
othe
ef
fectt
hathe i
s suf
fer
ing f
rom a gi
ven
ment
aldi
sease,et
c.)
.Inot
herwor
ds,i
fit
s
doubt
sar
isesf
rom f
act
ualel
ement
sandnot
mer
e conj
ect
ure,t
he cour
tis obl
i
ged t
o
obt
ainmedi
calev
idenceandi
tshoul
ddoso
ofi
tsownmot
ionev
ent
hought
heaccused
i
snotaf
fect
edaspr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthesecond
al
i
nea ofsub-
art(
1)ordoesnotr
aise a
def
enseofi
nsani
ty.

The second si
tuat
ion i
n whi
ch a medi
cal
 75

exami
nat
ionmustbeor
der
edi
sthatwher
e
t
he accused shows any sy
mpt
oms of
der
angementoft
hemi
ndorepi
l
epsy
,orhe
i
sdeafanddumborsuf
fer
sfr
om chr
oni
c
i
ntoxi
cat
ionduet
oal
coholordr
ugs.I
nthese
i
nst
ances,
iti
simmat
eri
alwhet
herornott
he
cour
tisi
ndoubtast
otheof
fender
’sment
al
st
abi
l
ity
.Thecour
tisr
atherpr
esumed t
o
hav
esuchsuspi
cionsbecauset
heaccused
i
sinsuchacondi
ti
ont
hatt
her
eexi
stswhat
mi
ght be t
ermed as a pr
esumpt
ion of
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

I
nei
theroft
heabov
econdi
ti
ons,
thecour
tis
bound t
o obt
aint
he medi
calev
idence.I
t
may
,inaddi
ti
on,r
equi
reot
herev
idencest
o
hel
pthecour
ttocl
ari
fyt
hepoi
nti
nissue.
 76

Dut
iesoft
heMedi
cal
Exper
t:
Accor
dingt
o Ar
t.
51(
2),t
hedut
iesoft
he
medi
calexper
tar
eoft
wof
olds.Fi
rst
,the
medi
calexper
tshal
linv
est
igat
ewhet
herany
oft
hebi
ologi
calcausesofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyor
l
i
mit
ed r
esponsi
bil
i
ty ment
ioned i
n Ar
t.
48
and49i
spr
esentandwhati
tsef
fect
s.What
t
hecour
texpect
stheofmedi
calexper
tist
o
st
ate whet
her t
he of
fender
’sf
acul
ty of
“
judgment and f
ree det
ermi
nat
ion wer
e
af
fect
edbysomebi
ologi
caldef
ect
sand,i
f
so,
whet
hert
hedepr
ivat
ionwascompl
eteor
par
ti
al.I
nthi
s case t
he essent
ialt
ime
r
efer
encei
sthet
imeoft
hecommi
ssi
onof
t
he cr
ime.Onl
ythi
sti
me i
simpor
tantt
o
det
ermi
ne i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty. Howev
er t
he
ment
alcondi
ti
onoft
heof
fenderatt
het
ime
of t
ri
ali
s al
so i
mpor
tant t
o det
ermi
ne
 77

whet
hert
heof
fenderi
scapabl
eofst
andi
ng
on t
ri
al.Accor
dingl
y,mostcr
imi
nalcodes
aut
hor
izet
hecour
ttoor
dermedi
calexper
ts
t
oexami
neandst
atet
hement
alcondi
ti
on
oft
he of
fenderbot
h att
he t
ime oft
he
commi
ssi
onoft
hecr
imeandatt
het
imeof
t
ri
al.The Amhar
icv
ersi
on of sub-
art
.2,
second al
i
neaaccur
atel
yref
ert
obot
hthe
t
imeoft
hecommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
imeandt
he
t
ime of t
he t
rai
l
. The Engl
i
sh v
ersi
on,
howev
er,
ref
erssol
elyt
othet
imeoft
ri
aland
manyagr
eet
hatt
hissi
mpl
yanov
ersi
ght
.
Secondl
y,t
he medi
calexper
tadv
ise t
he
cour
t as t
o t
he cur
ati
ve or pr
otect
ive
measur
es t
hati
tmi
ghtbe necessar
y or
desi
rabl
eto or
dershoul
dtheaccused be
f
oundnotf
ull
yresponsi
blef
orhi
sact
s.
 78

2.
1.2TheRel
ati
onbet
weent
heCour
tand
t
heMedi
calExper
t:

Thepar
trespect
ivel
ypl
ayedbyt
hemedi
cal
exper
tandt
hecour
tindeci
dingupont
he
cr
imi
nal
’
sresponsi
bil
i
tyi
soneoft
hemost
cont
rov
ersi
ali
ssue.I
n mostcommon l
aw
count
ri
es,i
tappear
sthatt
hej
uryi
sal
l
owed
t
oignor
ethef
indi
ngsoft
hemedi
calexper
t.
I
nthe case R v
.Br
yne,PerLor
d Par
ker
ar
guedt
hatt
he‘
ment
alr
esponsi
bil
i
tyofa
per
sonf
orhi
sact
s’poi
ntst
oaconsi
der
ati
on
oft
heext
entt
owhi
cht
heaccusedper
son’
s
mi
nd i
s answer
abl
eforhi
s phy
sicalact
s
whi
chmusti
ncl
udeaconsi
der
ati
onoft
he
ext
entofhi
sabi
l
ityt
oexer
cisewi
l
lpowert
o
cont
rolhi
s phy
sicalact
s.For hi
m t
he
quest
ion i
sther
efor
eto whatext
entt
he
 79

abnor
mal
i
tyi
n a par
ti
cul
arci
rcumst
ance
subst
ant
ial
l
y i
mpai
red t
he ment
al
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyofa per
son f
orhi
sact
s.A
f
urt
herar
gumenti
sthatt
he quest
ion of
degr
eeofessent
ial
l
yonef
ort
hej
ury
.He
pr
essgo on hi
sar
gumentand say
sthat
medi
calev
idence i
srel
evant
,butas t
he
quest
ioni
nvol
vesadeci
sionnotmer
elyas
t
owhet
hert
her
ewassomei
mpai
rmentof
t
hement
alr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heaccusedf
or
hi
sact
sbutwhet
hersuchi
mpai
rmentcan
pr
oper
lycal
l
ed ‘
subst
ant
ial
’
,the j
urymay
qui
tel
egi
ti
mat
elyt
ake di
ff
erent posi
ti
on
f
rom doct
ors.Thear
gumentgoesonand
say
s af
teral
lcl
aimi
ng t
hat
,ther
eis no
sci
ent
if
ic measur
ementoft
he degr
ee of
di
ff
icul
ty,
whi
chanabnor
malper
sonf
indsi
n
cont
rol
l
ing hi
simpul
ses.These pr
obl
ems
 80

whi
ch i
nthe pr
esent st
ate of medi
cal
knowl
edge ar
e sci
ent
if
ical
l
yinsol
ubl
e,t
he
cour
tcanonl
yappr
oachi
nabr
oad,
common
senseway
.

Sub-
art
.(
3)ofAr
t.
51 on t
he ot
herhand
seemst
oputacl
earboundar
ybet
weent
he
r
olesoft
hecour
tandt
hemedi
calexper
tin
det
ermi
ning i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty. The cour
t
t
her
efor
emaynotsubst
it
utei
tsel
ffort
he
exper
tandadj
udi
cat
emedi
calquest
ions,t
o
whi
chhei
snotqual
i
fiedt
odeci
de.I
nst
ead,
t
hepr
ovi
sionr
equi
redt
hecour
ttobebound
t
othe ‘
def
ini
te sci
ent
if
icf
indi
ngs’
,int
he
sense t
hat
,ift
he exper
tst
ates t
hatt
he
accused i
s a chr
oni
c al
cohol
i
c or a
py
romani
ac,
itmaynoti
gnor
ethi
sst
atement
i
n maki
ng i
ts deci
sion.I
fthe j
udge i
s
 81

al
l
owed t
o di
sregar
d sci
ent
if
icf
indi
ngst
o
whi
chhei
snotqual
i
fiedt
oappr
eci
ate,
some
sayhewoul
datoncebeent
it
ledt
oconv
ict
an i
rr
esponsi
ble of
fendermer
elybecause
t
hel
att
ercommi
tt
ed,i
nthej
udge’
sopi
nion,
anat
roci
ouscr
imedemandi
ngpuni
shment
.

Thesamei
str
uewi
tht
her
oleoft
hemedi
cal
exper
t. He/
she may not subst
it
ute
hi
msel
f/
her
sel
ffort
hecour
tandadj
udi
cat
e
l
egalquest
ions,t
owhi
chhei
snotqual
i
fied
t
odeci
de.I
tis,t
her
efor
e,f
ort
hecour
tto
dr
awt
he“
legali
nfer
ences”f
rom t
heexper
t’
s
f
indi
ngs,so t
hati
fthe exper
tst
ates t
he
accusedi
snotf
ull
yresponsi
bleandshoul
d
accor
dingl
ysent
encedt
o,say
,apuni
shment
r
educedbyonehal
f,t
hecour
tisnotbound
byt
hisst
atement
.
 82

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1. “
Ever
y accused i
s pr
esumed t
o be
r
esponsi
blef
orhi
sact
s”.Di
scuss
2. Whatdoy
out
hinkshoul
dbet
her
olest
o
be pl
ayed byt
he medi
calexper
tand t
he
cour
tin det
ermi
ning i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty and
l
i
mit
edr
esponsi
bil
i
ty?
3. Whati
sther
olet
obepl
ayedbymedi
cal
exper
tsi
nEt
hiopi
aint
hosecaseswher
ethe
def
enseofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
srai
sed?
4. What“
ter
ms ofr
efer
ence” shal
lthe
cour
tsetf
ort
heexper
t?

Sect
ion.3.I
nfancy
/Immat
uri
ty:Ar
t.52

Suppose a 3-
year
-ol
d pushes her baby
 83

br
otherdownt
hest
air
s,andt
hebabydi
es.
Coul
dwet
ryt
he3-
year
-ol
dformur
der
?Does
t
he 3-
year
-ol
d commi
tthe actofki
l
li
ng?
Doesshehav
ether
equi
sit
eint
ent(
mens
r
ea)
?Inf
acta 3-
year
-ol
d does notev
en
know t
he meani
ng ofl
i
fe and deat
h.To
pr
eventsi
l
lyi
nqui
resi
ntowhet
herani
nfant
commi
tt
edacr
imi
nalactwi
tht
her
equi
si
te
cr
imi
nali
ntental
mostev
eryj
uri
sdi
cti
onset
i
nfancy l
i
mit bel
ow whi
ch chi
l
dren ar
e
absol
utel
yexempt
edf
rom bei
ngsubj
ectof
cr
imi
nall
aw.Thi
sisbasedont
hepr
inci
ple
t
hatani
nfanti
sincapabl
eofdi
sti
ngui
shi
ng
bet
weenr
ightandwr
ongandsonocr
imi
nal
r
esponsi
bil
i
tycoul
dbef
ast
enedi
nregar
dto
hi
sdeeds.Chi
l
drenofsuchagear
egr
ant
ed
absol
utei
mmuni
tyont
hegr
oundt
hatt
hey
edol
ar iinapax,t
hati
s,i
ncapabl
eofdoi
nga
 84

cr
imi
nalact
,becauseachi
l
dundersuchage
gr
oupcannotf
ormt
henecessar
yint
ent
ion
t
ocommi
tacr
ime.Thi
sist
her
efor
eal
egal
pr
esumpt
ion.I
not
herwor
dsi
tisi
mmat
eri
al
whet
hert
henat
ureandqual
i
tyoft
hewr
ong
doneasi
tisnor
mal
l
yonet
obedoneonl
yby
someonewi
thhi
ghcal
i
berandexper
ience.
And some j
uri
sdi
cti
ons hav
e adopt
ed a
qual
i
fiedi
mmuni
tyaswel
ltochi
l
drenwhose
age i
s abov
ethe i
nfancyl
i
mitbutbel
ow
cer
tai
nagel
i
mit
.Int
hecaseofI
ndi
a,f
or
i
nst
ance, sect
ion 83 pr
ovi
des qual
i
fied
i
mmuni
tyt
oachi
l
dabov
esev
eny
ear
sof
ageandbel
owt
wel
vey
ear
sofage.I
not
her
wor
ds,
ifi
tis shownt
hatt
hechi
l
dhasnot
at
tai
ned t
he r
equi
sit
e degr
ee of
under
standi
ng t
o j
udge t
he nat
ure and
consequences of hi
s conduct
, he i
s
 85

exempt
ed f
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.Int
he
absenceofsuchpr
oof
,achi
l
dabov
esev
en
y
ear
sofageasmuchl
i
abl
eforhi
scr
imi
nal
act as an adul
tis. The mat
uri
ty of
under
standi
ng can be i
nfer
red f
rom t
he
nat
ureandqual
i
tyoft
heact
,subsequent
conductoft
hedoerandal
l
iedf
act
ors.

Howev
er,no absol
uter
uleasr
egar
dst
he
ageofdi
scr
eti
oni
sfound.I
tdi
ff
ersf
rom
count
ryt
ocount
ry.I
nMal
aysi
aandEngl
and,
t
heageofcompl
etei
mmuni
tyi
steny
ear
s.
I
n I
ndi
a, Canada and some st
ates i
n
Aust
ral
i
aitgoesdownt
otheageofsev
en.
I
n Ger
many
, Aust
ri
a and Nor
way t
he
mi
nimum agei
s14y
ear
s;whi
l
einDenmar
k
andSweden,i
tis15y
ear
s;i
nAr
gent
inaa
mi
norunder16y
ear
sandi
nFr
ancebel
ow
 86

13 y
ear
s i
f age i
s not puni
shabl
e.
I
nter
est
ingl
yint
heUni
tedSt
ates,t
heageof
absol
utei
ncapaci
tyv
ari
es f
rom st
atet
o
st
ater
angi
ng bet
ween ei
ghtt
o 12 y
ear
s.
Thus,t
hehi
gheri
nfancyl
i
mitacount
ryhas,
t
hehi
gherpr
otect
ionwoul
dchi
l
drengetand
v
isev
ersa.

I
tisal
socommoni
nmanyj
uri
sdi
cti
onst
o
hav
e di
ff
erent age gr
oups f
or y
oung
of
fender
s wi
th di
ff
erent t
reat
ment and
puni
shment pr
escr
ibed. The pr
obl
ems
ar
isi
ngi
nrel
ati
ont
oyoungof
fender
sar
enot
t
hesameast
hose,
whi
char
isei
nrel
ati
ont
o
adul
ts,because t
her
e exi
sts bet
ween t
he
t
wocl
assesofof
fender
sadi
ff
erencei
nthe
nat
ure oft
hei
rint
ell
i
gence orv
oli
ti
on.A
mi
nor
, ev
en t
hough he may be mor
e
 87

i
ntel
l
igentt
hananadul
t,i
snev
ert
hel
essnot
a“
mini
atur
eman”andhemaynotbet
reat
ed
assuchf
orhi
sappr
eci
ati
onoft
hewor
ld,i
s
nott
hatofagr
own-
upper
son.Thi
simpl
i
es
t
hatacour
tdeal
i
ngwi
thay
oungof
fender
consi
dert
heof
fencemer
elyasani
ndi
cat
ion
t
hat he r
equi
res medi
cal t
reat
ment
,
educat
ion or cor
rect
ion. The i
dea of
r
etr
ibut
ioni
sal
mostal
toget
herabsentf
rom
t
hepr
ovi
sionsappl
i
cabl
etoy
oungof
fender
s,
asi
ndi
cat
edbyt
hef
actt
hatt
heser
iousness
oft
heof
fencecommi
tt
edi
snotnor
mal
l
y
t
akeni
ntoaccounti
ndeci
dingt
heof
fender
’s
f
ate.Thei
ssuei
snott
opuni
shaj
uveni
l
e
“
accor
dingt
othedegr
eeofi
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
t”,
but“
toensur
ethebestpossi
blet
reat
ment
”
andpenal
ti
es.
 88

Thi
s howev
er does not mean t
hat t
he
pr
ovi
sionsappl
i
cabl
etoj
uveni
l
ear
enotofa
penalnat
ure.Qui
tet
othecont
rar
y,y
oung
of
fender
sot
hert
hani
nfant
sar
esubj
ectt
o
cr
imi
nall
aw;
yet
,ast
heyconst
it
uteaspeci
al
cat
egor
yofwr
ong-
doer
s(asi
semphasi
zed
byt
hef
actt
hat
,inmanycount
ri
est
hel
aw
concer
ningt
hem i
senact
edsepar
atel
yand
notembodi
edi
nthepenalcode,andt
hat
t
heyar
etr
iedbyspeci
ali
zedcour
tsunder
speci
alr
ulesofpr
ocedur
e),
theycomeunder
speci
alr
ules.(
Phi
l
ipGr
aven,
pp.144-
145)

Accor
dingl
y,t
heCr
imi
nalCodeofEt
hiopi
a
deal
swi
thi
nfancy(
whi
chendsatt
heageof
ni
ne y
ear
s),adol
escence (
whi
ch ext
ends
f
rom ni
net
ofi
ft
een y
ear
s,t
hisbei
ng t
he
l
i
mitofpenalmaj
ori
ty)
,andani
nter
medi
ary
 89

per
iod ext
endi
ng bet
ween penaland ci
vi
l
maj
ori
ty,i
.e.
,bet
weenf
if
teenandei
ght
een
y
ear
sofage.

3.
1.I
nfancyunderEt
hiopi
anLaw:

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
52oft
heEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nal
Code,i
nfant
s ar
e compl
etel
y exoner
ated
f
rom cr
imi
nalpr
ovi
sions.Thel
owerl
i
mitof
penalmaj
ori
tyi
smadeni
ney
ear
sundert
his
ar
ti
cle.Ther
efor
e,t
he Et
hiopi
an cr
imi
nal
codenev
erappl
i
est
ochi
l
drenwhocommi
t
an of
fencebef
orehav
ing compl
eted t
hei
r
ni
nth y
ear
. What
ever of
fence may be
commi
tt
edbyachi
l
dwhoi
snoty
eti
nhi
s
t
ent
hyear
,hei
snotcr
imi
nal
l
yli
abl
eand
maynotbesubj
ect
edt
oapenal
tyundert
he
l
aw.He i
s pr
esumed by l o be dol
aw t i
 90

i
ncapax,and showi
ng t
hathe under
stand
whathei
sdoi
ngandt
hathewoul
dal
so
under
standt
hepur
posesofpenal
tycannot
r
ebut t
he pr
esumpt
ion. Fur
ther
mor
e,
puni
shment
,whi
chi
nanyev
entmi
ghtdo
mor
e har
ms t
han good owi
ng t
o i
ts
psy
chol
ogi
calconsequences,
isnotapr
oper
obj
ect
ivef
oronewho deal
swi
thi
nfant
s.
The mai
ntask i
stoi
nvest
igat
e whyt
he
i
nfant
s do wr
ong and t
o br
ing abouta
change i
nthe ci
rcumst
ances,whi
ch l
ead
hi
mtocommi
ttheof
fence.Thi
sisnott
o
say
,howev
er,t
hatchi
l
drenmaydoast
hey
pl
ease,butmer
elyt
hatt
heyar
e nott
he
concer
noft
hecr
imi
nal
law.I
nst
ead,
theyar
e
under t
he excl
usi
vej
uri
sdi
cti
on of t
hei
r
par
ent
s or per
sons exer
cisi
ng par
ent
al
aut
hor
it
ies.I
fthey do wr
ong,cor
rect
ive
 91

st
epsmaybeor
der
edathomeoratschool
,
butnoti
ncour
t.Andy
et,pr
ovi
si
ons oft
he
Rev
isedFami
l
yCodeandAr
ts.
576,659ar
e
desi
gned t
o ensur
ethati
nfant
s do not
become del
i
nquent
sin consequences of
t
hei
rpar
ent
sfai
l
ingi
nthei
rdut
ies.
3.
1.2.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion ofYoun9
g2
of
fender
s
undert
heCode:

I
mmat
uri
tyr
efer
stoi
nabi
l
ityt
oappr
eci
ate
t
henat
ureandconsequencesofanactdue
t
o ear
ly age.I
tincl
udes i
nfancy
,young
cr
imi
nal
andper
sonsi
nthet
ransi
tor
yage.

3.
1.2.
1.I
nfancy
:

I
nfancyi
stheper
iodext
endi
ngf
rom bi
rt
hto
whatmi
ghtbecal
l
edcr
imi
nalmaj
ori
ty.The
age l
i
mitt
hatmar
ks t
he end ofi
nfancy
v
ari
esf
rom onecount
ryt
oanot
her
.Inour
count
ry,i
nfancyendsatt
heat
tai
nmentof
ni
nthy
ear(
art
icl
e52)
.Thei
nfant
swhohav
e
notat
tai
ned t
he age ofni
ne y
ear
s ar
e
exoner
atedf
rom cr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
.

Forexampl
e,Hamdii
sei
ghty
ear
sol
d.He
setf
ir
etoahuti
nwhi
cht
hreeper
sonswer
e
asl
eep.Twoper
sonsser
iousl
yinj
uredi
nthe
 93

Feebl
e When t
he
mi
ndedness, pur
pose i
s
1 ar
rest
ed Tr
eat
men 158 ser
ved or
dev
elopmentt when t
he
, ment
al cour
t
di
sease, or
der
ed or
epi
l
epsy
, when t
he
addi
cti
on t
o cr
imi
nal
dr
inket
c. at
tai
ned18
y
ear
s
(
art
icl
e
164(
1))
Mor
al When t
he
2 abandonme Super
vise pur
pose i
s
nt
, d 159 ser
ved or
cor
rupt
ion, educat
ion when t
he
absence of cour
t
car
e and or
der
ed or
 94

pr
otect
ion when t
he
cr
imi
nal
at
tai
ned18
y
ear
s
(
art
icl
e
164(
1))
Spendi
ng Keepi
ng The
f
ree hour
sthey
oung dur
ati
on i
s
3 andhol
i
day
s cr
imi
nal 161 f
ixedbyt
he
wi
th bad at home cour
t
f
ri
ends and orschool (
art
icl
e
pl
aces 161)
Danger
ous Bet
ween
4 di
sposi
ti
on, Admi
ssi
o 162 onet
ofi
ve
commi
ssi
on n t
o y
ear
s or
of gr
ave cor
rect
ive when t
he
cr
ime i
nst
it
uti
o y
oung
n cr
imi
nal
 95

at
tai
nes18
y
ear
s
(
art
icl
e
164(
2))
5 Any ot
herRepr
iman 160 Nodur
ati
on
pr
obl
ems d and
censur
e
Thecour
tmayi
mposepenal
ti
esony
oung
cr
imi
nal
s.Thesepenal
ti
esaspr
ovi
dedunder
ar
ti
cle166-
168,ar
eoft
woki
nds.Thesear
e
f
ineandi
mpr
isonment
.Thecour
tmaynot
sent
ence a y
oung cr
imi
nal t
o f
ine or
i
mpr
isonmentunl
esst
hemeasur
esappl
i
ed
underar
ti
cle158-
162hav
ebeenappl
i
edand
f
ail
ed.
A cour
tmaysent
enceay
oungcr
imi
nalt
o
f
inewhenhe/
shei
scapabl
eofpay
ingt
he
f
ine and ofr
eal
i
zing t
he r
eason f
ori
ts
 96

i
mposi
ti
on.Thus,acour
tmaynoti
mpose
f
ineony
oungcr
imi
nalwhohasnomeansof
i
ncome.Thef
ineshoul
dbepr
opor
ti
onat
eto
t
he cr
imi
nal
’
s means and gr
avi
ty oft
he
cr
ime (
art
icl
e 167)
.Thus,a cour
t may
i
mposedi
ff
erentf
ineont
woy
oungcr
imi
nal
s
whohav
ecommi
tt
edt
hesamecr
imewi
th
t
hesameci
rcumst
ancesi
fthemagni
tudeof
t
hei
rincome di
ff
ers.The f
ine may be
i
mposedi
naddi
ti
ont
oimpr
isonment
.

Acour
tshoul
dnotor
dert
hesal
eofpr
oper
ty
oft
hey
oungcr
imi
nalor t
heconv
ersi
onof
f
inei
ntol
abororcompul
sor
ylabor
.Ift
he
f
ail
uret
opayt
hef
inei
sdel
i
ber
ate,t
hecour
t
mayconv
ertt
hef
inei
ntohomeorschool
ar
rest
.
 97

The cour
tmay i
mpose i
mpr
isonmenton
y
oung cr
imi
nal
s when t
hey commi
tt
ed a
cr
ime puni
shabl
e wi
th r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentofmor
ethan t
en y
ear
s or
deat
h penal
ty(
art
icl
e 168(
1))
.The y
oung
cr
imi
nal
s ser
ve t
he sent
ence ei
ther i
n
cor
rect
ive i
nst
it
uti
on or peni
tent
iar
y
det
ent
ioni
nst
it
uti
on.I
fthecour
tsendst
he
y
oung cr
imi
nal
sto peni
tent
iar
y det
ent
ion
i
nst
it
uti
on,t
hey wi
l
lnot be mi
xed wi
th
pr
isoner
s who ar
e sent
enced t
ori
gor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentorspeci
alconf
inement
.The
cour
tsendsy
oungcr
imi
nalwhent
heyar
e
i
ncor
ri
gibl
eorl
i
kel
ytobeacauseoft
roubl
e,
i
nsecur
it
yorcor
rupt
iont
oot
her
s.Thus,t
he
cour
tsendsy
oungcr
imi
nal
stopeni
tent
iar
y
det
ent
ion i
nst
it
uti
on when t
he measur
es
or
der
edagai
nstt
hem coul
dnotr
efor
mthem.
 98

The cour
tshal
ltr
ansf
ery
oung cr
imi
nal
s
f
rom cor
rect
ivei
nst
it
uti
on t
o peni
tent
iar
y
det
ent
ion i
nst
it
uti
on when t
hey ar
e
danger
ousorwhent
heyhav
eat
tai
ned18
y
ear
sandt
hesent
enceext
endsbey
ondt
he
ageofmaj
ori
ty.

Theper
iodofdet
ent
ionshal
lext
endf
rom
oney
eart
oteny
ear
s(ar
ti
cl
e168(
2))
.The
enf
orcementoft
his per
iod ofdet
ent
ion
t
akes pl
ace undert
he r
egi
me ofsi
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonment(
168(
3))
.Thati
s,t
he cour
t
shoul
dnotsendy
oungcr
imi
nal
stoapr
ison
t
hati
sappoi
ntedf
ort
hepur
poseofr
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonment
.Ify
oungcr
imi
nal
sappeart
o
hav
ebeenr
efor
med,t
heymayber
eleased
on pr
obat
ion af
tert
heyhav
e ser
ved t
wo-
t
hir
ds oft
he sent
ence ofi
mpr
isonment
.
 99

Thus,ay
oungcr
imi
nalwhoi
ssent
encedt
o
si
xyear
sofi
mpr
isonmentmayber
eleased
onpr
obat
ioni
fhe/
sheser
vesf
oury
ear
sof
i
mpr
isonment
.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Shoul
d t
he i
nfancy l
i
mitr
ecogni
zed
underAr
t.
52 be r
evi
sed? I
fso,how
shoul
ditber
evi
sed?
2.
Why does t
he Code make speci
al
pr
ovi
sionsf
ory
oungper
sons?Whati
s
t
he speci
alpur
pose i
ntended t
o be
achi
eved?
3.
Whatspeci
alaut
hor
it
ydoest
hecour
t
hasi
nrel
ati
ont
osent
enci
ng?
4.
Whatar
ethepr
inci
plest
obet
akeni
nto
accounti
nsent
enci
ngy
oungper
sons?
I
s such sent
ence t
o be consi
der
ed
 100

cr
imi
nal
?

CasePr
obl
em:
‘
A’,‘
B’and‘
C’wer
ebr
other
s.Thei
rfat
her‘
F’
waski
l
ledbyhi
senemy‘
E’
.Si
ncet
hen,t
he
t
hreebr
other
swer
epl
anni
ngt
ofi
nishof
f
t
hei
rfat
her
’smur
der
er.Al
loft
hem,i
nfact
,
hadacr
imi
nalhi
stor
y.Fi
nal
l
y,t
heyexecut
ed
t
hei
rpl
an and ki
l
led ‘
E’
.‘C’
,they
oungest
amongt
het
hreeaccused,was14y
ear
sol
d
whenhepar
ti
cipat
edi
nthehomi
ci
deal
ong
wi
th hi
s el
derbr
other
s.Bot
hthe el
der
br
other
swer
esent
enced t
oimpr
isonment
f
orl
i
fe,
wher
east
hey
oungestonewassent
t
oa‘
Cor
rect
ionalI
nst
it
uti
on’f
oraper
iodof
5y
ear
s,bei
ngconsi
der
edhi
syoung att
he
t
imeoft
hecommi
ssi
onoft
heof
fence.
1.Di
scuss t
he pr
inci
ples ofPenalLaw
 101

r
elat
ing t
o hi
s conf
inement i
n t
he
“
Cor
rect
ional
Inst
it
uti
on”
.
2.Expl
aint
he obj
ect
ives ofCor
rect
ional
I
nst
it
uti
ons.Whati
sthemaxi
mum per
iodof
t
imet
hatachi
l
dof
fendermaybekepti
n
suchanI
nst
it
uti
on?
3.I
fyouwer
eaj
udgehow doy
oupr
oceed
wi
thenf
orcementoft
hepuni
shmentgi
ven
t
o“C’
int
heabov
ecase?

Uni
tSummar
y:
Gener
aldef
enses f
orcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityar
e
ci
rcumst
ancest
hatr
eli
eveanaccusedf
rom
conv
ict
ion of gui
l
t and i
ts consequent
penal
ty.These ci
rcumst
ances exempt a
cr
imi
nalf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity orent
it
le
hi
m/hert
oar
educed puni
shment
.These
 102

def
ences ar
ise ei
therdue t
o negat
ion of
mensr
eai
.e.mor
ali
ngr
edi
entofcr
imei
n
case of i
rr
esponsi
ble per
sons. I
nsane
per
sons,
int
oxi
cat
edper
sonsandi
nfant
sar
e
exempt
edf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityduet
othe
f
actt
hatt
heyl
ackt
hecapaci
tyt
ofor
mthe
ment
alel
ementr
equi
redf
orat
tachi
ngany
cr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
.

The def
ence of i
nsani
ty i
ncl
udes t
wo
di
ff
erent gr
ounds. Ther
e ar
e, absol
ute
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty underAr
t48 and l
i
mit
ed
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty under Ar
t 49.I
n case of
absol
ute i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
he accused i
s
absol
utel
yimmunef
rom anycr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
butshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
ospeci
alt
reat
ment
aspr
ovi
dedunderAr
ts129-
132.Wher
eas,
i
n caseofl
i
mit
ed r
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
hecour
t
 103

shal
lfr
eel
ymi
ti
gat
ehi
spenal
tyaspert
he
pr
ovi
sionsofAr
t180.I
naddi
ti
ont
othatt
he
accused i
s subj
ect t
o t
he t
reat
ment
speci
fi
esunderAr
ts129-
133.

Thedef
enceofi
ntoxi
cat
ionhasbeendeal
t
wi
thi
nthe Cr
imi
nalCode underAr
t50.
I
nvol
unt
ary i
ntox
icat
ion l
eadi
ng t
o an
absol
ute i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty i
s an absol
ute
i
mmuni
tyunderAr
t50/
4.I
fthe absol
ute
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
sther
esul
tofcoer
cionor
accor
ding t
o a st
rat
egy f
or whi
ch t
he
accused has no f
aul
titamount
stoi
n
v
olunt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion.Vol
unt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion
asabasi
crul
eisnodef
encef
orcr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ity
.Buti
tmi
ghtbecome a qual
i
fied
def
ence under t
he ci
rcumst
ances
ment
ionedi
nSub-
art
icl
es(
2)and(
3)ofAr
t
 104

50.Wher
eaper
soni
svol
unt
ari
l
yint
oxi
cat
ed
i
n or
dert
o commi
ta cr
ime,t
he per
son
becomescompl
etel
yli
abl
eforpuni
shment
whet
hert
hei
rr
esponsi
bil
i
typr
oducedduet
o
i
ntoxi
cat
ioni
sanabsol
uteoneorpar
ti
al(
Art
50/
1).Howev
eri
fthev
olunt
aryi
ntoxi
cat
ion
f
all
sunderSub-
Art
.(
2)t
heper
soni
sli
abl
e
f
ornegl
i
gentcommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
imeas
perAr
t59.

I
nfancyunderEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nalCodehas
been deal
twi
thv
erycar
eful
l
y.They
oung
of
fender
sfal
lundert
hreecat
egor
ies:
inf
ant
s,
y
oung of
fender
s and ofi
nter
medi
aryage
gr
oup.I
nfant
sunderni
ney
ear
sofagear
e
compl
etel
yexemptf
rom anycr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
.
Youngof
fender
sfal
l
ingi
nbet
weenni
neand
15 y
ear
sar
eli
abl
ecr
imi
nal
l
ybutar
enot
 105

puni
shedonparwi
thadul
tcr
imi
nal
s.The
Codedesi
gnedspeci
alt
ypesofmeasur
es
wi
th cur
ati
ve,educat
ionaland cor
rect
ive
v
alues.Youngper
sonsabov
etheageof15
butbel
ow 18 f
allunderi
nter
medi
aryage
gr
oup.Theyar
enor
mal
l
yli
abl
etopenal
ti
es
asadul
tsbuti
ncasesofabnor
maldel
ayi
n
ment
aldev
elopmentt
hemeasur
esdesi
gned
f
ort
hebel
ow15maybeappl
i
edt
othem.

Ref
erences:
Cases:
1.
M’Naught
en’
sCase(
1843)10CLANDFi
n
200
2.
Dur
ham v
.Uni
ted St
ates.
,Ci
rcui
t(1954)
214F.
2d862:
45ALR2d1430
3.
Ato Get
achew Gi
zav
.Adv
ocat
e Gener
al,
Supr
emeI
mper
ial
cour
t(1959GC)
 106

4.
The Adv
ocat
e Gener
alv
. Hai
l
eab t
edl
a
Supr
emeI
mper
ial
Cour
t(1958GC)
5.
Dir
ect
orofPubl
i
c Pr
osecut
ions v
.Bear
d,
(
1920)AC479
6.
Dir
ect
orofPubl
i
cPr
osecut
ionsv
.Maj
ewski
,
(
1976)2Al
lER142
7.
R.v
.Mor
gan,
(1976)AC479
ReaderNot
e:
1.
Art
icl
es 48,49,51 and 129-
133 oft
he
Cr
imi
nalCode ofFDRE,2005-
def
ence of
I
nsani
ty
2.
Art
icl
es50,
51,
59 and 491 oft
heCr
imi
nal
CodeofFDRE,
2005-
def
enceofI
ntoxi
cat
ion
3.
Art
icl
es52-
56and158-
168,oft
heCr
imi
nal
CodeofFDRE,
2005-
def
enceofI
nfancy
4. Phi
l
ippe Gr
aven – “
An i
ntr
oduct
ion t
o
Et
hiopi
an PenalLaw”(
1965)
,HSI
U,Addi
s
Ababa,
Ethi
opi
a.
 107

5. St
evenLowenst
ein–“
Mat
eri
alsf
ort
he
st
udyoft
hePenalLaw ofEt
hiopi
a”(
1967)
,
HSI
U,Addi
sAbaba,
Ethi
opi
a.
6. J.
C.Smi
thandBr
ainHogen–“
Cri
minal
7thEdi
Law”( ti
on)1992.
7.
Kenny
,C.
S.—“
Out
li
nesofCr
imi
nalLaw”
(18th
edn,
2004)Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess
8.
Freda(
Adl
er,
Ger
har
dO.W.Muel
l
erWi
l
li
am
S.Lauf
er,
Cri
minal
Just
ice,
McGRAW-
HILL,
I
NC.NewYor
k,1994,
pp.91-
93)
 108

UNI
T-I
I
AFFI
RMATI
VEDEFENSES
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Br
oadl
y speaki
ng,cr
ime i
s an i
ndi
vi
dual
behav
iort
hatcont
radi
ctst
he wi
l
loft
he
publ
i
catl
arge.Cr
imi
nall
awi
sbr
anchofl
aw
wher
ethewi
l
lofpeopl
eisexpr
essed.I
tis
t
her
efor
eani
ndi
vi
dualhasnochoi
cebutt
o
 109

behav
einaccor
dancewi
tht
het
ermsoft
he
l
aw i
nquest
ion.Fai
l
uret
ocompl
ywi
tht
he
l
aw causes har
m t
othe soci
ety and i
s
t
her
efor
eal
way
spuni
shabl
e.Butt
her
ear
e
ci
rcumst
ances t
hough l
i
mit
ed and bound
wi
th st
ri
ctl
egalf
ramewor
kexoner
atet
he
doerf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityf
ull
yorpar
ti
all
y.
One such ci
rcumst
ance i
sfor i
nst
ance
wher
eiti
snecessar
ytopasssomer
ulesof
t
hel
aw ov
eranddoact
sfort
hebenef
itof
t
hesamepeopl
e.Thi
sref
erst
olawf
ulact
s.
Al
awf
ulacti
sanact
,thataper
sonl
egal
l
y
obl
i
gedoraut
hor
izedt
odo.Theacti
slawf
ul
notbecausel
aw doesper
miti
t.Rat
heri
tis
i
nher
ent
ly a puni
shabl
e one.Undersuch
ci
rcumst
ancescer
tai
nposi
ti
ver
esul
tswoul
d
notbeachi
evedunl
esst
her
eist
obeanact
bei
ng made i
n cont
radi
cti
on t
othe l
aw.
 110

Somet
imescont
radi
cti
ngt
hel
awi
snotonl
y
aut
hor
ized butal
so r
equi
red oror
der
ed.
Puni
shmenti
nsuchci
rcumst
ancet
her
efor
e
woul
d be i
roni
c.Besi
des t
hat i
t woul
d
pr
event t
he soci
ety benef
it f
rom
except
ional
l
y uni
que posi
ti
ve r
esul
ts of
cer
tai
nout
lawedact
s.A goodexampl
eof
t
hisi
srest
rai
ningper
sonsl
i
ber
tyt
ofor
ce
t
hem answerf
oracr
imi
nalwr
ongt
heyhav
e
done t
o t
he soci
ety
. One anot
her
ci
rcumst
ance wher
e despi
te an acti
sin
cont
radi
cti
on wi
th t
he l
aw but not
puni
shabl
eis when t
he soci
etyl
i
ftsi
ts
condemnat
ion up. Under t
hese
ci
rcumst
ancest
heor
igi
nalcondemnat
ionby
t
hesoci
etyofcer
tai
nact
smayhav
egone
ast
ray
.Rat
herundersuchci
rcumst
ancest
he
act
s may be f
ound j
ust
if
ied.Just
if
iabl
e
 111

def
enses ar
e t
her
efor
e act
s done i
n
ci
rcumst
ances excl
udi
ng i
ntent
ionalgui
l
t.
I
mposi
ngpuni
shmentagai
nstper
sonswho
do act
sincont
radi
cti
ont
othel
aw bei
ng
underspeci
alci
rcumst
ancesi
sthusnotonl
y
woul
d cont
radi
ct t
he v
ery essence of
cr
imi
nall
aw buti
s al
so unj
ust
.Take f
or
i
nst
ance a per
son of whose l
egi
ti
mat
e
i
nter
esti
sbei
ngt
hreat
enedt
aki
ngr
epul
si
ve
measur
e.Ther
eshal
lbeno j
ust
icet
o be
ser
ved. I
nst
ead i
t woul
d guar
ant
ee
i
l
legi
ti
macy t
o pr
evai
l
. St
il
l anot
her
ci
rcumst
ancei
swher
eper
sonsi
nnoway
ar
eal
l
oweddoi
ngact
sthatcont
radi
ctt
he
l
awbutenj
oyaspeci
alpr
otect
ionofal
esser
puni
shment
.Thi
sref
erst
o act
s done i
n
ci
rcumst
ancesr
educi
ngt
hedegr
eeofgui
l
t.
For i
nst
ance, i
f someone er
roneousl
y
 112

bel
i
evest
hatdr
unkdr
ivi
ngi
snotout
lawed
anddoessoi
snotaser
iousmenaceast
he
one who wi
l
li
ngl
y cont
radi
cted t
he l
aw.
Gener
all
yassumedt
hathewoul
dli
vebyt
he
l
awhadheknowndr
unkdr
ivi
ngi
sout
lawed.
Accor
dingl
yitwoul
d be unj
ustt
o puni
sh
hi
m/heral
i
ke.The same i
str
ue wi
tha
per
son pr
ovoked t
o v
iol
ate t
he l
aw.
Ther
efor
einsuchal
lci
rcumst
ancest
hedoer
i
snotj
ust
if
iedbuti
sal
l
owedundert
hel
aw
t
oenj
oysomepr
otect
ion.

 ThePr
ocedur
alPl
aceTheyAssume:
Af
fi
rmat
ivedef
enses,ast
henamespeaks
f
or i
tsel
f ar
elegaldef
enses agai
nst a
cr
imi
nalchar
ge.I
tist
her
efor
elogi
calf
ort
he
accusedt
orai
set
hem onl
yatt
het
imewhen
he i
s r
equi
red t
o def
end t
he char
ge.
 113

Pr
ocedur
all
y,t
his wi
l
lhappen af
ter t
he
pr
osecut
ion hav
e adduced ev
idence and
pr
oveapr
imaf
asci
acase.Thi
simpl
i
est
hat
one who bei
ng underany oft
he abov
e
ci
rcumst
ances commi
ts a puni
shabl
e act
shal
lunder
goal
lthepr
ecedi
ngst
agesi
nthe
pr
ocess. Some ser
iousl
y cr
it
ici
ze t
he
schemef
ort
hef
actt
hati
tundul
ymakest
he
accused suf
ferf
rom t
he har
dshi
p of a
cr
imi
nalpr
ocess.They t
her
efor
e suggest
t
hatci
rcumst
ances,
par
ti
cul
arl
ythef
ir
stand
t
hesecondt
ojust
if
ythedi
scont
inuat
ionof
t
hepr
oceedi
ngatt
heear
li
estpossi
blet
ime.
Such possi
blet
imescoul
d hav
ebeen f
or
i
nst
ance when t
he case i
s under t
he
r
etent
ionoft
hepr
osecut
ionser
vice. The
pr
oponent
soft
hei
deaquest
iont
hatwhy
t
hepr
osecut
ionasamemberoft
hel
egal
 114

pr
ofessi
oncoul
dnothav
ebeenaut
hor
ized
t
odi
scont
inuecasest
hatundoubt
edl
yfal
l
underanyoft
heci
rcumst
ancesdi
scussed
abov
e.I
nli
newi
tht
hei
deasomeCodesof
Cr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
eal
l
owt
heci
rcumst
ances
t
obei
nvokedatl
eastasal
egi
ti
mat
egr
ound
ofpr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ion.The1949Cr
imi
nal
Pr
ocedur
e Code ofEt
hiopi
aforexampl
e
expr
essl
yst
atedst
ateofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyas
gr
oundofpr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ion(
art
.130/
--
).
I
nthecaseoft
heCodeev
en ar
gument
s
hav
e been f
orwar
ded i
n f
avor of t
he
pr
osecut
ion t
o r
elay on Ar
t.
42/
1(a) t
o
di
scont
inuecaseswhenev
ert
heypr
oveany
oft
he ci
rcumst
ances.The quest
ion t
hat
demandat
tent
ionher
eis,howev
erwhet
her
i
tis af
ter al
l possi
ble t
o pr
ove t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesot
her
wisewi
thi
nthej
udi
ci
ary
.
 115

Obj
ect
ives:
Byt
heendoft
hischapt
er,st
udent
swi
llbe
abl
eto:
 Under
stand t
he meani
ng and essence of
af
fi
rmat
ivedef
enses
I
dent
if
y t
he cat
egor
ies of af
fi
rmat
ive
def
enses
 To make di
sti
nct
ion bet
ween absol
ute
def
ensesandl
i
mit
eddef
enses
 Di
scusst
hei
dealt
imei
nthepr
ocesswher
e
t
hedef
ensescoul
dhav
ebeeni
nvoked.

Sect
ion.
1.Lawf
ul,Just
if
iabl
eandExcusabl
e
Act
s:

 TheEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nalCodeont
heSubj
ect
:
 116

Accor
ding t
o Ar
t.
58 (
2),a per
son who
i
ntent
ional
l
ycommi
tsanof
fencei
sal
way
s
puni
shabl
e except wher
e he act
s i
n
ci
rcumst
ances pr
ovi
ding hi
m wi
th a
j
ust
if
icat
ionoranexcuset
hati
sinanyof
t
he ci
rcumst
ances def
ined i
n Ar
ts.
68-
81.
Ther
efor
ethequest
ionwhet
heranacti
s:
l
awf
ul,j
ust
if
iabl
e orexcusabl
e does not
ar
iseunl
esst
hisacti
sani
ngr
edi
entofan
of
fence.Fur
ther
mor
ethesai
d quest
ioni
s
al
way
stobedeci
dedwi
thr
efer
encet
othe
l
awf
ort
her
ear
enoj
ust
if
icat
ionsorexcuses,
what
evert rr
hei ai
sond’
etr
e,ot
hert
hant
hose
pr
ovi
dedbyl
aw,
andwhi
chev
ert
hisl
awmay
be.

Thedef
ini
ti
onandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofl
awf
ul,
j
ust
if
iabl
e and excusabl
e act
s somet
imes
 117

v
ary
.Insomej
uri
sdi
cti
ons,f
orexampl
e,t
he
onl
ydi
sti
nct
ioni
sbet
weenj
ust
if
icat
ionsand
excuses (
e.g. Fr
ance)
. The f
ir
st one
compr
isesofact
srequi
redoraut
hor
izedby
l
aw,l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense,necessar
yact
sand
act
sdonewi
tht
heconsentoft
hei
njur
ed
par
ty,whi
l
ethesecondones,whi
char
esai
d
t
o be ei
ther absol
utoi
res or at
tenant
es
accor
dingt
othei
ref
fectont
hepenal
ty,ar
e
si
mil
ar t
o t
he ci
rcumst
ances wi
th t
he
Et
hiopi
an Code r
egar
ds as gener
al or
ext
enuat
ing ci
rcumst
ances. I
n ot
her
j
uri
sdi
cti
ons,act
sor
der
edoraut
hor
izedby
l
aw,
act
sdonei
nst
ateofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense
andnecessar
yact
sal
lfal
lint
othegener
al
cat
egor
yofl
awf
ulact
s(e.
g.Swi
ss)
.Some
l
aws,t
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hef
actt
hatt
her
e
i
sforal
lpr
act
icalpur
posesl
i
ttl
edi
ff
erences
 118

bet
weenl
awf
ulandj
ust
if
iabl
eact
ssi
ncet
he
doeri
snotpuni
shedbecauset
hel
aw i
tsel
f
depr
ives t
he act
,int
he one case,ofi
ts
unl
awf
ulchar
act
erand,i
ntheot
her
,ofi
ts
puni
shabl
echar
act
er,donotev
enat
tempt
anycl
assi
fi
cat
ion,anddealwi
thbot
hty
pes
ofact
s underheadi
ngs such as “
gener
al
except
ions”
, “
excuses” or “
aff
ir
mat
ive
def
enses”
.(Phi
l
li
pGr
aven)

TheEt
hiopi
anCodedoesnotf
oll
ow anyof
t
heabov
e-ment
ionedmodel
sbutpr
ovi
des
f
ort
hreecl
assesofact
swi
thr
espectt
o
whi
cht
heor
dinar
yrul
esconcer
ningcr
imi
nal
gui
l
tdo notappl
yorf
ull
yappl
y,namel
y
l
awf
ulact
s(act
s done i
n ci
rcumst
ances
whi
chl
egi
ti
mat
ethem)
,just
if
iabl
eact
s(act
s
donei
nci
rcumst
ancesexcl
udi
ngi
ntent
ional
 119

gui
l
t)and excusabl
e act
s(act
s done i
n
ci
rcumst
ancesr
educi
ngt
hedegr
eeofgui
l
t).

Whet
her t
his cl
assi
fi
cat
ion i
s f
ull
y
sat
isf
act
ory
,isamat
terofopi
nion.Gr
aven
ar
guedt
hatl
awf
ulact
sshoul
dnotbedeal
t
wi
thi
ntheChapt
eroft
heCodeconcer
ning
cr
imi
nalgui
l
t,ast
heydo noti
nvol
veany
quest
ionofgui
l
t.Sot
oo,i
nasmuchasone
i
s aut
hor
ized by l
aw t
orepelunl
awf
ul
at
tacks,i
tmay seem t
hatact
s done i
n
l
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense shoul
d r
ank among
l
awf
ulact
sandnotj
ust
if
iabl
eact
s.

1.
1.Lawf
ulAct
s

Al
awf
ulacti
sanact
,whi
chaper
soni
s
l
egal
l
y aut
hor
ized t
o do.Ev
en i
n some
 120

ci
rcumst
ancest
hel
aw pr
ovi
desmor
ethan
aut
hor
izat
ion and obl
i
ges a per
son t
o
behav
eincont
radi
cti
ont
othel
aw.Because
oft
heexi
stenceoft
hel
egalr
ightordut
yto
act
,the act
,whi
ch woul
d ot
her
wise be
cr
imi
nal
,isal
egi
ti
mat
eonef
orwhi
cht
he
doeri
s notpuni
shabl
e.The def
ense of
l
awf
ulact
sther
efor
epr
ovi
desacount
er-
law
t
othepr
ohi
bit
oryl
aw.Thepr
ohi
bit
oryl
aw
say
s:y
oumustnotki
l
l.Butt
hecount
er-
law
say
s:I
fyouar
easol
dieri
nacombat
,you
mustki
l
l.Thi
sdef
ensehowev
eri
sdi
ff
erent
f
rom t
heci
rcumst
anceswher
eapar
ti
cul
ar
cr
imi
nalacti
sdecl
aredbyl
aw nott
o be
puni
shabl
e(e.
g.Ar
ts.
28/
1,secondal
i
ena,
29,
secondpar
agr
aph,
etc.
)Int
hesel
att
ercases
t
he act
s ar
e notpuni
shabl
eforr
easons
ot
hert
hanor
der
edorper
mit
tedbyl
aw.
 121

On t
he ot
herhand,t
he av
ail
abi
l
ityoft
he
def
ensei
scondi
ti
onedupont
hef
ulf
il
lment
oft
wocondi
ti
ons.Fi
rst
ly,onecannotcl
aim
pr
otect
ionundert
hedef
enseunl
esshe/
she
i
sonewhohasacqui
redt
hest
atusr
equi
red
i
nthel
aw.Fori
nst
ance,howev
ert
heper
son
i
s someone sent
enced t
o deat
hfort
he
at
roci
ous cr
ime he has commi
tt
ed,onl
y
empl
oyeeoft
hepr
isonadmi
nist
rat
ionand
per
hapspar
ti
cul
arl
ywhohasbeenassi
gned
t
odot
hej
obcant
akeact
ionagai
nstt
he
sent
encedt
oenf
orcet
heor
deroft
hecour
t.
Ther
efor
e,i
faper
sonot
hert
hant
heone
ment
ionedabov
etakesact
ionandki
l
lthe
sent
encedof
fender
,hi
sactwoul
damountt
o
anor
dinar
ycr
imeofmur
der
.Thesamei
s
t
ruei
fsomeone,ot
hert
hanapol
i
ceof
fi
cer
 122

whor
est
rai
nthel
i
ber
tyofanot
her
.Secondl
y,
t
hemer
efactofhav
ingt
hest
atusenv
isaged
i
nal
awdoesnotent
it
let
heper
sont
oacti
n
cont
radi
cti
ont
othepr
ohi
bit
oryl
aw.I
nst
ead
t
he obj
ect
ive ci
rcumst
ances t
hat
necessi
tat
etheact
ioni
nquest
ionmustbe
pr
esent
.Ther
efor
e,despi
tet
hef
actt
hatt
he
doeri
soneenv
isagedi
nthel
aw,hi
sact
woul
dremai
napuni
shabl
ecr
imesol
ongas
i
tiscommi
tt
edi
ntheabsenceofobj
ect
ive
ci
rcumst
ancest
henecessi
tat
etheact
.

Act
sRequi
redorAut
hor
izedbyLaw:Ar
t.
68
Under Ar
t.
68 of t
he Cr
imi
nal Code of
Et
hiopi
a,l
awf
ulact
scompr
iseofpar
ti
cul
ar
act
sconnect
edwi
th:
A. Publ
i
c,st
ateormi
l
itar
ydut
ies,
B.Act
sdonei
ntheexer
ciseofar
ightof
 123

cor
rect
ionordi
sci
pli
ne,
and
C.Act
sofpr
ivat
ejust
ice.
Her
eiti
swor
thnot
ingt
hatt
hel
i
stofl
awf
ul
act
ssetundert
hispr
ovi
sioni
snotmeantt
o
be exhaust
ive. Taki
ng t
he t
erm “
in
par
ti
cul
ar”att
heopeni
ngoft
hepr
ovi
si
on
i
nto account
,we may say t
hatt
he act
s
expr
essl
yst
atedar
eonl
yil
l
ust
rat
ions.What
i
simpor
tanti
swhet
hert
heseandanyot
her
act
sar
edonebyaper
sonwhohasal
egal
obl
i
gat
ionorper
missi
ont
oactandwhet
her
t
heact
sar
edoneaccor
dingt
othet
ermsof
t
hisl
egalobl
i
gat
ion or per
missi
on.The
r
eason behi
nd t
he l
aw i
s t
hat t
he
enf
orcementoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heCode
i
tsel
fcal
l
sforact
ionst
hatcont
radi
cti
tsel
f.
Cr
imi
nalsanct
ionst
hatr
equi
rei
mposi
ti
onof
penal
ty r
est
rai
ning l
i
ber
ty,f
or i
nst
ance
 124

cannotbemat
eri
ali
zedwi
thoutaut
hor
izi
ng
someonet
otakeact
ionwi
tht
heef
fectof
r
est
rai
nonl
i
ber
ty.

A.Act
sRel
ati
ngt
oPubl
ic,St
ateorMi
li
tar
y
Dut
ies:
The def
ense i
s nowher
e appl
i
ed mor
e
appr
opr
iat
elyt
hani
nconj
unct
ion wi
tht
he
def
enseofpubl
i
cdut
y.Fur
ther
mor
eal
egal
obl
i
gat
ion or per
missi
on t
o do an act
connect
edwi
thpubl
i
cdut
iesi
sacompl
ete
j
ust
if
icat
ion when t
he doercompl
i
eswi
th
t
hel
egalr
equi
rement
sgov
erni
ngt
hedoi
ng
oft
hisact
.Howev
er,t
heAr
t.
68i
ssi
l
entas
t
owhatconst
it
utes“
act
sinr
espectt
opubl
i
c
dut
ies”
.But
,ifonecompar
esi
twi
th‘
Stat
e
dut
y’,whi
chi
smor
especi
fi
candr
equi
ret
he
cl
aimantt
opossessanof
fi
ci
alst
atusorbe
 125

v
est
edwi
thsomeki
ndofsomepower
,it
appear
sthedef
ensei
sav
ail
abl
etoany
one
who does,i
n accor
dance wi
tht
he l
aw,
somet
hingf
ort
hepubl
i
cgood.Fori
nst
ance,
any pr
ivat
e per
son who ar
rest
s or
par
ti
cipat
es i
nthe ar
restofan of
fender
must be pr
otect
ed under t
his def
ense
becauset
heacthedoesper
tai
nst
opubl
i
c
dut
iessol
ongasdoneont
hecondi
ti
onsl
aid
down i
n t
he Cr
imi
nal Pr
ocedur
e Code,
Ar
ts.
50and57.I
nbot
hcasest
heper
son
shal
lnotbepuni
shedf
oranof
fenceunder
Ar
t.
585oft
heCr
imi
nalCodesi
nce,
alt
hough
t
he per
son i
nter
fer
es wi
tht
he l
i
ber
ty of
anot
her
,thei
nter
fer
encei
snotcont
rar
yto
t
hel
awasi
srequi
redbyt
hel
att
erpr
ovi
si
ons.
A pr
ivat
e per
son, howev
er, woul
d be
puni
shedf
orcommi
tt
inganof
fensehashe
 126

ar
rest
ed wi
thouta war
rantsomeonewho
has commi
tt
ed a f
lagr
ant of
fense
puni
shabl
e wi
th si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnot
exceedi
ngt
hreemont
hsf
ort
hatwoul
dbe
bey
ondt
hel
egal
l
yper
mit
tedboundar
yfor
pr
ivat
eper
son’
sact
ion(
art
.50)
.Si
mil
arl
y,t
he
pr
ivat
e per
son woul
d be hel
d cr
imi
nal
l
y
l
i
abl
eifhest
ri
kest
heper
sonhehasl
awf
ull
y
ar
rest
edi
ntheabsenceofanyr
esi
stance
f
rom t
hear
rest
eef
ort
hatwoul
dbebey
ond
t
hel
egalboundar
ysetunderAr
t.
56(
4)of
t
he Cr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
e Code. One al
so
f
indst
hesamet
ypeofexcept
ionst
othe
cr
imi
nall
aw i
n number
less cases i
nthe
Cr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
eCodei
ncl
udi
ngt
heact
s
ofcr
imei
nfor
mer
sandwi
tnesses.

Thedef
enseofSt
ateormi
l
itar
ydut
ieson
 127

t
heot
herhandi
sav
ail
abl
ewhent
hedoer
s
possess an of
fi
cialst
atus,ei
therci
vi
lor
mi
l
itar
y,andacti
ndi
schar
geoft
hei
rdut
y.
Act
sofapubl
i
cser
vantoramemberoft
he
ar
medf
orcesar
ether
efor
edonotconst
it
ute
anof
fenseandar
enotpuni
shabl
esol
ong
ast
heyar
edonei
naccor
dancet
het
ermsof
t
he r
elev
ant l
aw. Thus, a pol
i
ceman
sear
chi
ngahouse,
apr
osecut
orchar
gingan
of
fender
,aj
udgeor
der
ingt
heaccusedt
obe
kept i
n cust
ody
, a pr
ison empl
oyee
execut
ingdeat
hpenal
tyandasol
dierki
l
li
ng
anenemyar
enotcommi
tt
ingcr
imeandar
e
notl
i
abl
etoanyki
ndofpuni
shmentasl
ong
ast
heydi
schar
gedt
hei
rrespect
ivedut
ies
accor
ding t
othe t
erms oft
he Cr
imi
nal
Pr
ocedur
eCodeandt
hel
awsofwar
.
 128

B.Ri
ghtofCor
rect
ionorDi
sci
pli
ne:
Ther
ear
esomeki
ndsofmeasur
est
hatcan
bepossi
blyadmi
nist
eredf
ort
hepur
poseof
cor
rect
ionordi
sci
pli
nebuti
nev
itabl
yresul
t
i
nsomehar
mtot
hei
ndi
vi
dualsubj
ect
edt
o
suchmeasur
es.I
tisnotal
souncommont
o
f
indl
egalpr
ovi
sionst
hatv
estt
hepowerof
admi
nist
eri
ng cor
rect
ionalor di
sci
pli
nar
y
measur
esonsome.Suchi
sthecase,f
or
i
nst
ance,Ar
t.
2039(
c) of t
he Ci
vi
l Code
i
mpl
i
edl
yaut
hor
izi
ngt
hepar
ent
s,guar
dians
andmast
erst
ouser
easonabl
euseoff
orce
f
or t
he pur
poses of chast
isement
.
Accor
dingl
y,Ar
t.
576/
3oft
heCr
imi
nalCode
deal
i
ng wi
th mal
tr
eat
ment of mi
nor
s
expr
essl
yli
mit
sther
ightofcor
rect
ion or
di
sci
pli
ne.Thus,t
her
eshal
lbenocr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ityagai
nstt
hosel
egal
l
yaut
hor
izedf
or
 129

t
hei
ract
s unl
ess t
heyhav
e gone bey
ond
l
egall
i
mit
,namel
yther
easonabl
enessoft
he
act
ionv
isavi
stheser
iousnessoft
hef
aul
t
soughtt
obecor
rect
ed.

C.Exer
cisi
ngPr
ivat
eRi
ght
s:
The l
ast t
ype of l
awf
ulact
s expr
essl
y
pr
ovi
dedundert
hisdef
ensei
sthatofact
s
donei
nexer
cisi
ngpr
ivat
eri
ght
srecogni
zed
byl
aw,
theact
sthatar
esomet
imesr
efer
red
t
oact
sofpr
ivat
ejust
ice.Thus,Ar
ts.
1148
and2076(
2)ar
ejustsomepr
ovi
si
onsoft
he
Ci
vi
lCodet
hatj
ust
if
ythepr
otect
iveact
ions
ofahol
derofat
hingandapossessorofa
l
andhowev
ert
hei
ract
ionmaycausehar
m
t
o ot
her
s.I
n bot
h cases,t
hedoeri
snot
gui
l
ty ofan of
fense ofbodi
l
yinj
ury or
damaget
opr
oper
ty,si
ncet
hel
awexpr
essl
y
 130

aut
hor
izeshi
mtoactashedoes.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Expl
ain t
he gener
al meani
ng and
essenceofaf
fi
rmat
ivedef
enses
2.
Expl
ainandj
ust
if
ythecl
assi
fi
cat
ionof
af
fi
rmat
ive def
enses bet
ween l
awf
ul,
j
ust
if
iabl
e,excusabl
e
3.
Whatshoul
dbet
heappr
opr
iat
eti
mei
n
t
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocesst
oappl
yaf
fi
rmat
ive
def
enses?
4.
Stat
ether
easonswhyl
awf
ulact
sar
e
notpuni
shabl
e.
5.
Expl
aint
he subj
ect
ive and obj
ect
ive
r
equi
rement
soft
hedef
enseofl
awf
ul
act
s.
6.
Dist
ingui
sh t
he di
ff
erence bet
ween
‘
Stat
edut
y’and‘
publ
i
cdut
y’
 131

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng!
Shoul
dlawf
ulact
sandact
sdonei
nast
ate
ofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensef
alli
ntheChapt
erof
t
heCodet
hatdeal
swi
thgui
l
t?

Br
ainSt
ormi
ng!
“
Thel
aw i
tsel
fpr
ovi
desacount
er-
law t
o
t
hepr
ohi
bit
oryl
aw”
.Di
scuss.

1.
2Pr
ofessi
onalDut
y:Ar
t.69

Cer
tai
n soci
all
y benef
ici
al pr
ofessi
onal
dut
ies can onl
y be di
schar
ged i
n
cont
rav
ent
iont
owhati
spr
ohi
bit
edbyl
aw.I
n
 132

t
heabsenceper
missi
onbyl
awt
ocont
radi
ct
i
tsel
fanyactdonei
ntheex
erci
seofsuch
pr
ofessi
onal dut
ies woul
d t
hus r
emai
n
cr
imi
nalandpuni
shabl
e.Accor
dingl
yther
e
coul
dhav
ebeennoonewi
l
li
ngt
oacqui
re
suchpr
ofessi
onst
othedi
sadv
ant
ageofno
oneel
sebutt
hepubl
i
c.

Act
sdonei
ntheexer
ciseofapr
ofessi
onal
dut
ycomewi
thi
nthegener
alcat
egor
yof
act
saut
hor
izedbyl
aw.I
nfact
,thedef
ense
ser
vesaspeci
fi
cpur
poseofensur
ingt
he
excl
usi
onofcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityf
oract
sdone
under cer
tai
nlegal
l
ytai
l
ored condi
ti
ons
whi
l
e exer
cisi
ng pr
ofessi
onal dut
ies.
Ot
her
wise,l
egal
l
yspeaki
ng,anactdone,f
or
exampl
e by sur
geon i
n hi
s pr
ofessi
onal
capaci
tyi
soft
hesamenat
ureandhast
he
 133

sameef
fectasanactdone,f
orexampl
eby
apubl
i
cser
vanti
nhi
sof
fi
ci
alcapaci
ty.I
n
bot
hcasest
hel
awbutnott
hest
atusort
he
dut
yoft
hedoert
hatgi
vesar
ightt
oact
.In
ot
herwor
ds,t
hel
aw,whi
chaut
hor
izest
he
exer
ciseofcer
tai
npr
ofessi
onsunderwhi
ch
speci
fi
cact
ivi
ti
esar
etobecar
ri
edoutby
cer
tai
nper
sons,woul
dnotcont
radi
cti
tsel
f
by maki
ng t
he same actunl
awf
ulact
s,
whi
char
epr
oper
lydonebyt
heseper
sonsi
n
t
heexer
ciseoft
hei
rpr
ofessi
on.

1.
2.1.Def
ini
ng‘
Prof
essi
on’
:

Al
thoughAr
t.
69appl
i
est
oonl
yspeci
fi
cal
l
y
ment
ionedcl
assofpeopl
e,‘
prof
essi
onal
s’
,
t
ermi
sdef
inednowher
eint
heCodet
he.But
t
her
ear
esomesuggest
ionsf
ori
ttoi
ncl
ude
 134

“
anyv
ocat
ionorcal
l
ingi
nwhi
chaper
son
pr
ofessest
oexer
cisel
ear
ning,
ski
l
lorar
t”.I
t
al
sor
efert
o“anyact
ivi
tywhi
chaper
son
habi
tual
l
ycar
ri
esoutf
ort
hepur
posesof
obt
aini
ng t
he r
esour
ces necessar
yto hi
s
l
i
vel
i
hood”
.It seems i
rr
elev
ant f
or t
he
pur
posesofAr
t.
69whet
hert
hisact
ivi
tyi
s
exer
cisedbyv
irt
ueoft
hel
aworacont
ract
.
On t
he ot
herhand,r
emuner
ati
on seems
i
mpor
tant t
o det
ermi
ne whet
her t
he
pr
ofessi
onar
ecogni
zedone.I
tseems,f
or
i
nst
ance,t
hel
aw doesnotal
l
ow per
sons
i
nfr
inget
hel
aw whi
l
eact
ingi
nseeki
ngof
pl
easur
e. Howev
er, i
t seems t
hat
r
emuner
ati
on,what
everi
tsf
orm,shoul
dnot
ber
egar
dedasaconcl
usi
vet
esti
ndeci
ding
whet
heraper
soncar
ri
esoutapr
ofessi
on
wi
thi
n t
he meani
ng of t
he pr
ovi
si
on.
 135

Somet
imes i
tisi
rr
elev
ant whet
her t
he
per
sonact
ingi
sremuner
atedasl
ongashe
i
srecogni
zedassomeonecapabl
eofdoi
ng
t
hingsmor
eef
fi
cient
lyandaccur
atel
ythan
or
dinar
yper
sons.

Ar
elat
edquest
ioni
sthatwhet
heranacti
s
donel
awf
ulunderAr
t.
69whenev
eri
tisdone
byaper
sonnotent
it
ledbyl
aw t
oper
for
m
t
he actal
l
egedl
ydone i
n di
schar
ge ofa
pr
ofessi
onaldut
y.Obv
iousl
yiti
snot
.Onl
ya
per
sonent
it
ledt
opr
act
iceapr
ofessi
oni
s
exempt
edf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.Thus,i
fan
ey
e-doct
orshoul
d cause t
he deat
h ofa
per
son i
n at
tempt
ing t
o r
emov
e t
he
appendi
xoft
hisper
son,hecoul
dobv
iousl
y
notbedeemedt
ohav
eact
edi
ntheexer
cise
ofhi
spr
ofessi
on,andwoul
dther
efor
enot
 136

j
ust
if
ied under Ar
t.
69.Si
mil
arl
y onl
y an
adv
ocat
efi
l
li
ngapet
it
ionf
ordi
vor
ceont
he
gr
ound of adul
ter
y does not commi
t
def
amat
ion;onl
yasur
geonper
for
mingan
oper
ati
ondoesnotcommi
tanof
fenceof
bodi
l
y i
njur
y and onl
y a mechani
c
di
smant
li
ngacarent
rust
edt
ohi
mforr
epai
r
maynotbepuni
shedf
ordamaget
opr
oper
ty.
I
nal
ltheabov
ecases,onl
yaper
sonwho
acqui
redt
her
equi
redpr
ofessi
oni
sal
l
owed
i
nthel
awt
oper
for
mtheact
s.

1.
2.2.Just
if
icat
ionf
oraHar
m Causedby
a Per
son i
ntheExer
ciseofPr
ofessi
onal
Dut
y:

Whenev
er a per
son i
s exempt
ed f
rom
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityf
ort
heact
shehasdonei
n
 137

di
schar
ge of hi
s pr
ofessi
onaldut
y,t
he
j
ust
if
icat
ionsi
snott
hef
actt
hatt
hedoer
car
ri
esoutapr
ofessi
onaldut
y;i
tisr
ather
t
hef
actt
hatt
heacti
sor
der
edbyl
aw.I
fit
wer
enotduet
othel
aw,t
hedoerwoul
d
r
emai
n cr
imi
nal
l
yli
abl
eregar
dless oft
he
f
actt
hatt
heacti
snecessar
yincar
ryi
ngout
hi
spr
ofessi
on. Fori
nst
ance,i
fadoct
or
t
ermi
nat
esapr
egnancyonmedi
calgr
ound
andr
epor
tthatt
other
ightaut
hor
it
y,ashei
s
r
equi
red t
o so by l
aw,he woul
d notbe
puni
shedf
orbr
eachofpr
ofessi
onalsecr
ecy
.
The l
aw t
hat r
equi
red r
epor
ti
ng l
awf
ul
t
ermi
nat
ion ofpr
egnancyi
sther
efor
ethe
sour
ce ofj
ust
if
icat
ion f
ort
he actoft
he
doct
or.I
fithasnotbeenf
ort
hel
aw,t
he
doct
or’
sactofr
epor
ti
ngwoul
dtant
amount
t
o br
each ofpr
ofessi
onalsecr
ecyand i
s
 138

t
huscr
imi
nal
l
ypuni
shabl
e.Thesamei
str
ue
when a pr
ofessi
onalper
son i
sobl
i
ged t
o
gi
vei
nfor
mat
ion,whi
chanor
dinar
yper
son
i
snotobl
i
gedt
ogi
ve.

I
nal
ltheabov
ecases,howev
er,t
heacti
s
j
ust
if
iedonl
yont
hecondi
ti
ont
hati
tisdone
“
wit
hint
hel
i
mit
sper
mit
tedbyl
aw”
.Thus,
t
hel
awnotonl
yaut
hor
izessomeact
stobe
donei
ntheexer
ciseofsomepr
ofessi
ons
butal
so pr
escr
ibe t
he condi
ti
ons under
whi
ch t
he aut
hor
izat
ion i
sval
i
d.Anyact
,
t
hough may be r
equi
red under t
he
pr
ofessi
oni
sther
efor
enotj
ust
if
iedunl
essi
t
i
sdoneonl
ywi
thi
nthel
egal
boundar
ysetf
or
suchact
sinl
egi
slat
ionsper
tai
ningt
oeach
act
.Int
hisr
espect
,ev
ent
heconsentoft
he
per
sont
owhom har
misdonemaynotbe
 139

r
egar
dedast
hesour
ceofj
ust
if
icat
ion.For
i
nst
ance,al
thoughaper
sonwhosubmi
tst
o
asur
gicaloper
ati
onagr
eest
othei
njur
y,t
he
r
easonwhyt
hei
njur
yisnotunl
awf
uli
snot
somucht
hatt
hisper
songi
veshi
sconsent
t
othe oper
ati
on as t
he f
act t
hat l
aw
aut
hor
izes t
he oper
ati
on. I
n f
act
,the
sur
geonmustf
ir
stobt
aint
heconsentoft
he
pat
ientt
oexer
cisehi
spr
ofessi
onaldut
y.A
doct
ori
sther
efor
epuni
shabl
eforabor
ti
on
when,wi
thoutt
heconsentoft
hewoman,
he/
she t
ermi
nat
es a pr
egnancy
. The
pr
esenceofgr
oundsl
aiddownbyl
aw may
notnecessar
il
yadequat
etoj
ust
if
yhi
sact
under t
his pr
ovi
sion. Thi
s shows t
he
exi
sti
ngofcl
oser
elat
ionexi
sti
ngbet
ween
t
hequest
ionoft
her
ightt
oactandoft
he
manner i
n whi
ch t
he r
ight shoul
d be
 140

exer
cised.

1.
2.3Condi
ti
onswher
ePr
ofessi
onalDut
yis
notJust
if
ied:

The per
missi
on t
o pr
act
ice a pr
ofessi
on
doesnotr
enderl
awf
ulany
thi
ngt
hatmaybe
done i
nthe exer
cise oft
his pr
ofessi
on.
Ar
t.
69appl
i
esonl
ywhent
hedoeract
sin
accor
dancewi
tht
heaccept
edpr
act
iceof
t
hepr
ofessi
on anddoesnotcommi
tany
gr
avepr
ofessi
onalf
aul
t.

I
n or
dert
o det
ermi
ne whet
hert
he f
ir
st
condi
ti
oni
sful
fi
ll
ed,r
efer
encewi
l
lhav
eto
bemadet
othepr
ofessi
onalr
egul
ati
ons,i
f
any
,ort
othe cust
om oft
he par
ti
cul
ar
pr
ofessi
on, whi
ch may be ascer
tai
ned
 141

t
hroughexper
tev
idence.Fori
nst
ance,i
tis
notnor
malsur
gicalpr
act
icei
fa sur
geon
usesaki
tchenkni
fei
nremov
ingsomeone’
s
appendi
x.

Thedoerwhoact
sinaccor
dancewi
tht
he
pr
act
iceoft
hepr
ofessi
onont
heot
herhand
mustnotcommi
tanygr
ave pr
ofessi
onal
f
aul
t.Thus,asur
geoncommi
tssuchaf
aul
t
when,af
terski
l
lful
l
yremov
ing a per
son’
s
appendi
x,hel
eav
eshi
sinst
rument
sint
he
pat
ient
’sbody
.Ift
hisomi
ssi
oncausest
he
pat
ient
’s deat
h,t
he sur
geon i
s gui
l
ty of
homi
cidebynegl
i
genceev
ent
houghhehas
doneal
awf
ulactwhen oper
ati
ng on t
he
pat
ient
.Whet
hera pr
ofessi
onalf
aul
thas
been commi
tt
ed i
n a gi
ven case,and
whet
heri
tis gr
ave one ornoti
sto be
 142

deci
dedi
nthesamemannerasi
nthef
ir
st
condi
ti
on.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Ist
her
e any di
sti
nct
ion bet
ween t
he
j
ust
if
icat
ionsbehi
nd Ar
t.
68 and 69?I
f
not
,whati
sthepur
posef
orAr
t.
69t
o
st
and-
alone?
2.
“Aper
sonwhoi
sjust
if
iedunderAr
t.
69i
s
notasamat
terofr
ighti
mmuneofci
vi
l
l
i
abi
l
ity
”.Di
scuss.
3.
Stat
ethecondi
ti
onswher
epr
ofessi
onal
dut
yisnotj
ust
if
ied.
4.
Whatamount
sto‘
grav
e pr
ofessi
onal
f
aul
t’
?

CasePr
obl
em 1:
Dr
.Dani
elwhi
l
epr
epar
ing ami
xtur
eofa
 143

medi
cinet
obegi
vent
ohi
spat
ient
,tookout
acer
tai
nmedi
cinef
rom abot
tl
e.Thel
abel
ont
hebot
tl
ewasl
i
ttl
ebi
ttor
noutmaki
ng
t
henameoft
hemedi
cinenotcompl
etel
y
v
isi
ble.Thedoct
or,nev
ert
hel
ess,pr
oceeded
t
opr
epar
ethemedi
cinewi
thoutmaki
ngany
ext
ra ef
for
tto conf
ir
m t
he name oft
he
medi
cine.Themi
xtur
ewasadmi
nist
eredt
o
ei
ghtpat
ient
ssuf
fer
ingf
rom hi
ghf
everout
ofwhi
chsev
endi
ed.
Di
scusst
hel
i
abi
l
ityoft
hedoct
orf
orcausi
ng
deat
hoft
hosesev
enpat
ient
s,r
efer
ri
ngt
o
t
her
elev
antpr
inci
plesandpr
ovi
si
onsofl
aw.

CasePr
obl
em 2:
I
yasuBi
rhanui
saphot
ogr
apherandhe
ownsaphot
ost
udi
otoo.Hi
swi
fewas
 144

suf
fer
ingwi
thcancer
.Hebr
oughther
medi
cinesandkeptt
hem i
nashel
fwher
e
someot
herbot
tl
escont
aini
ngpoi
sonous
sol
uti
onsusedf
orphot
ogr
aphybusi
ness
wer
eal
sokept
.Inast
ateofdr
unkenness,
bef
oregoi
ngt
obed,
Iyasugav
ehi
sai
l
ing
wi
fet
hepoi
sonoussol
uti
onasar
esul
tof
whi
chshedi
ed.
I
yasuhasbeenchar
gedf
orcausi
ngt
he
deat
hofhi
swi
fe.Di
scusshi
sli
abi
l
ity
r
efer
ri
ngt
other
elev
antpr
ovi
si
onsof
Cr
imi
nal
Code.

Di
sti
ngui
sht
hiscasef
rom casenumber1.

2.
3ConsentAsaDef
ence:Ar
t.70
 145

Thi
s pr
ovi
sion i
sinser
ted byt
he Rev
ised
Cr
imi
nalCode.The pr
evi
ous PenalCode
underi
tsAr
ty66cat
egor
ical
l
yst
atedt
hat
consenti
snodef
encef
orcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.
Buti
nfactt
hatwas a t
echni
cal
l
ywr
ong
st
atementsi
ncet
her
ear
ecr
imessuchas
r
ape,
thef
tet
c.f
orwhi
ch‘
l
ackofconsent
’is
anessent
ialel
ementoft
hecr
ime.Consent
nul
l
ifi
est
hesecr
imes.Notonl
ythat
,incases
ofi
njur
iescauseddur
ingspor
tswi
thoutf
oul
pl
ayt
her
eani
mpl
i
edconsentoft
hev
ict
im
whi
l
evol
unt
ari
l
ypar
ti
cipat
ingi
nthegame.
Ther
efor
e,i
tisr
ightt
osayt
hatconsenti
sa
qual
i
fiedi
mmuni
tyt
ocr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
.

Ar
t.70say
sthatconsentcanbeadef
ence
f
orcaseswhi
char
epuni
shabl
euponf
il
ing
ofaf
ormalcompl
aint
.Insuchcasesi
fthe
 146

consenthasbeengi
vebyei
thert
hev
ict
im
hi
msel
f or hi
s l
egal r
epr
esent
ati
ve t
he
per
soncausi
ngt
hei
njur
yisnotl
i
abl
efor
penal
ty.

 Li
mit
ati
on t
o Consentas a Def
ence:Ar
t
70/
2pl
acesani
mpor
tantl
i
mit
ati
ont
othi
s
def
ence.Consent
ingt
odonat
eanyofhi
s
bodi
l
ypar
tswhi
l
eal
i
veoraf
terhi
sdeat
hor
hi
sbodyaf
terhi
sdeat
hforanycommer
cial
pur
posesi
sabsol
utel
ypr
ohi
bit
ed.Thi
sisa
puni
shabl
ecr
imeunderAr
t573.Aper
soni
s
f
reet
odonat
eanyoft
heabov
esai
dthi
ngs
t
oanot
herper
sonf
roper
sonaluseort
oa
j
uri
dicalper
son f
orappr
opr
iat
e sci
ent
if
ic
r
esear
chorexper
iment
,ther
eci
pientshal
l
notbepuni
shabl
ewi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t
70/
2.Howev
er,
ifsuchat
ransact
ioni
sdone
 147

wi
thcommer
cialmot
ivebot
hthedonorand
t
heper
sonwhot
akest
hebodi
l
yor
ganf
rom
hi
s body i
.e.
, sur
geon ar
e l
i
abl
e t
o
puni
shmentunderAr
t.573 sub-
art
icl
e(1)
and(
2)r
espect
ivel
y.
CasePr
obl
em:
Adensuf
fer
edf
rom i
ncur
abl
edi
sease.Ther
e
wasnohospi
tal
thatwasnotv
isi
tedbyAden.
Thus,Adenhasnohopeofr
ecov
eryf
rom
hi
sil
l
ness.Adenl
i
vedonl
ytosuf
ferf
rom hi
s
i
ncur
abl
eil
l
ness. Fi
nal
l
y,Adendeci
dedt
o
di
e.Hebeggedhi
sint
imat
efr
iend,Bi
shar
whoi
sadoct
ort
oki
l
lhi
m,bygi
vi
nghi
m
somemedi
cinet
hatcant
akeawayhi
sli
fe
pai
nlessl
y.Af
tersl
ow butst
rongar
gument
bet
weenAdenandBi
shar
,Adenper
suaded
Bi
shar
.Bi
sharki
l
ledAdenbyadmi
nist
eri
nga
poi
sonousi
nject
ion.Aden’
sfami
l
ycamet
o
 148

know aboutt
he f
actt
hati
twas by t
he
i
nter
fer
enceofhi
sdoct
orf
ri
endt
hatAden
di
ed.
Bi
shari
s char
ged wi
th mur
derofAden.
Deci
det
hecase.
1.Can ‘
consent
’oft
hev
ict
im bea v
ali
d
def
encei
nthi
scase?Di
scusst
hepr
inci
ples
r
elat
ingt
othedef
enceofconsentunderAr
t.
70oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.
2.Whatshoul
dbet
her
ightchar
geagai
nst
Bi
shar
?

1.
4.Coer
cion/
Dur
ess:Ar
ts.71&72

Gener
all
ylaw,andi
npar
ti
cul
arcr
imi
nall
aw
i
sal
way
sexpect
edt
oat
temptr
egul
ati
ngt
he
behav
ior
sofonl
yanav
erageper
son.The
 149

l
aw shal
lexpectnei
therex
treme her
oism
f
rom i
ndi
vi
dual
snorencour
agecowar
dice.I
t
shal
lgi
veduenot
iceofanav
erageper
son
t
he cr
imi
nalbehav
ior
stoget
herwi
tht
he
consequent
ialpenal
ti
es. Thi
s,howev
er,
doesnotmeangi
vi
ngnot
icei
saguar
ant
ee
f
or absol
ute compl
i
ance. I
tis al
most
unav
oidabl
efor t
her
eto be i
ndi
vi
dual
s
di
sregar
dingt
henot
iceandcommi
tt
ingt
he
cr
imesdef
ined byl
aw.Somedi
sregar
dit
wi
l
lful
l
yandot
her
scommi
titoutoft
hei
r
ownwi
l
l.Onecommonci
rcumst
ancewher
e
onedi
sregar
dst
hel
awoutofhi
sfr
eewi
l
lis
when he/
she i
s compel
l
ed byanot
hert
o
v
iol
atet
he l
aw. I
nthese si
tuat
ions t
he
cr
imi
nall
aw l
etst
hem gounpuni
shed.Thi
s
i
sfoundedont
hewel
l
- m act
knownmaxi us
mei
nvi
to(
fact
us)nonestmensact
us,i
.e.
 150

anactwhi
chi
sdonebymeagai
nstmywi
l
l
i
s not my act and hence I am not
r
esponsi
ble f
or i
t. (
GAUR) I
n such
ci
rcumst
ancesi
tmaybesai
dthatt
heact
or
act
ednotofhi
sorherownf
reewi
l
l.Thus,
t
he r
equi
rementoft
he r
equi
red v
olunt
ary
act
ion(
conduct
)isnott
her
e.

Al
lwhathasbeenst
atedabov
eref
erst
oone
t
ypeaf
fi
rmat
ivedef
ensecommonl
yknown
ast
hedef
enseof‘
dur
ess’or‘
coer
cion’
.The
def
enseofcoer
cioni
sther
efor
e,adef
ense
t
hat t
he act
or engaged i
nthe conduct
char
gedt
oconst
it
uteanof
fensebecausehe
i
scoer
cedt
odosobyt
heuseof
,orat
hreat
t
ouse,unl
awf
ulf
orceagai
nsthi
sper
sonor
t
heper
sonofanot
her
,whi
chaper
sonof
r
easonabl
efi
rmnessi
nhi
ssi
tuat
ionwoul
d
 151

hav
e been unabl
e t
o r
esi
st. The l
aw
r
ecogni
zest
hatwecannotbeexpect
edt
o
y
iel
dourl
i
ves,ourl
i
mbs,t
hesaf
etyofour
r
elat
ives,ourhouses,orourpr
oper
tywhen
conf
ront
edbyacr
imi
nalt
hreatt
hatf
orces
ust
ovi
olat
eal
aw.

Ther
eis,howev
er,a gener
alr
equi
rement
t
hatt
heev
ilt
hatt
hreat
enst
heact
orandt
he
ev
ilcr
eat
edbyt
heact
ornotbeoutoft
he
pr
opor
ti
on.Onei
sfori
nst
ancegener
all
ynot
j
ust
if
ied i
f he or she causes deat
hin
submi
tt
ing hi
msel
f/
her
sel
ffor a t
hreat
agai
nsthi
s/herpr
oper
ty.(
Adl
er,Mul
lerand
Lauf
er)I
n addi
ti
on,t
het
hreati
n or
dert
o
at
tractt
hebenef
itoft
hisdef
ensemustbe
ofi
nst
anthar
mtot
heper
soncompel
l
edt
o
commi
ttheof
fenseandwi
thoutr
easonabl
e
 152

possi
bil
i
tyf
orescape.Fur
ther
,theper
son
whosot
hreat
enedshoul
dnothav
epl
acedi
n
t
hatsi
tuat
ionofhi
sownaccor
d.Thi
smeans
t
hedef
enseofcoer
cioni
sdi
sal
l
owedi
fthe
def
endanti
ntent
ional
l
yorr
eckl
essl
ypl
aced
hi
m orher
sel
fin a si
tuat
ion subj
ectt
o
coer
cion.

Acoer
cedper
soni
sjust
if
iedf
ir
st,because
l
i
keani
nsaneper
sonori
ntoxi
cat
edper
son
he i
stot
all
y depr
ived ofhi
sfr
eedom of
choi
ceandt
her
efor
eequal
l
ydeser
vest
he
samet
reat
mentasl
ongast
hel
ossofwi
l
l
poweri
sinv
olunt
ary
.Al
soacoer
cedper
son
i
sjust
if
iedf
orhe/
shesomet
imesav
oida
gr
eat
erhar
m;sayhi
s/herl
i
fei
nexchangef
or
al
esserhar
m,say f
orced damage t
oa
pr
oper
tyofanot
her
.Absenceofanypur
pose
 153

t
opuni
shacoer
cedper
soni
sal
soanot
her
j
ust
if
icat
ion l
yi
ng behi
nd t
he def
ense of
coer
cion.Puni
shmentdoesdet
ernei
thert
he
coer
cedper
sonnoranypot
ent
ialv
ict
im of
coer
cion. Fi
nal
l
y,t
he di
sposi
ti
on of a
coer
cedper
soni
snott
hatofacr
imi
nalwho
wi
l
lful
l
yacti
ndi
sregar
doft
hel
aw.Thus,
puni
shi
ng a coer
ced per
son woul
d be
absol
utel
ycont
rar
ytot
hebasi
cpr
inci
pleof
cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice.(
TheDef
enseofConsent
,
Coer
cionandNecessi
tyundert
heCr
imi
nal
CodeofTheFeder
alDemocr
ati
cRepubl
ic
of Et
hiopi
a, by Dej
ene Gi
rma, Ji
ma
Uni
ver
sit
yJour
nalofLaw,
p.75)

 TheDef
enseofCoer
cionunderEt
hiopi
an
Law:
1.
4.1.Absol
uteCoer
cion:
 154

Br
oadl
yspeaki
ng,Ar
t.71l
i
ket
hatofAr
t.
32
deal
swi
thasi
tuat
ionwher
emor
ethanone
per
soni
nvol
vesi
nthecommi
ssi
onofcr
ime.
Howev
er,unl
i
ke t
he l
att
er pr
ovi
si
on t
he
def
enseofcoer
ciondeal
swi
thaquest
ionof
gui
l
t.I
t quest
ions,among ot
her t
hings,
whet
heri
nthecaseofabsol
utecoer
ciont
he
r
equi
red combi
nat
ion of awar
eness and
v
oli
ti
on,whi
char
ether
equi
rementofgui
l
t,
ar
eav
ail
abl
e.Cer
tai
nly
,aper
soncompel
l
ed
t
oacti
nvi
olat
ionoft
hel
aw knowst
hathe
doeswr
ong.But
,thecompul
si
ondepr
ives
hi
m ofhi
sfr
eedom ofchoi
ce.I
nthi
ssense,
hei
s“i
ncapabl
eatt
het
imeofhi
sactof
r
egul
ati
nghi
sconductaccor
dingt
ohi
s/her
under
standi
ng”
,fr
om apsy
chol
ogi
calpoi
nt
ofv
iew,i
tis st
ated,he i
sint
he same
 155

posi
ti
onasani
rr
esponsi
bleper
son.(
Phi
li
p
Gr
aven) Howev
er, under t
he Et
hiopi
an
Cr
imi
nal
Code,
coer
cioni
str
eat
edsepar
atel
y
f
rom i
nsani
tyi
ssuedi
scussedunderAr
t.
48
becauset
hebi
ologi
caldef
ect
,whi
chshoul
d
exi
stsot
hatAr
t.
48mayappl
y,i
smi
ssi
ng.

Regar
dingt
hedegr
eeofcoer
cionr
equi
redt
o
j
ust
if
ythewr
ongf
ulactofaper
sonunder
compul
sion,Ar
t.
71 r
equi
res t
hat t
o be
‘
absol
ute’
.Ther
efor
e,coer
cioni
snodef
ense
unl
ess i
tis absol
ute.Act
ual
l
ythe t
erm
‘
absol
ute’woul
dcr
eat
ethei
mpr
essi
ont
hat
t
her
e mustnotexi
st,any possi
bil
i
ty of
r
esi
stance.Howev
er,t
he t
ext of Ar
t.
71
i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hedef
ensei
sav
ail
abl
ewhen
t
heagentper
sonal
l dnotpossi
ycoul blyact
ot
her
wise t
han as he has done. The
 156

quest
ion whet
her r
esi
stance i
s possi
ble
shal
lbedeci
dedt
aki
ngbot
hobj
ect
iveand
subj
ect
ive f
act
ors i
nto account
. The
coer
cion t
her
efor
e need not amount t
o
absol
uteandbeofaki
ndagai
nstwhi
chno
r
esi
stance i
s possi
ble.Buti
tis equal
l
y
cer
tai
nthatacoer
cionsuchast
osubdue
onl
ya cowar
d woul
d notsuf
fi
ce f
ort
he
pur
poseoft
hisar
ti
cle.Bet
weent
heconduct
ofaher
oandt
hatofacowar
d,t
her
eist
he
conductofar
easonabl
emanwhi
ch,seems,
t
hat i
t shoul
d be t
aken i
nto account
.
Al
though,t
her
efor
e,r
egar
dmustaccor
ding
t
othi
sar
ti
clebehadt
otheper
sonal
posi
ti
on
oft
heagent
,thedef
enseofcoer
cionwi
l
lnot
oper
ate unl
ess a r
easonabl
e man
possessi
ng t
he same i
ndi
vi
dual
char
act
eri
sti
cs and pl
aced i
nthe same
 157

si
tuat
ion ast
heagentcoul
d notpossi
ble
hav
eresi
sted.

1.
4.2.Phy
sicalv
s.Mor
alCoer
cion:

Coer
cion underAr
t.
71 can be ofei
ther
phy
sicalor mor
al.Phy
sicalcoer
cion i
s
“
viol
ence exer
cised by someone i
n
consequence ofwhi
ch a human agenti
s
mat
eri
all
yobl
i
ged t
o commi
tan of
fence”
.
(
Grav
en,1965)Thi
sdef
ini
ti
oni
mpl
i
est
hat
t
hedef
enseofcoer
cioni
sav
ail
abl
ewhen
v
iol
enceorf
orcei
sused,whet
herf
ort
he
pur
poseofcompel
l
ingorpr
event
inganact
,
whi
chr
ender
stheagentphy
sical
l
yincapabl
e
ofact
ingot
her
wiset
hanashedoes.For
i
nst
ancewhen ‘
A’i
saboutt
o shootata
gazel
l
ebut‘
B’f
orcef
ull
ymakeshi
m ai
m and
 158

di
schar
gehi
sgunat‘
C’.I
nthi
scase‘
A’i
s
notgui
l
tyofhomi
cideashei
sphy
sical
l
y
coer
ced.Thesamei
str
uei
fMi
ss‘
A’who
wast
ryi
ngt
oassi
stapedest
ri
anwhom she
r
undowni
sfor
cibl
yev
ict
edf
rom t
hedr
iver
s
seatbyherpassenger
,‘B’t
huspr
event
ing
herf
rom hel
pingt
hepedest
ri
an.Shei
snot
gui
l
tyofanof
fenseunderAr
t.575.

Mor
al coer
cion on t
he ot
her hand i
s
exer
cisedwhenanacti
swhi
chdoesnot
r
endert
heagent
’smov
ement
sinv
olunt
aryi
s
done,butdepr
iveshi
m ofhi
sfr
eedom of
choi
ce.I
tisusual
l
yint
hef
orm oft
hreat
s
i
ntendedt
obr
eakt
hewi
l
lofaper
sonand
make hi
m y
iel
dtot
he demands oft
he
per
sonexer
cisi
ngt
hecoer
cion.I
ncaseof
mor
alcoer
cion,i
tisi
mmat
eri
alwhet
hert
he
 159

agenthi
msel
forsomeot
herper
soni
sbei
ng
t
hreat
ened,asar
eal
sot
hecont
ent
soft
he
t
hreat
.Inf
actt
heseel
ement
sar
erel
evantt
o
det
ermi
newhet
hert
hedegr
eeofcoer
cion
exer
cisedi
nagi
vencasei
sabsol
ute.

1.
4.3.Resi
sti
bleCoer
cion:

Resi
sti
blecoer
cion,wi
thwhi
chAr
t.
72deal
s
wi
thoutdi
sti
ngui
shi
ng whet
heri
tis ofa
phy
sicalormor
alnat
ure,i
sacoer
cionof
i
ntensi
tysucht
hatt
hecoer
cedper
soncoul
d
r
easonabl
ybeexpect
ed“
tor
esi
storav
oid
commi
tt
ingt
heact
”.I
not
herwor
ds,Ar
t.
72
i
sappl
i
cabl
ewhent
hecoer
cedper
son,by
r
eason ofhi
s st
rengt
h,age,orsex and
hav
ingr
egar
dtot
hest
rengt
h,ageorsexof
t
he per
son exer
cisi
ng t
he coer
cion, i
s
 160

capabl
eofr
esi
sti
ngt
hecoer
cion.Coer
cion
canber
esi
sti
blewheni
tisphy
sicalaswel
l
asmor
al.Acasei
sforexampl
ewhen‘
A’and
‘
B’,i
nanat
temptt
oescapef
rom pr
isont
ie
up‘
C’,awar
den.But
,‘C’wasabl
etount
ie
hi
msel
fandr
inganal
arm bel
lwhi
l
e‘A’and
‘
B’ar
eint
heactofescapi
ng.Hi
sfai
l
uret
o
t
ake t
he necessar
y measur
e under t
he
ci
rcumst
ance woul
d excuse hi
m butnot
j
ust
if
y hi
m. Anot
her case of r
esi
sti
ble
coer
cionwoul
dbewhen‘
A’dr
opshi
sgun
andst
art
slooki
ngf
ori
tint
hedar
kwhi
l
e
compel
l
ing ‘
B’atagun-
poi
ntt
o company
hi
mto‘
C’s’
housef
ort
hepur
poseoff
orci
ng
opent
hedoorof‘
C’s’
saf
e.B’
sfai
l
uret
ofl
ee
i
nfearoft
hepossi
bil
i
tyofr
epossessi
ngt
he
gunby‘
B’woul
donl
yexcusehi
m undert
his
ar
ti
cle.
 161

Whencoer
cioni
snoti
rr
esi
sti
ble,i
ntentas
anel
ementofcr
imi
nalgui
l
tispr
esentand
t
hecoer
ced per
son i
sanswer
abl
eforhi
s
act
s.Hence,accor
dingt
othi
sar
ti
cl
e,f
ir
st
al
i
ena,t
he doer i
s as a gener
al r
ule
puni
shabl
e.Howev
er,t
hef
actt
hatheact
s
undercoer
ciont
hati
srel
evantt
othesecond
al
i
ena,t
hepuni
shmentmayber
educedi
f
t
heact
ualandper
sonalci
rcumst
ancesof
t
hecasewar
rantmi
ti
gat
ion.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Expl
aint
he scope of consentas a
def
ence.
Dist
ingui
sh t
he di
ff
erence
bet
weent
heai
msofAr
t.
32and71
2.
Ident
if
y and expl
ain t
he t
ypes of
coer
cion.
3.
Discusst
hedegr
eeofcoer
cionr
equi
red
 162

t
ojust
if
yacoer
cedwr
ong.
4.
Def
iner
esi
sti
blecoer
cionandexpl
aini
ts
l
egal
eff
ect
s.
5.
Def
ine “
def
ence of coer
cion” and
di
sti
ngui
sh i
t f
rom t
he ‘
cri
me of
coer
cion”(
Art
.582)
.

CasePr
obl
em 1:
Adeni
sav
erywel
lknowndr
ugdeal
er.One
day he t
hreat
ened t
o ki
l
lBushr
a’s wi
fe
unl
ess Bushr
a t
ranspor
ted cocai
ne, a
nar
cot
icsubst
ance,
from Di
reDawat
oJi
j
iga.
Bushr
ahear
dthest
oryt
hatAdenhadki
l
led
somebody
’s son whose f
atherr
efused t
o
t
ranspor
tnar
cot
icdr
ugs.Ther
efor
e,Bushr
a
wast
err
if
iedandt
henagr
eedwi
thAdent
o
t
ranspor
tthedr
ugf
rom Di
reDawat
oJi
j
iga.
Onhi
swayt
oJi
j
iga,Bushr
awascaughti
n
 163

Har
ar.
Thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orchar
gedBushr
aunder
Ar
ti
cle525(
1)(
b)oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.
1.I
sBushr
ali
abl
efort
hecr
ime?Whyorwhy
not
?
2.Whati
sthel
i
abi
l
ityofAden?

CasePr
obl
em 2:
Bi
sharwor
kedwi
thFar
ahi
nmuni
ci
pal
i
tyof
Ji
j
igaci
ty.Far
ahsawBi
sharaccept
ingbr
ibe
f
rom Mur
sel
.Far
ahhadal
soev
idencet
hat
hecoul
dpr
oveBi
shar
’scor
rupt
ioni
ncour
t
ofl
aw.I
fFar
ahexposedt
heseev
idenced,
Bi
sharwoul
dbedef
ini
tel
yconv
ict
edunder
ar
ti
cle408(
2)oft
heCr
imi
nalCode.Far
ah
want
edt
oki
l
lhi
senemy
,Aden.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
he f
ear
ed cr
imi
nal pr
osecut
ion. Fi
nal
l
y,
Far
ah had an i
dea t
o escape cr
imi
nal
 164

pr
osecut
ion.Thi
sideai
stof
orceBi
shart
o
ki
l
lAden.Thus,
Far
aht
oldBi
shart
hatunl
ess
Bi
sharki
l
ledAden,Far
ahwoul
ddi
scl
oset
he
ev
idencest
othepol
i
ce.Bi
sharf
ear
edt
he
cr
imi
nalpr
osecut
ionv
erymuch.Ther
efor
e,
heagr
eedwi
thFar
aht
o ki
l
lAden.Bi
shar
ki
l
ledAdent
ocar
ryouthi
spr
omi
set
oFar
ah.
1.Whati
sthenat
ureofcoer
cionof
fer
edt
o
Busharher
e?I
sBi
sharl
i
abl
efort
hecr
imeof
homi
cide?Whyorwhynot
?
2.Whati
sthel
i
abi
l
ityofFar
ah?
3.Assumet
hatBi
sharact
edunderr
esi
sti
ble
coer
cion.Cant
hecour
tref
uset
omi
ti
gat
e
t
hepenal
ty?

1.
5.Super
ior
/Subor
dinat
eRel
ati
on:Ar
ts.73
&74
 165

The pr
obl
em of super
ior subor
dinat
e
r
elat
ionar
iseswhenaper
soncommi
tsan
of
fenseont
heor
derofsomeonet
owhom
he owes obedi
ence.Thi
s can happen i
n
numer
ous occasi
ons.I
tcan happen f
or
exampl
einf
ami
l
yadmi
nist
rat
ion bet
ween
par
ent
sand chi
l
dren,and i
nthepr
evi
ous
t
imes bet
ween l
andl
ords and t
he ser
f.
Ar
ts.
73/
74ar
enotappl
i
cabl
ewi
thr
egar
dto
or
der
sgi
venbyany“
mast
er”
.Inf
actwhen
anof
fencei
scommi
tt
edont
heor
derofa
per
son ot
her t
han a hi
erar
chi
cal
admi
nist
rat
iveormi
l
itar
ysuper
ior
,thedoer
whoexecut
est
heor
deri
snev
erexcusedbut
may av
ail hi
msel
f of t
he ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancesment
ionedi
nAr
t.
82(
1)(
c).
Ar
ts.
73/
74ont
heot
herhandar
eappl
i
cabl
e
 166

onl
yto speci
fi
c t
ypes of r
elat
ion, i
.e.
admi
nist
rat
ive and mi
l
itar
y super
ior
subor
dinat
erel
ati
on.I
tiscommonpr
act
ice
f
oranySt
atet
o car
ryouti
tsdut
iesand
t
ransacti
tsbusi
nesst
hroughagent
s.Thi
s
i
mpl
i
es del
egat
ion of power and a
hi
erar
chi
calsetupandachai
nofcommand
wi
thi
n gov
ernment depar
tment
s and
agenci
es.Whenev
ert
her
eis hi
erar
chi
cal
r
elat
ion and chai
n of command, i
tis
i
nev
itabl
efort
her
etoexi
stasuper
iorwho
exer
cises hi
erar
chi
cal power
s ov
er hi
s
subor
dinat
es and gi
vi
ng t
hem gener
alor
speci
fi
cor
der
s.Thus,suchki
ndofr
elat
ion
i
nvol
ves,a r
ather si
mpl
e quest
ion wi
th
r
egar
dst
owhet
hert
heper
sonwhogi
vest
he
or
der i
s gui
l
ty of t
he of
fense i
n ev
ery
occasi
on. A much mor
e cont
rov
ersi
al
 167

quest
ioni
swhet
hert
heper
sonwhocar
ri
es
outt
heor
deri
sgui
l
tyofanof
fense.The
mai
nissuet
her
efor
eisoneofl
i
abi
l
ityand
notofpar
ti
cipat
ion.

1.
5.1.Responsi
bil
it
yofaPer
sonGi
vi
ngan
Or
der
:

I
nbot
hadmi
nist
rat
iveandmi
l
itar
ysuper
ior
subor
dinat
erel
ati
on,t
heor
der
sthatcanbe
gi
vent
o asuper
iorar
eunl
i
mit
ed.I
nst
ead
t
hey ar
erest
ri
cted t
ofi
ttwo essent
ial
condi
ti
ons.Fi
rst
ly,or
der
smaybegi
venonl
y
wi
th r
egar
d t
o t
he so cal
l
ed “
ser
vice
mat
ter
s”,t
hati
s mat
ter
s concer
ning t
he
busi
nesst
ransact
edbyt
heor
gani
zat
iont
o
whi
cht
hesuper
iorandsubor
dinat
ebel
ong.
Anor
derofhospi
taladmi
nist
rat
ort
oev
ict
 168

r
esi
dent
sfr
om cer
tai
n ar
ea i
sther
efor
e
suscept
ibl
eofbei
ngr
egar
dedasunl
awf
ul
andpuni
shabl
e.Thesamei
str
uewi
than
or
derofa hi
gherr
ank mi
l
itar
yof
fi
cert
o
r
eleaset
onsofwheatst
oredf
orst
ateof
emer
gency
.Secondl
y,onl
ysuchact
smaybe
or
der
edasmustbedonesot
hatt
hesai
d
busi
nessi
spr
oper
lyt
ransact
ed.I
ftheact
or
der
edhasl
i
ttl
eornosi
gni
fi
canceatal
lto
t
hepr
operf
unct
ioni
ngoft
het
ransact
ioni
n
quest
ion,t
hel
i
kel
i
hoodf
orunl
awf
ulnessi
s
hi
gher
.Gener
all
y,asuper
ior
,whogi
vesan
or
derwi
thf
ullknowl
edgeoft
hef
actt
hatt
he
abov
econdi
ti
onsar
enotf
ulf
il
led,maynot
i
nvoket
hedef
ensement
ionedunder68and
escapepuni
shmentsi
ncet
heactor
der
edi
s
nei
ther“
inr
espectofpubl
i
c,st
ateormi
l
itar
y
dut
ies”nor“
wit
hint
hel
i
mit
sper
mit
tedby
 169

l
aw”
.

Besi
des,f
orAr
t.
73t
obeappl
i
cabl
e,i
tisnot
r
equi
redt
hatt
hesuper
iorshoul
dbeahi
gh-
r
anki
ng of
fi
cialormi
l
itar
ycommander
.It
r
athersuf
fi
cest
hathe/
sheshoul
dbeofa
hi
gherr
ankt
hant
heper
sonexecut
ingt
he
or
der
,i.
e.he/
sheshoul
dhav
ether
ightt
o
gi
veor
der
sandt
hathi
ssubor
dinat
eshoul
d
hav
ecor
respondi
ngdut
ytoobey
.Hewho
gi
vest
heor
dermust
,ther
efor
e,beaper
son
i
naut
hor
it
y.Buthi
sbei
ngi
naposi
ti
ont
o
gi
veor
der
sdoesnotent
it
lehi
mtodemand
f
rom hi
ssubor
dinat
est
hatheshoul
dacti
n
v
iol
ati
onoft
hel
aw.

Fur
ther
,thesuper
iorwhoor
der
sanactt
obe
done,whi
chi
sunl
awf
ul,i
sli
abl
eonl
yfor
 170

t
hose act
s.Thi
sist
o say t
hat
,ift
he
subor
dinat
e exceeds ordepar
tsf
rom t
he
or
der
,thesuper
iori
snotanswer
abl
efort
he
excessordepar
tur
eunl
esshedi
rect
lyor
i
ndi
rect
lyi
ntendedi
ttooccur
.

1.
5.2.Responsi
bil
it
yoft
heSubor
dinat
e:

I
tiswi
thi
nthei
nter
estoft
hepubl
i
ctosee
t
he publ
i
c ser
vice wor
k ef
fi
ci
ent
ly.
Obedi
encei
sther
efor
eoneoft
heessent
ial
pr
erequi
sit
eto make t
he publ
i
c ser
vice
ef
fi
cient
.Her
ethequest
ioni
swhet
hert
he
subor
dinat
eshoul
dbl
i
ndl
yobeyev
eryor
der
f
orm t
he super
iororshoul
dret
ain some
f
reedom of deci
sion t
hat woul
d al
l
ow
hi
m/herr
ejectatl
eastappar
ent
lyunl
awf
ul
or
der
s.TheEt
hiopi
ancr
imi
nall
awandmany
 171

ot
her moder
n cr
imi
nal l
aws t
ake an
i
nter
medi
ary posi
ti
on by combi
ning
obedi
encewi
thi
ndependence.Thus,Ar
t.
74
(
1)pr
ovi
des t
hatt
he subor
dinat
e cannot
escapepuni
shmenti
fhe/
shecar
ri
esoutan
i
l
legalor
der
,whi
chhei
sawar
eofi
t.Hence
t
hesubor
dinat
emustcont
rolt
hel
awf
ulness
oft
heor
der
sher
ecei
vesandi
sli
abl
eto
puni
shmenti
fhei
ntent
ional
l
yvi
olat
est
he
l
aw onbei
ngor
der
edt
odoso.Thedut
yto
obey
,ther
efor
e, ceases t
o bi
nd t
he
subor
dinat
e when t
he doi
ng ofan acti
s
or
der
ed whi
ch i
s cont
rar
ytot
he l
aw.I
t
appear
showev
er;
thel
awdoesnoti
mposea
hi
gherdut
yont
hesubor
dinat
etocheckt
he
l
egal
i
ty ofev
ery or
der
ed act
.He/
she i
s
r
equi
redt
oref
useexecut
eanor
der
,whi
chi
s
mani
fest
lyunl
awf
ulasr
egar
dst
oit
sfor
m
 172

andorcont
ent
s.I
ngener
al,
underAr
t.
74,
the
subor
dinat
ewhohascar
ri
edoutanor
dert
o
commi
t an of
fense shal
l be l
i
abl
e t
o
puni
shment on t
he f
oll
owi
ng t
hree
condi
ti
ons:
a)
When t
he subor
dinat
eis awar
e oft
he
i
l
legal
nat
ureoft
heor
der
,
b) Whent
hesubor
dinat
eknowst
hatt
he
or
deri
sgi
venwi
thoutaut
hor
it
y,or
c)
Whent
hesubor
dinat
eknowst
hecr
imi
nal
nat
ureoft
heactor
der
ed,

I
nthef
ir
stcondi
ti
oni
tisasubor
dinat
ewho
knowst
hathi
ssuper
iori
snotal
l
owedby
l
awt
ogi
veanor
deroft
het
ypei
nquest
ion.
I
n such ci
rcumst
ancest
hesubor
dinat
eis
pr
esumedt
oknowt
hatnot
hingcanl
awf
ull
y
bedonei
npur
suanceofanunl
awf
ulor
der
.A
 173

casei
s,f
ori
nst
ance,whenani
nvest
igat
ing
pol
i
ce of
fi
cer
, i
n di
sregar
d of t
he
r
equi
rement cour
t war
rant
, or
der
s a
const
abl
e t
o sear
ch a house. I
fthe
const
abl
eobey
stheor
derandconductt
he
sear
ch he t
oget
herwi
tht
he i
nvest
igat
ing
pol
i
ce of
fi
cer shal
lbe hel
dli
abl
e.The
secondcondi
ti
onr
efer
stoasi
tuat
ionwher
e
oneobey
sanor
derf
rom someoneel
set
o
whom hedoesnotoweobedi
ence.I
fthe
subor
dinat
edoesnotoweobedi
encet
othe
super
ior
,hecannat
ural
l
ynotbedeemedt
o
behi
ssubor
dinat
eev
ent
houghhemaybe
ofl
owerr
ankt
han t
he per
son gi
vi
ng t
he
or
der
.Fori
nst
ance,apubl
i
cpr
osecut
ori
s
not subor
dinat
e t
o t
he mi
nist
er of
agr
icul
tur
eorheal
th.Nei
theri
saj
udgei
n
t
hef
ir
sti
nst
ancecour
tsubor
dinat
etot
he
 174

chi
efexecut
iveasub-
cit
y.Knowl
edgeoft
he
i
l
legal
i
tyoft
heor
derandt
heactor
der
edi
s
notsuf
fi
cientf
ort
hepur
posesofAr
t.
74(
1).
I
naddi
ti
onasubor
dinat
ewhocar
ri
esoutan
i
l
legalor
dershoul
dknow t
hatt
hisi
l
legal
i
ty
r
ender
sthe actor
der
ed “
cri
minal
”.I
fhe
t
hinkst
hatt
heactor
der
edi
scont
rar
ytot
he
admi
nist
rat
iveorci
vi
llaw,butnott
othe
cr
imi
nall
aw,hi
s cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityi
s not
i
nvol
ved.I
f,ont
heot
herhand,
heknowst
hat
t
heactconst
it
utes“
homi
cide,ar
sonorany
ot
hergr
ave of
fences agai
nstper
sons or
pr
oper
ty, essent
ial publ
i
c i
nter
est
s or
i
nter
nat
ional
law”hei
spuni
shabl
e.

Fort
he appl
i
cat
ion ofAr
t.
74,t
he def
ini
te
knowl
edgeoft
hei
l
legal
i
tyoft
heor
derand
unl
awf
ulness oft
he acti
srequi
red,and
 175

mer
e suspi
cious or negl
i
gence i
s not
suf
fi
cient
.The subor
dinat
eisl
i
abl
e onl
y
when obedi
ence i
s nott
he r
esul
tofa
mi
stakeoff
actort
hemi
stakeofl
aw.Buti
n
except
ional ci
rcumst
ances, despi
te t
he
def
ineknowl
edgeoft
hesubor
dinat
eabout
t
hei
l
legal
i
tyoft
heor
derandunl
awf
ulness
oft
heact
,hemayenj
oymi
ti
gat
ionort
otal
exempt
ionofpuni
shment
.Thus,t
hecour
t
mayf
reel
ymi
ti
gat
ethepuni
shmentormay
i
mpose no puni
shment dependi
ng on
whet
hert
hesubor
dinat
ecoul
dhav
eact
ed
ot
her
wiset
hanashehaddone,i
.e.coul
d
hav
eref
usedt
oobey
.Asar
ulet
her
efor
e,
mi
ti
gat
ion wi
l
l be or
der
ed when t
he
subor
dinat
e act
ed i
n ci
rcumst
ances
amount
ing t
o r
esi
sti
ble coer
cion and
exempt
ion, when t
he ci
rcumst
ances
 176

amount
edabsol
utemor
alcoer
cion.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Discuss t
he gener
alpur
pose of t
he
def
enseofsuper
ioror
der
.
2.
Expl
ain t
he degr
ee of unl
awf
ulness
env
isaged underAr
t.
74/
1to denyt
he
appl
i
cat
ionofAr
t.
73.
3.I
ll
ust
rat
etheexcept
ionalci
rcumst
ances
under whi
ch a subor
dinat
e has
commi
tt
ed an actappar
ent
lycr
imi
nal
butexcused.

CasePr
obl
em 1:
Get
achewwast
hedr
iverofbul
l
dozeroft
he
Muni
cipal
i
tyoft
heci
tyofHar
ar.Adamuwas
aheadoft
heDepar
tmentoft
heMuni
ci
pal
i
ty
 177

cal
l
ed“
Cit
yPl
anandDest
ruct
ionofI
ll
egal
l
y
Const
ruct
ed Houses”
.Mur
seland Adamu
wer
eenemi
es.I
nhi
spl
ant
omakeMur
sel
homel
ess,Adamu or
der
ed Get
achew t
o
dest
ructMur
sel
’
shousewhi
chwasl
egal
l
y
const
ruct
ed.Get
achewcar
ri
edoutt
heor
der
.
1.Who i
sli
abl
efort
he dest
ruct
ion of
Mur
sel
’
shouse?Why
?
2.Woul
dyouranswerbedi
ff
erenti
fAdamu
had been t
he dr
iver of a car of t
he
muni
cipal
i
tyoft
heci
ty?Whyorwhynot
?

CasePr
obl
em 2:
Adenwasaser
geanti
ntheDef
enseFor
ce.
He or
der
ed Bi
shar
,an or
dinar
ysol
diert
o
bur
n down Gul
ed’
s house.Bi
sharasked
Adenwhyhehad t
o bur
nGul
ed’
shouse.
Adenanswer
edt
hatGul
edwasaspyf
or
 178

cer
tai
nfor
eignst
ate.Bi
sharwentt
oGul
ed’
s
hauset
obur
nitdown.Whenhear
ri
ved,he
ent
eredt
hehouset
ocheckwhet
herGul
ed
was i
nthe house.Bi
sharf
ound a v
ery
beaut
if
ulgi
rli
nGul
ed’
shouse.Her
apedher
andt
her
eaf
terhesetf
ir
etot
hehouse.The
r
apedwomancoul
dmanaget
oescapef
rom
t
hef
ir
e.
1.Det
ermi
net
hel
i
abi
l
ityofAden.Det
ermi
ne
t
hel
i
abi
l
ityofBi
shar
.

2.Whoi
sent
it
ledt
omi
ti
gat
ionorexempt
ion
ofpuni
shment
?AdenorBi
shar
?Forwhi
ch
cr
imeandwhy
?

Sect
ion: 2. Necessi
ty and Legi
ti
mat
e
Def
ence:
 179

Gener
alSt
ateofNecessi
ty:Ar
ts.
75-
76
Anecessar
yacti
sanactper
for
medi
naso
cr
it
icalsi
tuat
iont
hatt
hedoi
ngofhar
mis
t
heonl
yal
ter
nat
ivet
othesuf
fer
ingofhar
m.
The r
ulef
ort
he def
ense ofnecessi
tyi
s
si
mil
art
othatofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense.I
nfact
i
ncasesofnecessi
tyt
het
hreatt
otheact
or
comesf
rom nat
ure.I
tissomet
imescal
l
ed
an“
actofGod,
”andi
tmaybeaf
ir
e,ast
orm,
and an ear
thquake,ora shi
pwr
eck t
hat
compel
sthe act
ort
o do somet
hing t
hat
ot
her
wise woul
d be i
l
legal
.Under such
ci
rcumst
ancest
heact
or’
sri
ghtort
hoseof
anot
herar
eini
mmi
nentdangerandachoi
ce
mustbemadebet
weensaf
eguar
dingt
hem
and sacr
if
ici
ng t
hem.Thi
sis al
labouta
pr
essur
e of nat
ural f
orces t
hat may
somet
imes conf
ront a per
son i
n an
 180

emer
gencywi
thachoi
ceoft
wo ev
il
s:t
o
v
iol
atet
hecl
earmeani
ngofcr
imi
nal
lawand
pr
oduceahar
mfulr
esul
t,ort
ocompl
ywi
th
t
hel
aw andl
etgr
eat
erorequalorl
esser
mayhar
m occur
.Asamat
terofsoci
alpol
i
cy,
i
fthel
aw i
svi
olat
edt
oav
oidgr
eat
erhar
m,
t
hev
iol
atorwi
l
lnotbepuni
shedunl
esst
he
emer
gencysi
tuat
ioni
scr
eat
edbyhi
sown
f
aul
t.I
ntheabsenceoff
aul
tonhi
ssi
dehi
s
acti
sconsi
der
ed t
o benecessar
ytot
he
soci
etyandhencej
ust
if
ied.Soanecessar
y
act i
s a non-
condemnabl
e act t
hough
cont
rar
ytot
hel
aw becausecondemnat
ion
i
sbasedont
hecost
-benef
itanal
ysi
soft
he
soci
ety
. The soci
ety accept
s and ev
en
encour
ages act
s br
ingi
ng aboutsoci
etal
benef
it
s such as necessar s.(
yact Dej
ene
Gi
rma,2007 The Def
ense of Consent
,
 181

Coer
cionandNecessi
tyundert
heCr
imi
nal
Codeoft
heFDRE,Jour
nalofLaw,Vol
.I
,No.
1,2007,Ji
ma Uni
ver
sit
y). Necessi
tyi
s
t
her
efor
emeantasi
tuat
ionwher
econduct
pr
omot
essomev
aluehi
ghert
hant
hev
alue
oft
hel
i
ter
alcompl
i
ancewi
tht
hel
aw.As
st
atedbyPol
l
ard:
I
nev
eryl
aw t
her
ear
esomet
hings,whi
ch
whent
heyhappen,amanmaybr
eakt
he
wor
dsoft
hel
aw,andy
etnotbr
eakt
hel
aw
i
tsel
fandsucht
hingsar
eexempt
edoutof
t
hepenal
tyoft
hel
aw,
andt
hel
awpr
ivi
l
eges
t
hem al
though t
heyar
e done agai
nstt
he
l
ett
erofi
t;br
eaki
ngt
hewor
dsoft
hel
aw i
s
notbr
eaki
ngt
hel
aw,
sol
ongast
hei
ntentof
t
he l
aw i
s notbr
oken.I
tis a common
pr
ov b;‘
er quodnecessi
tasnonhabetl
egem’
-
necessi
tyknowsnol Reni
aw.[ gerV.Fogosi
a
 182

(
1550)
;Mor
rev.Hussey(
1609)
,inGAUR]

Whet
her t
he har
m t
o be pr
event
ed or
av
oided was of such a nat
ure and so
i
mmi
nentast
ojust
if
yorexcuset
her
iskof
doi
ngt
heactwi
tht
heknowl
edget
hati
twas
l
i
kel
ytocausehar
misaquest
ionoff
act
.
The f
oll
owi
ng i
l
lust
rat
ions pr
ovi
de i
deal
ci
rcumst
ances under whi
ch t
he act
or
causeshar
m wi
thoutanycr
imi
nali
ntent
ion,
and mer
elywi
tht
he knowl
edge t
hati
tis
l
i
kel
ytoensueandbedonei
ngoodf
ait
hto
av
oidorpr
eventot
herhar
m t
oper
sonor
pr
oper
ty.

I
ll
ust
rat
ions:

A)A,t
( hecapt
ainofast
eam v
essel
,suddenl
y
 183

andwi
thoutanyf
aul
tornegl
i
genceonhi
s
par
t,f
indshi
msel
finsuchaposi
ti
ont
hat
,
bef
ore he can st
op hi
svessel
,he must
i
nev
itabl
yrundownaboatB,wi
tht
went
yor
t
hir
ty passenger
s on boar
d,unl
ess he
changest
hecour
seofhi
svessel
,andt
hat
,
bychangi
nghi
scour
se,
hemusti
ncurr
iskof
r ng down a boat C wi
unni th onl
ytwo
passenger
s on boar
d, whi
ch he may
possi
blycl
ear
.Her fA al
e,i ert
shi
scour
se
wi
thoutanyi
ntent
iont
or heboatC
undownt
andi
ngoodf
ait
hfort
hepur
poseofav
oidi
ng
t
hedangert
othepassenger
si heboatB,
nt
hei
snotgui
l
tyofanof
fence,
thoughhemay
r heboatCbydoi
undownt nganactwhi
ch
heknewwasl
i
kel
ytocauset
hatef
fect
,ifi
t
bef
oundasamat
teroff
actt
hatt
hedanger
whi
cht
hei
ntendedt
oav
oidwassuchast
o
 184

excusehi
mini
ncur
ri
ngt
her
iskofr
unni
ng
heboatC.
downt

B)A,i
( nagr
eatf
ir
e,pul
l
sdownhousesi
n
or
dert
o pr
eventt
he conf
lagr
ati
on f
rom
spr
eadi
ng.Hedoest
hiswi
tht
hei
ntent
ioni
n
goodf
ait
hofsav
inghumanl
i
feandpr
oper
ty.
Her
e,i
fitbe f
ound t
hatt
he har
m t
o be
pr
event
ed was ofsuch a nat
ure and so
i
mmi
nentast
oexcuseA’
sact
,Ai
snotgui
l
ty
oft
heof
fence.

I
tist
husont
hepr
inci
pleofexpedi
encyt
hat
t
he l
aw has r
ecogni
zed necessi
ty as an
excusei
n cr
imi
nalcases.I
n ot
herwor
ds,
what necessi
ty f
orces i
s j
ust
if
ie.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,necessar
y act
s,unl
i
ke act
s
 185

donei
nlegi
ti
mat
edef
ense,ar
enotdeemed
t
obel
awf
ul.I
ncaseofnecessi
tyt
heact
or
does nothav
ethe r
ightt
o pr
otecthi
s
i
nter
est
satt
heexpenseoft
hoseofanot
her
andi
snotaut
hor
izedbyl
awt
ocausehar
m
so l
ong as he i
s nott
hreat
ened wi
th or
subj
ect
edt
o,anunl
awf
ulat
tack.Thi
sent
ail
s,
i
n par
ti
cul
ar,t
hata per
son r
esi
sti
ng t
he
per
for
manceofsuchanacti
sinast
ateof
l
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense wi
thi
nthe meani
ng of
Ar
t.
78si
ncet
hisactamount
sobj
ect
ivel
yto
anunl
awf
ulassaul
t.

Thedoct
ri
nesoenunci
ated(
necessi
ty)on
t
he ot
her hand must be car
eful
l
y
ci
rcumscr
ibed.El
se,necessi
tywoul
dopen
t
hedoort
omanyonexcuses.I
twasf
ort
his
r
eason t
hati
twas notadmi
tt
ed i
nthe
 186

amousDudl
f eyandSt
ephenscaset
hatt
he
def
endant
s who wi
thi
ntentt
o sav
ethei
r
ownl
i
fef
edupont
heext
remel
yweakened
passenger wer
e hel
d gui
l
ty of mur
der
.
Si
mil
arl
y,i
famanwhoi
sst
arv
ingent
ersa
house and t
akes f
ood i
n or
dert
o keep
hi
msel
fal
i
ve,t
hel
aw doesnotadmi
tthe
def
enseofnecessi
ty.I
thol
dshi
m gui
l
tyof
l
arceny
.Ther
easoni
sbecause,i
fhunger
wer
e once al
l
owed t
o be an excuse f
or
st
eal
i
ng,i
twoul
d open a way t
hor
ough,
whi
chal
lki
ndsofdi
sor
derandl
awl
essness
woul
dpass.Soher
e,i
fhomel
essnesswer
e
onceadmi
tt
edasadef
enset
otr
espass,no
one’
shousecoul
dbesaf
e.Necessi
tywoul
d
openadoor
,whi
chnomancoul
dshut
.The
pl
eawoul
d bean excusef
oral
lsor
tsof
wr
ongdoi
ng.So,t
he cour
ts must
,fort
he
 187

sakeofl
aw andor
der
,takeaf
ir
m st
and.
They mustr
efuse t
o admi
tthe pl
ea of
necessi
tyt
othehungr
yandt
hehomel
ess;
andt
rustt
hatt
hei
rdi
str
esswi
l
lber
eli
vedby
t
hechar
it
abl
eandt
hegood.

2.
1 The Def
ense of Necessi
ty under
Et
hiopi
anLaw(
Art
.75)
2.
1.1Scopeoft
heDef
ense:

Undert
he1957penalcode,t
hedef
enseof
necessi
tycov
ers ev
ery
one who f
all
sina
st
ateofemer
gency
.So,i
tsscopewaswi
de
enough.Undert
hef
unct
ioni
ngcr
imi
nal
code,
howev
er,t
he scope of t
he def
ense i
s
somehow l
i
mit
ed.Thesecondpar
agr
aphof
Ar
t.
75 pr
ovi
des f
or an except
ion wher
e
necessi
tyi
snotadef
ensenot
wit
hst
andi
ng
 188

t
hatal
lthenecessar
ycondi
ti
onst
orai
set
he
def
ense i
s met
.The l
aw st
ipul
ates t
hat
per
sonswhohav
especi
alpr
ofessi
onaldut
y
t
opr
otectl
i
feorheal
thmaybeent
it
ledt
o
mi
ti
gat
ion but cannot i
nvoke necessi
ty.
Accor
dingl
y,i
f a gi
ven boat has some
passenger
s i
n excess of i
ts car
ryi
ng
capaci
tyandast
her
esul
tisaboutt
obe
dr
owni
ng,exceptf
ort
hecr
ewmember
sthat
ar
enecessar
ytonav
igat
etheboat
,ot
her
s
mustbesacr
if
icedf
ir
st.Thus,i
ncasesof
such speci
alci
rcumst
ances t
he r
ulei
s
dangerand saf
etyi
sthe except
ion.The
pr
ofessi
onal
sar
ether
efor
ether
etopr
otect
ot
her
sfr
om t
hedangerev
enatt
heexpense
oft
hei
rli
ves.They shal
lnotbr
each t
he
speci
aldut
yimposed upon t
hem t
otake
car
eofot
her
s’l
i
feandheal
th.I
fthedut
yis
 189

br
eached,t
heywi
l
lbel
i
abl
etopuni
shment
ev
eni
fthepuni
shmenti
stobeext
enuat
ed
(
180)
.Ther
efor
e,t
he cr
imi
nalcode has
r
educed t
he scope of t
he def
ense of
necessi
ty.

2.
1.1.
2.Condi
ti
onsoft
heDef
ense:

Thedef
enseofnecessi
tyi
snotav
ail
abl
e
unl
esssomebasi
crequi
rement
s,whi
char
e
enumer
atedbel
owar
enotsat
isf
ied.I
tist
rue
t
hat
,whi
chev
eroft
hecondi
ti
onsbel
ow i
s
mi
ssi
ng;t
hej
ust
if
icat
ionofnecessi
tymay
notbei
nvoked.Thus,someoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
condi
ti
onsar
eex
pressedunderAr
t.
75and
Ar
t.
76andot
her
sar
ejusti
mpl
i
edf
rom.
a)Ther
emustbeaDanger
:
A per
soni
snotj
ust
if
iedont
hegr
oundof
 190

necessi
tymer
elybecausehei
sobj
ect
ivel
yin
asi
tuat
ioni
nvol
vi
ngser
iousandi
mmi
nent
danger
.Inst
ead,a necessar
y act i
s an
i
ntent
ionalact
.Thatmeans what
everhe
doesi
nsuchasi
tuat
ioni
snotj
ust
if
iabl
e
unl
esshedoesi
twi
thav
iewofav
oidi
ngt
his
danger
.Theexpr
essi t
on,‘o pr
otect
’under
Ar
t.
75 i
mpl
i
es t
hat t
he act has t
o be
per
for
medwi
tht
hesol
eobj
ect
iveofav
ert
ing
t
hei
mmi
nentdanger
.I heRv
nt .Loughman
case, t
he Supr
eme Cour
t of Vi
ctor
ia,
di
smi
ssi
ng t
he appealofan i
nmat
e who
r
eli
edont
hedef
enseofnecessi
tyonat
ri
al
hewassubj
ect
edt
oachar
geofescapi
ng
f
rom pr
isonal
ongwi
tht
hreeot
herpr
isoner
s
hel
d:
Thecr
imi
nalactmusthav
ebeendoneonl
y
i
n or
dert
o av
oid cer
tai
n consequences,
 191

whi
chwoul
dhav
einf
li
ctedi
rr
epar
abl
eev
il
upont
heaccusedoruponot
her
swhom he
wasboundt
opr
otect
.Theaccusedmust
honest
ly bel
i
eve,on r
easonabl
e gr
ounds,
t
hat he was pl
aced i
n a si
tuat
ion of
i
mmi
nentper
il
.

Si
mil
arl
y,i
ffori
nst
anceAent
ersB’
sgar
den
wi
thoutaut
hor
it
y,notr
eal
i
zingt
hathei
srun
af
terandaboutt
obebi
tt
enbyamaddog,
A’
s act
,whi
ch woul
d be necessar
yifhe
knew t
hat he i
sin danger
,is nei
ther
j
ust
if
iabl
enorexcusabl
eashei
snott
ryi
ng
t
oav
ertt
hedangercr
eat
edbyt
hedog.

b)TheDangermustbeI
mmi
nent
:
Thedef
enseofnecessi
tyi
snotmeantt
o
al
l
ow i
ndi
vi
dual
stoencr
oachuponot
her
s
 192

r
ight
stosav
ethei
rint
erestf
rom adanger
,
whi
chi
snoty
ett
obemat
eri
ali
zed.I
tisnot
al
soav
ail
abl
ewhent
hedangeri
sal
ready
ov
er.Theneedt
omakeachoi
cebet
ween
encr
oachi
ng up on some one’
sinnocent
i
nter
estorscar
if
yingonesel
fmustbeact
ual
,
pr
essi
ngandur
gent
.Inf
actt
hei
mpendi
ng
nat
ureoft
hedangermayber
elat
ivet
oit
s
gr
avi
tyand mannerofbei
ng ev
ent
uat
ing.
Butt
hedangermustber
easonabl
ycer
tai
n
t
o ev
ent
uat
e. Ther
eshal
lbeno t
imet
o
r
esor
ttoat
hir
dchoi
cet
hatcanbeusedt
o
av
oidt
he danger
.Ift
he doer act
ed i
n
v
iol
ati
onoft
hel
awandagai
nstani
nnocent
i
nter
estofhi
sfel
l
owmenandwomen,hei
s
notj
ust
if
iedundert
hedef
enseofnecessi
ty.
Necessi
tyi
sther
efor
eadef
enseonl
yift
he
l
aw i
svi
olat
ed whent
her
eisno hopet
o
 193

expl
oitorot
herwayout
s.Sol
ongast
her
e
ar
eot
herpossi
bil
i
tiest
oresor
tto,t
hel
aw
shal
lnotbev
iol
ated.I
fthel
aw hast
obe
v
iol
atedandi
nnocenti
nter
estbescar
if
ied,
bot
hshal
lbesoatt
hel
astr
esor
t.I
f,f
or
i
nst
ance,A andB wer
einal
i
fe-
boatwi
th
enoughf
oodf
ort
hreeday
sbutAt
hrowsB
ov
erboar
dsoast
ohav
eenoughf
oodf
orsi
x
day
s,hewoul
dhav
ebeennotconsi
der
edas
hav
ing f
aced wi
th an i
mmi
nent danger
.
Accor
dingl
y,hewoul
dhav
ebeencr
imi
nal
l
y
hel
dli
abl
eforhomi
cide.

c)TheDangermustbeSer
ious:
Ar
t.
75seemsi
nappl
i
cabl
ewhent
hedanger
t
obeav
ert
edi
snotsuf
fi
cient
lyser
ious.I
n
f
act
,whatconst
it
ut ser
es‘ ious’i
svagueand
r
elat
ive.Ev
en t
he v
ery st
ipul
ati
on oft
he
 194

r
equi
rementi
nthe l
aw seems i
mpr
oper
.
Becauset
hej
ust
if
icat
ionoft
hedef
ensei
s
based, among ot
her t
hings, on t
he
pr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyt
hatmustexi
stbet
weent
he
danger av
ert
ed and t
he i
nter
est made
sacr
if
ice.I
tist
her
efor
eimmat
eri
alwhet
her
t
hedangerathandi
sser
iousornotasl
ong
as a dangeri
s av
ert
ed ata l
essercost
,
whi
chatt
heend oft
hedaybenef
it
sthe
soci
etybasedoncostbenef
itanal
ysi
s.But
,
ont
heot
herhand,t
hev
erywor
d“danger
”
i
mpl
i
est
hatt
hehar
m wi
thwhi
cht
heact
oror
t
heper
sonf
orwhosebenef
it
sheact
sis
t
hreat
ened mustamountt
o mor
ethan a
si
mpl
einconv
eni
ence.Thus,
whatAr
t.
75has
i
nit
spr
esentf
orm seemst
oimpl
ythatA,
whosehathasbeenbl
ownawaybyt
hewi
nd
i
nthemi
ddl
eofasea,maynoti
nvoket
he
 195

def
ense of necessi
ty i
f he “
bor
rows”
someone’
sboati
nvi
ew r
ecov
eri
nghi
shat
.
Such l
evel
s of danger
s ar
e consi
der
ed
negl
i
gibl
e and one seems at l
east not
encour
aged t
o di
sobeyt
hel
aw undert
he
pr
etextofnecessi
ty.

d)The DangerCoul
d NotOt
her
wise Be
Av
ert
ed:
Thedef
enseofnecessi
tyi
snotav
ail
abl
e
whenev
ert
her
ear
elegalmeansi
nexi
stence
t
oav
ertt
het
hreat
:ast
arv
ingper
sonshoul
d
seekpubl
i
cwel
far
erat
hert
hanst
ealf
orhi
s
orhersur
viv
al.I
nst
eadt
hedoermustf
alli
n
a si
tuat
ion whi
ch t
he dangercannotbe
av
oidedexceptbyi
nfr
ingi
nguponsomeone
el
se’
sri
ght
s.Ther
eshal
lexi
stnopossi
bil
i
ty
ofr
esol
vi
ng t
heconf
li
ctbet
weent
het
wo
 196

i
nter
est
sbyact
ingi
naccor
dancewi
tht
he
l
aw.

Unl
i
keaper
sonact
ingi
nlegi
ti
mat
edef
ense,
aper
sonwhoi
sinast
ateofnecessi
tydoes
not hav
e pr
oper r
ight t
o cause har
m.
Ther
efor
eaper
soni
nast
ateofnecessi
tyi
s
notj
ust
if
ied,unl
esst
hedoi
ng ofhar
m i
s
absol
utel
ynecessar
yint
heci
rcumst
ances.
I
fhecanpr
otecthi
sint
erestort
hoseof
anot
herper
sonwi
thoutbr
eaki
ngt
hel
aw or
canr
easonabl
ybeexpect
ednott
opr
otect
t
hem,
hemaynoti
nvokeAr
t.
75.

Howev
er,t
he abov
e pr
inci
ple i
s not
appl
i
cabl
etot
hecaseswher
etheact
ori
s
mi
stakenast
othenecessi
tyofhi
sact
,for
i
nst
ance,becausehei
sunawar
eoft
hef
act
 197

t
hatt
he dangercan act
ual
l
y be av
ert
ed
ot
her
wise t
han by causi
ng har
m. For
exampl
e,aper
sonnotawar
dingoft
hef
act
t
hatt
her
eis an ext
ingui
sheri
n hi
s own
houseandst
eal
sitf
rom hi
snei
ghbormay
av
ail
himsel
foft
hedef
enseofAr
t.
80butnot
Ar
t.
75

e)TheHar
m mustbePr
opor
ti
onal
:
Theunder
lyi
ngj
ust
if
icat
ionf
ort
hedef
ense
ofnecessi
tyi
ssoci
alpol
i
cy,t
hati
s,t
heact
benef
it
sthanhar
mingt
hesoci
ety
.Inf
acti
n
somej
uri
sdi
cti
ons,t
hedef
ensei
sext
ended
t
othesi
tuat
ionswher
ethesoci
etynei
ther
benef
it
snordef
eat
s.Thi
sposi
ti
onoft
he
soci
etyi
sther
efor
emai
ntai
nedt
hrought
he
pr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty condi
ti
on,whi
ch i
mpl
i
edl
y
gov
ernst
hedoi
ngofanactaccor
dingt
o
 198

Ar
t.
75.Thi
s condi
ti
on i
mpl
i
es t
hat
,when
causi
ng har
m i
sthe onl
y way t
o av
oid
danger
,thedoeri
sjust
if
iedonl
yifhedoes
notcausemor
ehar
mthanhewoul
dhav
e
suf
fer
edhadher
efr
ainedf
rom act
ing.Thi
s
def
ini
ti
oni
ndi
cat
est
hatcer
tai
nequi
l
ibr
ium
mustbe achi
eved and t
hatone i
s not
j
ust
if
ied i
n doi
ng any
thi
ng wi
th av
iew t
o
pr
otect
ing one’
s i
nter
est
s. The
pr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyt
est
,whi
chappl
i
esi
ncases
ofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense,al
so,meanst
hata
per
soni
naser
iousandi
mmi
nentdanger
maynotav
oidt
his dangeratanycoast
.
Mor
e speci
fi
cal
l
y i
t means t
hat t
he
t
hreat
enedr
ightmust
,asar
ule,beatl
east
asi
mpor
tantast
her
ighti
nfr
ingeduponby
t
heact
or.
 199

Regar
dingt
hequest
ionast
ohow wi
l
lthe
cour
test
imat
ether
espect
ivev
aluesoft
he
i
nter
est
s,Ar
t.
76put
sit
,thatanacti
snot
pr
opor
ti
onat
e“i
fthe abandonmentoft
he
t
hreat
enedr
ightcoul
dreasonabl
yhav
ebeen
r
equi
redi
ntheci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecaseor
i
fthe encr
oachi
ng upon t
he t
hir
d par
ty’
s
r
ight
s exceeded what was r
easonabl
y
necessar
y.Forexampl
e,i
fAi
njur
esorki
l
ls
someone whi
l
e at
tempt
ing t
orecov
erhi
s
ci
gar
ett
ecase,
whi
chi
slosti
nthepani
c,out
ofat
heat
erhousei
nwhi
chaf
ir
est
art
s,he
doesnotpr
otecti
tbyadequat
emeans.The
f
actr
emai
nst
hataci
gar
ett
ecase,howev
er
v
aluabl
eiti
sitdoesnotwor
tht
hel
i
feofa
humanbei
ng,andt
hisi
ssuf
fi
ci
entgr
ound
f
ordeny
inghi
mthebenef
itofAr
t.
75.
 200

Thequest
ionofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
tycanbeal
so
di
scussed i
nli
ghtoft
he means used t
o
av
ertt
hedangert
hought
hati
snotexpr
essl
y
pr
ovi
dedatl
easti
ntheEngl
i
shv
ersi
onof
Ar
t.
75.I
fthe means i
s di
spr
opor
ti
onat
e
undert
heci
rcumst
ance,
obv
iousl
yexcessof
necessi
tywi
l
lcomei
nto pi
ctur
e.Hencea
per
sonwhocancausebodi
l
yinj
urybyusi
ng
hi
sfi
stt
oav
oidcer
tai
ndangershal
lnotuse
bul
l
et,ori
fki
l
li
ng wi
th bul
l
eti
spossi
ble,
hand-
bombshal
lnotbeused.

Besi
des,i
ncaseswher
ejust
if
icat
ioni
snot
av
ail
abl
ein want of t
he pr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty
r
equi
rementar
ewi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
othose
wher
etheact
ori
s,f
ori
nst
ance,
mist
akenas
t
other
espect
ivev
alueoft
hei
nter
est
sin
conf
li
ct,whi
chmi
stakewel
loccurwhenhe
 201

act
sfort
hebenef
itofat
hir
dpar
ty.

f
)TheExcept
ion:Faul
t
UnderAr
t.
76oft
hecode,i
tispr
ovi
dedt
hat
t
hedef
enseofnecessi
tyceasest
oexi
sti
f
t
heemer
gencysi
tuat
ioni
scr
eat
edbyt
he
f
aul
toft
heact
or.Ther
efor
e,t
heabsenceof
f
aul
ton t
he si
de oft
he doeri
s anot
her
r
equi
rementt
oav
ailhi
msel
foft
hedef
ense
of necessi
ty.I
f a per
son i
ntent
ional
l
y
cr
eat
est
hesi
tuat
ionofnecessi
ty,hewi
l
lbe
hel
dli
abl
efori
ntent
ional
l
ycausi
ngt
hehar
m
ev
ent
uat
ed.I
fhenegl
i
gent
lypr
oducest
he
st
ateofemer
gencyt
ri
gger
ingt
henecessar
y
act
,hewi
l
lbel
i
abl
eforcausi
ngt
hehar
m
because ofnegl
i
gence pr
ovi
ded t
hatt
he
negl
i
gentdoi
ngoft
heacti
spuni
shabl
e.For
i
nst
ance,aper
sondr
ivi
ngatanexcessi
ve
 202

speedcannotr
aisenecessi
tyasadef
ensei
f
he r
uns ov
era pedest
ri
an t
o sav
ethe
passenger
sint
hecar
.Howev
er,i
thast
obe
not
edt
hataper
sonwhocommi
tsacr
ime
bei
ngi
nast
ateofnecessi
tyi
snott
obe
t
reat
ed al
i
ke wi
th ot
her
s t
hough t
he
necessi
tyi
s cr
eat
ed by hi
sfaul
t.Ar
t.
76
pr
ovi
dest
hathei
sent
it
led t
o mandat
ory
opt
ional
mit
igat
ion(
Art
.180)
.

Atanyr
ate,i
fthe r
equi
rement
s pr
ovi
ded
bot
h under Ar
t.
75 and Ar
t.
76, ei
ther
expr
essl
yori
mpl
i
edl
y,ar
e met
,necessi
ty
can successf
ull
yber
aised asa def
ense.
Thet
ypesofhar
msav
oidedandcausedar
e
i
rr
elev
ant
.Ift
her
equi
rement
sar
e,howev
er,
notsat
isf
ied,t
hedef
ensedoesnotexi
st.
I
nst
ead,
excessofnecessi
tymayexi
stl
i
kei
f
 203

t
he st
ate of necessi
ty does not exi
st
becauset
hedangeri
snoti
mmi
nent
,ori
s
cr
eat
ed byt
he f
aul
toft
he act
or,ort
he
measur
etaken i
sin excess ofwhati
s
necessar
y.Excessofnecessi
tyent
it
lest
he
act
oronl
ytoami
ti
gat
edpenal
ty.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
How woul
dyouj
ust
if
yAr
t.
75t
oexi
sti
n
t
he cr
imi
nalcode i
nthe pr
esence of
Ar
t.
71andAr
t.
78?
2.
Expl
aint
hedegr
eeofnecessi
tyr
equi
red
underar
t.
75.
3.
Discusst
he pr
opor
ti
onal
i
tybet
ween a
dangert
obeav
ert
edandadangert
hat
woul
d hav
e been suf
fer
ed had t
he
measur
e been nott
aken t
o av
ertt
he
 204

dangeri
smeasur
ed.
4.
Expl
aint
her
equi
rementof‘
ser
iousness’
oft
hedangert
ojust
if
yunderAr
t.
75.
5.
Who i
sto deci
dewhet
hert
hedanger
was‘
i
mmi
nentorser
ious’
,t
hedef
endant
who f
ound hi
msel
fconf
ront
ed byt
he
danger(
subj
ect
ive)oronewhomi
ghtbe
cal
l
eda‘
reasonabl
eman’
?

CasePr
obl
em:
Al
emay
uandBi
sratwentf
orav
oyageont
he
sea.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,ther
ewasashi
pwr
eck
duet
oaheav
yst
orm.Somehow bot
hof
t
hem managedt
ogeti
ntoal
i
feboatwi
th
somef
ood.Theyhadenoughf
oodf
ort
he
comi
ng t
hree day
s.Al
emay
uthr
ew Bi
srat
ov
erboar
dtohav
efoodf
ort
hecomi
ngsi
x
day
s.Upon r
eachi
ng t
he shor
e,Al
emay
u
 205

conf
essedhi
sactofcausi
ngt
hedeat
hof
Bi
srat
.Ther
efor
e,hehasbeenchar
gedf
or
i
ntent
ional
kil
l
ingofBi
srat
.

Can‘
necessi
ty’becl
aimedasdef
enceby
Al
emay
u?Di
scuss,i
ndet
ail
,thel
awr
elat
ing
t
o necessi
ty as a def
ence f
ro cr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ity
.

2.
2Legi
ti
mat
eDef
ense:Ar
ts.78,
79

Nodoubt
,thati
tist
hepr
imar
ydut
yoft
he
st
atet
opr
otectt
hel
i
feandpr
oper
tyofi
ts
i
ndi
vi
dual
s,butno st
ate,no mat
terhow
l
argei
tsr
esour
cesmi
ghtbe,candeput
ea
pol
i
cemant
owat
cht
heact
ivi
ti
esofeach
andev
eryi
ndi
vi
dualandpr
otecthi
m.Ther
e
 206

maybesi
tuat
ionswher
ehel
poft
hest
ate
aut
hor
it
iescannotbeobt
ainedi
nor
dert
o
r
epelanunl
awf
ulaggr
essi
onei
therbecause
not
imei
slef
ttoaskf
orsuchhel
porf
orany
ot
herr
eason.Tomeetsuchexi
genci
es,t
he
l
awhasgi
vent
her
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense
t
oev
eryi
ndi
vi
dual
.

Thel
aw ofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensepr
ovi
dest
hat
whenaper
soni
ssuddenl
yfacedwi
than
at
tack t
o hi
s per
son or pr
oper
ty and
i
mmedi
ateai
dfr
om t
hest
atemachi
ner
yis
notav
ail
abl
e,t
hatper
son i
s ent
it
led t
o
def
endhi
msel
fandr
esi
stt
heat
tackandt
o
i
nfl
i
cton t
he at
tackerany har
m t
hati
s
necessar
yfort
hepur
poseofdef
ense.The
r
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
enseser
vesasoci
al
pur
pose. I
n asmuch asaper
son who
 207

unl
awf
ull
yat
tacksanot
heri
sint
hewr
ong,
he who r
epel
sthe at
tack cont
ri
but
es t
o
ensur
ingt
hatwr
ongshoul
dnotpr
evai
l
;by
r
est
ori
ng t
he or
derwhi
ch t
he at
tack has
di
stur
bed,heper
for
msaf
unct
ionwhi
chi
s
al
lthemor
eusef
ult
othecommuni
tysi
nce
hi
s act may at t
he same t
ime det
er
pr
ospect
ive aggr
essor
. Fur
ther
mor
e, t
he
doeri
sjust
if
iedi
nresi
sti
ngt
heat
tacknot
onl
ymor
all
yandsoci
all
y,butal
sol
egal
l
y;t
he
def
ense i
slawf
ulsi
nce,i
nthe t
erms of
Hegel
,i
tnegat
est
henegat
ionoft
hel
aw

Legi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
sonespeci
fi
cty
peof
necessi
ty, and t
her
efor
e has much i
n
common.I
n bot
h cases,a si
tuat
ion of
di
str
ess ar
ises whi
ch cannot be sol
ved
ot
her
wiset
hanbyt
hedoi
ngofhar
m.But
 208

t
her
e al
so some f
undament
aldi
ff
erence
bet
ween gener
alst
ate ofnecessi
ty and
l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense.Someoft
hedi
ff
erences
ar
easf
oll
ows:
(
i) necessi
tyi
sbasi
cal
l
yoneofaggr
essi
on
whi
l
eanactunderAr
t78i
soneof def
ense,
(
ii
) t
hedoerofanecessar
yact
,unl
i
kea
per
sonwhodef
endshi
msel
f,i
snotr
esi
sti
ng
anunl
awf
ulassaul
t.
(
ii
i) i
nthe case ofnecessi
tyt
he conf
li
ct
occur
sisbet
weent
wol
egi
ti
mat
eint
erest
s
buti
nthe case ofl
egi
ti
mat
e-def
ense t
he
conf
li
ct occur
s i
s not bet
ween t
wo
l
egi
ti
mat
eint
erest
s.Thi
sent
ail
sthati
nthe
f
ir
stcasei
tisst
rengt
h,whi
l
eint
hesecond
casei
ti hel
st aw,
whi
chhast
hel
astwor
d.
Fr
om whi
chev
erangl
eonel
ooksati
t,t
he
posi
ti
on,t
her
efor
e,i
snott
hesamei
nbot
h
 209

cases.Hence,
thef
acti
sthat
,int
hecr
imi
nal
l
aw,t
he r
equi
rement
s ofsel
f-
def
ense ar
e
noti
dent
ical
tot
hoseofnecessi
ty.

2.
2.1.Legi
ti
mat
eDef
enseunderEt
hiopi
an
Law

Condi
ti
onsRequi
redf
ort
heDef
ence;
The r
ightt
orepul
se at
tacks,whi
ch ar
e
cont
rar
ytot
hel
aw,i
snotunr
est
ri
cted.I
ts
exer
cise i
s gov
erned by t
he f
oll
owi
ng
condi
ti
ons.
1.
Ther
emustbeani
mmi
nentat
tackora
t
her
eatofanat
tack
2.
Theat
tackmustbeunl
awf
ul
3.
Theat
tackmustbepr
opor
ti
onal
4.
The at
tack coul
d not hav
e been
ot
her
wiseav
ert
ed
 210

1.Ther
emustbeanI
mmi
nentAt
tackora
Thr
eatofAt
tack:
As i
ts v
ery name i
ndi
cat
es, l
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ense necessar
il
yimpl
i
es at
tack orat
l
eastat
hreatofanat
tack.Aswi
thnecessi
ty,
sowi
thl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense,t
hej
ust
if
icat
ion
i
sav
ail
abl
eonl
yinsof
arast
her
eexi
stsa
st
ateofact
ualdanger
,whet
hert
heat
tacki
s
i
nthe cour
se of bei
ng execut
ed or i
s
i
mmi
nent
.Itf
oll
owst
hatt
her
eisnor
ightof
def
ensewhenei
thert
heat
tackhasal
ready
t
akenpl
aceort
hedoerseekst
opr
eventa
f
utur
e dangerf
rom ev
ent
uat
ing.I
n ot
her
wor
dst
her
eisnol
egi
ti
mat
edef
enseunl
ess
t
hedangeri
simmi
nent
.Thedef
ensemust
al
way
sbei
nresponset
o an at
tackora
t
hreatofat
tack.I
fther
efor
e,t
hedef
ensei
s
pr
emat
ureorf
oll
owst
heassaul
t,i
tisnot
 211

l
egi
ti
mat
ewi
thi
nthemeani
ng oft
hel
aw.
Thephr
asi
ngoft
hepenalcode(
art
.74)i
n
t
hisr
especti
simpr
ovedunderAr
t.
78oft
he
cr
imi
nalcodet
omeant
her
ightofdef
ense
maybeexer
cisedonl
y“agai
nstani
mmi
nent
and unl
awf
ulassaul
tora t
hreatofan
assaul
t”
.Thus,t
heconf
usi
onwhet
hert
he
def
ense i
s av
ail
abl
eforan at
tack i
nthe
cour
seofexecut
ioni
snowr
emov
ed.

A l
ogi
cal quest
ion her
e i
s about t
he
commencement and cont
inuance of t
he
exer
ciseofr
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense.The
r
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensecommencesas
soon as a r
easonabl
e appr
ehensi
on of
dangert
oal
egi
ti
mat
eint
erestar
isesf
rom
an at
temptt
hreatt
o commi
tthe of
fense
t
hough t
he of
fense may nothav
e been
 212

commi
tt
ed;
andi
tcont
inuesasl
ongassuch
appr
ehensi
on of danger cont
inues.
Howev
er a r
easonabl
e gr
ound f
or t
he
appr
ehensi
on i
srequi
sit
e.Thi
s on ot
her
handi
snott
omeant
hatf
ort
heexer
ciseof
l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
tisnecessar
ythatt
he
par
ty exer
cisi
ng t
he r
ight must hav
e
suf
fer
ed somei
njur
yatt
hehandsofhi
s
at
tacker
s.The r
ightar
ises as soon as a
r
easonabl
e appr
ehensi
on ar
ises and
cont
inuest
il
lthet
hreatcont
inues.

Ther
eisal
sonor
ightt
oinf
li
ctpuni
shment
ont
hewr
ongdoerf
orhi
spastactaf
tert
he
appr
ehensi
onhasceasedt
oexi
t.Ther
ight
ofdef
enseendswi
tht
henecessi
tyf
ori
t
ends.Sowher
ethedeceasedwasf
leei
ng
f
orhi
sli
fe,t
her
e was no j
ust
if
icat
ion t
o
 213

shoothi
m down.Thi
swoul
dbeasheercase
ofmur
derandnot
hingel
se.

2.TheAt
tack,Whet
herAct
ualorI
mmi
nent
,
MustbeUnl
awf
ul:
Fort
hepur
poseofAr
t.
78,t
heactdoneor
i
ntendedt
obedonebyt
heaggr
essorshoul
d
beobj
ect
ivel
ycont
rar
ytot
hel
aw.What
ever
t
hisl
awmaybe,andi
tisnotr
equi
redt
hati
t
shoul
d amountt
o acr
imi
nalof
fencenor
,
wheni
tamount
stosuchanof
fence,t
hati
t
shoul
d be puni
shabl
e.The r
eason behi
nd
t
hissol
uti
oni
sthatt
hedef
endercannotbe
expect
edt
oknoworhasnot
imet
ofi
ndout
whet
hert
he aggr
essori
s,subj
ect
ivel
y,at
f
aul
t.

I
nthe same t
oken t
her
eis no r
ightof
 214

l
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense agai
nstan actwhi
ch
does not r
easonabl
y cause t
he
appr
ehensi
onofdeat
horofgr
iev
oushur
t,i
f
done,orat
tempt
edt
obedone,byapubl
i
c
ser
vantact
ingi
ngoodf
ait
hunderhi
sof
fi
ci
al
capaci
ty,
thought
hatact
,maynotbest
ri
ctl
y
j
ust
if
iabl
ebyl
aw.I
not
herwor
ds,t
her
eisno
l
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense agai
nst l
awf
ul act
s,
par
ti
cul
arl
yact
s oft
he ki
nd descr
ibed i
n
Ar
t.
68.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:1
a)
IfA,a pol
i
ce of
fi
cer
,ar
rest
s B who has
commi
tsed a f
lagr
antof
fence,B i
s not
ent
it
led t
oresi
stt
he ar
restbecause t
he
ar
restbyt
hepol
i
ceof
fi
ceri
sal
awf
ulact
andt
hear
rest
edper
sonwi
l
lnothav
ethe
r
ightt
odef
endhi
msel
fsi
ncewhatt
hepol
i
ce
 215

manhasdonei
snotcont
rar
ytot
hel
aw.
b) I
fAi
nfl
i
ctscor
por
alchast
isementupon
hi
ssonB,t
hel
att
eri
snotj
ust
if
iedunder
Ar
t.
78i
nst
ri
ki
nghi
sfat
herbackbecause
Ar
t.
68oft
hecr
imi
nalcodeal
l
owspar
tent
s
t
oinf
li
ctcor
por
alchast
isementupont
hei
r
chi
l
drenf
ort
hepur
poseofcor
rect
ingt
hei
r
chi
l
dren.Howev
er,B,t
heson,i
sent
it
ledt
o
def
endhi
msel
fift
her
ightofcor
rect
ioni
s
notexer
cisedi
nar
easonabl
emanner
,asi
s
r
equi
redbyAr
t.
68(
b)

Fur
ther
,ther
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
s
essent
ial
l
yadef
ensi
ver
ightci
rcumscr
ibed
by t
he st
atut
e, av
ail
abl
e onl
y when
ci
rcumst
ancescl
ear
lyj
ust
if
yit
.Iti
sav
ail
abl
e
onl
ytot
hosewhoi
nthef
aceofi
mmi
nent
per
ilacti
ngoodf
ait
h.Ther
ighti
snott
obe
 216

al
l
owedt
o bepl
eadedorav
ail
edofasa
pr
etext f
or a v
indi
cti
ve, aggr
essi
ve or
r
etr
ibut
ive pur
pose.The r
ighti
s av
ail
abl
e
agai
nstan of
fense and so an aggr
essor
cannotcl
aimt
her
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense.
The r
ightcannotbe used as a shi
eldt
o
j
ust
if
yanactofaggr
essi
on.I
faper
songoes
t
oki
l
lanot
herwi
thagun,
thei
ntendedv
ict
im
i
sent
it
ledt
oexer
ciset
her
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ense,andi
fhedoesso,t
her
eisnor
ight
ofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
nthef
ormert
oki
l
lthe
l
att
er.I
n ot
herwor
ds,t
her
eisno pr
ivat
e
def
enseagai
nstpr
ivat
edef
ense.Noonei
s
al
so al
l
owed t
o dev
ise a mechani
sm,
wher
eby an at
tack may be pr
ovoked as
pr
etencef
orki
l
li
ng.

Mor
eov
er,t
her
e cannotbe any quest
ion
 217

exceedi
ng t
he r
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense
wher
ethe accused i
ntent
ional
l
y causes
mor
e har
m t
han i
tis necessar
yfort
he
pur
poseofhi
sdef
ense.Thi
s,howev
er,i
s
t
ruewi
th,i
nfactoneexcept
ion.Thus,i
fin
t
he exer
cise of t
he r
ight of l
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ense agai
nst an assaul
t, whi
ch
r
easonabl
y causes t
he appr
ehensi
on of
deat
h,t
hedef
enderi
ssosi
tuat
edt
hathe
cannotef
fect
ual
l
yexer
ciset
hatr
ightwi
thout
r
iskofhar
mtoani
nnocentper
son,hi
sri
ght
ofpr
ivat
edef
enseext
endst
other
unni
ngof
t
hatr
isk.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:2
Suppor
tA i
s at
tacked by a mob who
at
tempt
s t
o mur
der hi
m. A cannot
ef
fect
ual
l
y ex
erci
se hi
sri
ght of pr
ivat
e
 218

def
ensewi
thoutf
ir
ingont
hemob,andhe
cannotf
ir
ewi
thoutr
iskofi
nnocent
swhoar
e
mi
ngl
ed wi
tht
he mob.A commi
ts no
of
fence,i
fbysof
ir
inghehar
msanyoft
he
chi
l
dren.

I
tisal
sot
rueof
,inaf
reef
ight
,si
tuat
ionl
i
ke
wher
e t
wo par
ti
es come ar
med wi
th
det
ermi
nat
iont
omeasur
ethei
rst
rengt
hand
t
o set
tl
e a di
sput
e by f
orce and i
nthe
ensui
ngf
ightbot
hsi
desr
ecei
vei
njur
ies.I
n
such cases,t
her
eis no r
ightofpr
ivat
e
def
ense t
o ei
ther par
ty. Each one i
s
r
esponsi
blef
or hi
s own act
s and bot
h
par
ti
esar
eaggr
essor
sand noneoft
hem
cancl
aimr
ightofpr
ivat
edef
ense.

I
n r
elat
ion t
o t
he r
equi
rement of t
he
 219

unl
awf
ulness of t
he at
tack di
rect
ed or
t
hreat
enedami
stakenl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
s
anot
her t
opi
cthat war
rant
s di
scussi
on.
Ther
ef e, i
or f any i
ndi
vi
dual bel
i
eves
mi
stakenl
ythathei
sunl
awf
ull
yat
tackor
unl
awf
ull
ythr
eat
ened wi
th an i
mmi
nent
at
tack and ki
l
ls ori
njur
ies t
he mi
staken
aggr
essor
,hef
all
sunderAr
t.
80(
mist
akeof
f
act
).Thei
njur
yisnotl
awf
ulasi
thasnot
beeni
nfl
i
ctedi
nast
ateofl
egi
ti
mat
esel
f-
def
ense; howev
er, i
t has not been
i
ntent
ional
l
ycausedandt
heof
fendermay
,
t
her
efor
e,onl
ybepuni
shedf
ornegl
i
gencei
f
t
heci
rcumst
ancessoj
ust
if
y.

3.Noot
herChoi
ce (
Coul
dNotHav
eBeen
Ot
her
wiseAv
ert
ed)
:
Ar
t.
78st
atest
hatanactofdef
ense“
shal
l
 220

notbepuni
shabl
eift
heat
tackori
mmi
nent
at
tack coul
d not hav
e been ot
her
wise
av
ert
ed”
.Thi
srequi
rementi
ssi
mil
art
othe
r
equi
rement of necessi
ty under Ar
t.
75,
.
Ther
eisnor
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
n
cases i
n whi
ch t
her
eist
ime t
o hav
e
r
ecour
se t
othe pr
otect
ion oft
he publ
i
c
aut
hor
it
ies.

Forexampl
e:A,
seesBwhoi
sat
tempt
ingt
o
r
emov
eaheav
yst
atuef
rom hi
s(A’
s)gar
den.
Al
i
vesnextt
oapol
i
cest
ati
onand,i
fhe
t
elephonedt
othest
ati
on,hecoul
dobt
ain
t
he assi
stance oft
he pol
i
ce bef
oret
he
st
atuei
sremov
ed.Shoul
d‘A’cal
lthepol
i
ce
or i
s ent
it
led per
sonal
l
yto def
end hi
s
pr
oper
ty?I
nthi
s case t
he choi
ce i
s not
bet
ween f
li
ghtand def
ense,butbet
ween
 221

per
sonal
l
y def
endi
ng t
he t
hreat
ened r
ight
andcal
l
ingt
hepol
i
cet
odef
endi
t.I
nthef
ir
st
case,he who r
enounces t
o def
end t
his
i
nter
est by r
unni
ng away sacr
if
ices i
t,
wher
easi
nthesecondcasehedoesnot
sacr
if
icei
tbycal
l
ingt
hepol
i
cebutent
rust
s
i
tsdef
enset
othepol
i
ce.Thei
ssuet
her
efor
e,
i
snotwhet
herheshoul
dsacr
if
icehi
sri
ght
r
athert
hanpr
otecti
t,butwhet
herheshoul
d
di
rect
lypr
otecti
tbyhi
sownactr
athert
han
pr
otecti
tindi
rect
lybyhav
ingr
ecour
set
othe
aut
hor
it
ies. What i
s i
n quest
ion her
e,
t
her
efor
e,i
snott
her
ightofdef
enseassuch,
whi
chr
ightexi
stsbyt
hemer
efactt
hatan
unl
awf
ulassaul
tist
aki
ng pl
ace,butt
he
manneri
n whi
ch i
tis exer
cised,i
.e.
,the
adequacyoft
hemeansusedt
orepelt
he
at
tack.Consequent
ly,i
ftheat
tackedper
son
 222

deci
desi
nfav
orofper
sonalact
ion when
i
ndi
rectpr
otect
ioncoul
dhav
ebeenobt
ained
bycal
l
ingt
hepol
i
ce,hedeci
desi
nfav
orof
means of def
ense,whi
ch causes mor
e
har
mst
hani
twoul
dhav
ebeencausedi
fthe
pol
i
ce had been cal
l
ed.I
nthi
ssense,he
goes “
bey
ond t
he act
s necessar
y f
or
av
ert
ingt
hedanger
”(Ar
t.
79(
1)and,
sincehe
mi
suseshi
sri
ghtofdef
ense,hi
sacti
sno
l
ongerl
awf
ul,butexcusabl
e.Ther
efor
e,t
he
def
ense,asar
ule,i
snotl
egi
ti
mat
eift
he
t
hreat
enedr
ightcoul
dhav
ebeenef
fect
ivel
y
pr
otect
ed by cal
l
ing t
he pol
i
ce. Thi
s,
howev
er,i
swi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
othecases
wher
e t
his act i
s l
awf
ul under l
egal
pr
ovi
sions ot
hert
han Ar
t.
78.Thus i
fA,
t
houghhehasenought
imet
ocal
lthepol
i
ce,
i
s abl
eto pr
eventhi
s st
atue f
rom bei
ng
 223

r
emov
edmer
elybyar
rest
ingB,t
hef
actt
hat
heshoul
dhav
ecal
l
edt
hepol
i
cei
sir
rel
evant
i
nthi
s par
ti
cul
arcase;ev
en t
hough one
shoul
dhol
dthatAr
t.
78doesnotl
egi
ti
mat
e
t
hear
rest
,A i
sinanyev
entaut
hor
izedt
o
make t
his ar
restby Ar
ts.
68 (
a) of t
he
cr
imi
nal code and 50 of t
he Cr
imi
nal
Pr
ocedur
eCode.

4. The act of Def

ense shoul
d be
Pr
opor
ti
onat
e:

The r
ightofpr
ivat
e def
ense i
n no case
ext
endst
othei
nfl
i
cti
ngofmor
ehar
mthani
t
i
snecessar
ytoi
nfl
i
ctf
ort
hepur
poseof
def
ense.The f
orce whi
ch a per
son i
s
ent
it
led t
o use must not be undul
y
di
spr
opor
ti
onat
etot
hei
njur
ywhi
chi
stobe
 224

av
ert
edorwhi
chi
snecessar
il
yappr
ehended
andmustnotexceedi
tsl
egi
ti
mat
epur
pose,
andt
hatt
heexer
cisemustnotbev
indi
cti
ve
ormal
i
cious.

Ther
efor
e, as wi
th necessi
ty, so wi
th
l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense,acompar
isonmustbe
madebet
weent
hehar
m causedbyt
heact
ofdef
ense and t
hatwhi
ch t
he def
ender
coul
dreasonabl
yfear
.When an at
tack
endanger
s sev
erali
nter
est
s,t
he quest
ion
whet
hert
hedef
ensei
spr
opor
ti
onat
eshoul
d
ber
esol
vedbyt
aki
ngi
ntoaccountamor
e
v
aluabl
eoft
hesei
nter
est
s.Thusi
fA,when
i
nthe ac ofr
emov
ing a st
atue f
rom B’
s
gar
den,sees B comi
ng t
owar
ds hi
m and
pul
l
soutagun,B,whohador
igi
nal
l
ycome
t
odef
endhi
spr
oper
ty,i
stheni
nper
ilofhi
s
 225

l
i
fe;i
fheki
l
lsA,hi
sactwhi
chwoul
dhav
e
beendi
spr
opor
ti
onat
ehadAnotpul
l
edouta
gun,i
slawf
ulsi
nce,att
he t
ime oft
he
def
ense,i
tisnol
ongerhi
spr
oper
tybuthi
s
l
i
fewhi
chi
satst
ake.

The pr
opor
ti
onat
elycondi
ti
on i
mpl
i
est
hat
r
egar
dmustnotonl
ybet
other
espect
ive
i
mpor
tance oft
he i
nter
est
sinv
olv
ed,but
al
sot
oel
ement
ssuchast
heweapons,i
f
any
,usedi
ntheat
tackandt
hedef
ense,and
t
her
espect
ivesex,age,st
rengt
horst
ateof
heal
thoft
heaggr
essorandt
hedef
ender
.
Buti
tmayoccurt
hatt
hedef
endercommi
t
mi
stake as t
othe pr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty oft
he
def
ense.I
n such a case t
he def
ense i
s
l
egi
ti
mat
ewhent
hecour
tissat
isf
iedt
hat
,in
v
iew of al
lthe mat
eri
al and per
sonal
 226

ci
rcumst
ances oft
he case,t
he def
ender
exer
cisehi
sri
ghti
nar
easonabl
emanner
.
Fori
nst
ance,‘
A’cansucceedi
nlegi
ti
mat
e
def
ensei
fheki
l
ls‘
B’bel
i
evi
ngt
hatB has
t
hreat
enedhi
m wi
thar
ealgunwhi
l
eB i
s
act
ual
l
yhol
dingapopgun.

Sour
cesofdanger
:
I
tisi
mmat
eri
alf
orm whom t
he assaul
t
emanat
es.Ther
ightofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
s
al
soav
ail
abl
eagai
nstanof
fencecommi
tt
ed
bya per
son who mi
ghtnotbecr
imi
nal
l
y
l
i
abl
eforhi
sact
,ei
therbyr
easonoft
hedoer
bei
ngamanofunsoundmi
nd,
orbecauseof
wantofmat
uri
tyofunder
standi
ng,orbyt
he
r
easonofanymi
sconcept
ionont
hepar
tof
t
hatper
son.
 227

I
ll
ust
rat
ions
a)
Z, under t
he i
nfl
uence of madness,
at
tempt
stoki
l
lA;Zi
sgui
l
tyofnoof
fense.
ButAhast
hesamer
ightofpr
ivat
edef
ense,
whi
chhewoul
dhav
eifZwer
esane.

b) Aent
ersatni
ghtahousei
nwhi
chhei
s
l
egal
l
yent
it
led t
o ent
er.Z,i
n good f
ait
h,
t
aki
ngAf
orahousebr
eaker
,at
tacksA.Her
e
Z,byat
tacki
ngAundert
hismi
sconcept
ion,
commi
tsnoof
fense.ButA hast
hesame
r
ightofpr
ivat
edef
enseagai
nstZ,whi
chhe
woul
dhav
eifZwer
enotact
ingundert
hat
mi
sconcept
ion.
Ar
ightofdef
ense exi
sts ev
en agai
nst
ani
mal
susedasi
nst
rument
sint
hecases
pr
ovi
dedf
orbyAr
t.
32(
1)(
a).
 228

Ri
ght
sPr
otect
ed:
Legi
ti
mat
e def
ense exi
stsagai
nstat
tacks
endanger
inganyr
ight
,i.
e.i
nJher
ig’
ster
ms,
anyi
nter
esti
spr
otect
edbyl suchasl
aw, i
fe,
bodi
l
yint
egr
it
y,honour
,sexuall
i
ber
ty or
pr
oper
ty.
I
tisi
rr
elev
antwhet
hert
her
ightpr
otect
edi
s
t
hatoft
hedef
enderorofanot
herper
son,
andal
sowhet
heri
tisofapr
ivat
eorpubl
i
c
nat
ure.The hol
deroft
he r
ightcan be
any
one.Ar
t.
78st
atest
hatanactofdef
ense
may be done under t
he necessi
ty of
def
endi
ngei
theronesel
foranot
herper
son.
I
tisnotr
equi
red,t
her
efor
e,t
hatt
heactof
def
ense shoul
d al
way
s be done by t
he
per
sonwhoi
sori
saboutt
obe,unl
awf
ull
y
at
tacked.Suchanactmaybedone,
notonl
y
t
o pr
otectone’
s own i
nter
est
s,butal
so
 229

t
hose of a t
hir
d par
ty,what
ever t
hese
i
nter
est
smaybe.

2.
2.3.Excessi
nSel
f-
Def
ense:

UnderAr
t.
79,t
he def
enderi
s deemed t
o
exceedt
hel
i
mit
sofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensei
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngt
wocondi
ti
ons:
1.Usesdi
spr
opor
ti
onat
emeans.(
Wantof
pr
opor
ti
onal
it
yrequi
rement
):
WhatAr
t.
79(
1)act
ual
l
yimpl
i
es,i
sthatan
actofdef
ense i
s notl
awf
ulwhen t
he
def
endercausesmor
ehar
mthant
hatwhi
ch
hehadr
easont
ofear
,i.
e.whent
hedef
ense
i
s,“
mani
fest
lyexcessi
ve”

2.Doesmor
ethanshoul
dreasonabl
ybe
donet
oav
ertt
hedanger(
wantofnecessi
ty
 230

r
equi
rement
):
Thesecondcasei
nwhi
chanactofdef
ense
i
sunl
awf
uli
sthatwher
ethedef
endergoes
bey
ond whati
s necessar
ytor
epelt
he
unl
awf
ulassaul
t.Al
thought
her
emayappear
t
obenodi
ff
erencebet
weent
hissi
tuat
ion
andt
hepr
ecedi
ngone,
whati
smeanti
sthat
t
hedoeri
snotj
ust
if
iedwhet
hert
heexcess
accompani
esorf
oll
owst
heat
tack.I
nthe
f
ir
st case, t
he def
ender i
s puni
shabl
e
because t
he def
ense i
tsel
f i
s
di
spr
opor
ti
onat
ewhi
l
eint
hesecondcase
hei
spuni
shabl
ebecausehecont
inuest
odo
har
m ev
en t
hough t
hisi
s notnecessar
y
si
ncet
heassaul
thasal
readybeenr
epel
l
ed
i
n an adequat
emanner
.St
ri
ctl
yspeaki
ng,
t
her
efor
e,henol
ongerdef
endshi
msel
f,as
hei
snol
ongeri
ndanger
.Thus,i
f‘A’st
ri
kes
 231

Baf
terr
epel
l
ingB’
sat
tackbyknocki
nghi
m
out
,thebeat
ingi
sunl
awf
ul.

I
nassessi
ngpuni
shmenti
ncasesofexcess,
t
he cour
t accor
ding t
o Ar
t.
79 (
1) shal
l
wi
thoutr
est
ri
cti
on,r
educet
hepenal
tyunder
Ar
t.
185 when a per
son i
nrepel
l
ing an
unl
awf
ulassaul
texceedst
hel
i
mit
sofsel
f-
def
ensebyusi
ngdi
spr
opor
ti
onat
emeansor
goi
ng bey
ond t
he act
s necessar
y f
or
av
ert
ingt
hedanger
.Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
79(
2),
t
he cour
t may exempt t
he act
or f
rom
puni
shmentwhen i
tis sat
isf
ied t
hatt
he
excess i
s due t
o t
he ‘
excusabl
e f
ear
,
sur
pri
se or exci
tement caused by t
he
at
tack.
”Inev
aluat
ingt
heexcess,t
hej
udge
musti
fpossi
bleputhi
msel
fint
hepl
aceof
t
hedef
enderandi
magi
nehi
sst
ateofmi
nd
 232

att
imeoft
heat
tack.I
fhi
spsy
chol
ogi
cal
i
nvest
igat
ionshowst
hatt
heexcessi
veact
was not done wi
th a gui
l
ty mi
nd,t
he
accusedmustbeacqui
tt
ed.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
How woul
d y
ou expl
ain t
he soci
al
pur
pose exi
sti
ng behi
nd l
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ense?
2.
What j
ust
if
ies t
he i
ndependent
t
reat
mentof‘
l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense’outof
t
hegener
alst
ateofnecessi
ty?
3.
Expl
aint
he scope oft
he def
ense i
n
t
ermsofbot
htheel
i
gibl
eonest
orai
sei
t
andt
henat
ureoft
heat
tack.
4.
How i
s pr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty det
ermi
ned i
n
casesofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense?
 233

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng:

1.Can t
her
e be anyr
ightofsel
fdef
ence
agai
nst t
he act
s of a per
son who i
s
exer
cisi
nghi
sri
ghtofsel
fdef
ence?
2.Wher
eaper
sonpr
ovokesanot
herandt
he
ot
herr
eact
soutofuncont
rol
l
abl
eanger
,can
t
hef
ir
stoneusef
orcet
opr
otecthi
msel
fand
cl
aiml
egi
ti
mat
edef
ence?

CasePr
obl
em:
Rogerwast
heownerofar
est
aur
ant
.One
dayagr
oupofper
sonscameanddemanded
somemoney
.Hehadnoal
ter
nat
ivebutt
o
gi
vet
hem t
hemoneyast
heyt
hreat
enedhi
m
t
obur
ndownhi
sshop.Af
teraweekanot
her
gr
oup demanded money
.On r
efusalt
hey
r
obbedhi
m.Soheobt
ainedar
evol
vert
o
pr
otecthi
spr
oper
tyi
nthef
utur
efr
om such
 234

v
iol
entpeopl
e.Ont
het
hir
doccasi
onwhena
gr
oupoft
encamet
orobhi
m heshotal
lof
t
hem dead.
1.CanRogercl
aimt
her
ightofsel
f-
def
ence?
2.Whati
sthescopeoft
her
ightofsel
f-
def
enseasdef
inedi
ntheCr
imi
nalCode?3.
Whatar
ethel
i
mit
ati
onst
otheexer
ciseof
t
he r
ight of sel
f def
ense? Wr
it
e t
he
i
mpor
tantgui
del
i
nes,
gener
all
y,t
oassest
he
exi
stenceoft
her
ightofsel
fdef
ensei
nany
gi
venci
rcumst
ances.
4. Pr
eci
sel
y di
sti
ngui
sh t
he di
ff
erences
bet
weent
hedef
ensesof‘
necessi
ty’
and‘
sel
f
def
ense’
.

Sect
ion.3.Mi
stakeofFact
,Mi
stakeofLaw
andI
gnor
anceofl
aw:
 235

Ar
ts.
80&81
3.
1Mi
stakeofFactandMi
stakeofLaw:

Mi
stakeori
gnor
anceoff
actcanser
veasa
def
ense i
fitnegat
es t
he st
ate ofmi
nd
(
mens r
ea)r
equi
red f
ort
he cr
ime.The
mi
stakeori
gnor
ancemustbebot
hhonest
and r
easonabl
e.I
fa woman mi
stakenl
y
pi
cksupapur
set
hati
sver
ysi
mil
art
oher
ownandwal
ksof
fwi
thi
t,shecoul
dcl
aim
mi
stakeoff
acti
nresponset
oachar
geof
l
arceny
.Themi
stakeoff
acti
sadef
ense
becausei
tnegat
est
hemensr
eael
ementof
t
hecr
imeofl
arceny
.Acour
twoul
dassess
t
heci
rcumst
ancest
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
he
mi
stakewasbot
hhonestandr
easonabl
e.

Mi
stakei
snotmer
efor
get
ful
ness.I
tisasl
i
p
 236

“
made,notbydesi
gn,butbymi
schance”
.
UnderAr
t.
80,ami
stakemustbeoneoff
act
and notofl
aw.Honestand r
easonabl
e
mi
stakest
andsi
nfactont
hesamef
oot
ing
asabsenceoft
her
easoni
ngf
acul
ty,asi
n
i
nfancy
,orper
ver
sionoft
hatf
acul
ty,asi
n
l
unacy
.Wher
eamanmadeat
hrustwi
tha
swor
datapl
acewhowasnotabur
glar
,it
can be hel
dthathe had commi
tt
ed no
of
fence.I
not
herwor
ds,hewasi
nthesame
si
tuat
ionasf
arasr
egar
dst
hehomi
ci
deasi
f
he had ki
l
led a bur
glar
. Si
mil
arl
y,t
he
accusedwhi
l
eguar
dinghi
smai
zef
iel
dshot
anar
rowofamov
ingobj
ecti
nthebonaf
ide
t
hinki
ng t
hati
twas a bearand i
nthe
pr
ocesscaused t
hedeat
hofamanwho
washi
dingt
her
e.I
tcanbehel
dthathecoul
d
notbehel
dli
abl
eformur
derashi
scasewas
 237

f
ull
ycov
eredbyAr
t.
80.I
nthesameway
,
wher
etheaccusedwhi
l
ehel
pingt
hepol
i
ce
st
oppedacar
twhi
chhe/
shei
ngoodf
ait
h
bel
i
ed t
o be car
ryi
ng smuggl
ed r
ice but
ul
ti
mat
elyt
hei
r suspi
cion pr
oved t
o be
i
ncor
rect
,coul
d not be pr
osecut
ed f
or
wr
ongf
ulr
est
rai
ntunder
-Ar
t.ast
hei
rcase
wascov
eredbyAr
t.
80

3.
1.1TheMeani
ngof‘
Fact
’:
A“
fact
”wi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t.
80i
sany
ev
ent
,ci
rcumst
anceorqual
i
tyofamat
eri
al
ofper
sonalnat
uret
he exi
stence ornon-
exi
stence of whi
ch af
fect
s t
he cour
t’
s
deci
sionongui
l
tand/
orsent
ence.
Af
actmayconsi
stsof
:
1.aphenomenonper
cept
ibl
ebyt
hesense.
(e.
g.t
hedoermi
stakesar
seni
cforsugar
)or
 238

2.ast
ateofmi
nd(
e.g.t
hedoerbel
i
evest
hat
someonei
ntendst
oki
l
lhi
m)

I
tisi
mmat
eri
alf
ort
hepur
posesofAr
t.
80,
whet
hert
hef
actast
o whi
cht
hedoeri
s
mi
stakenconcer
nshi
m per
sonal
l
yornot
.
Forexampl
e,hemar
ri
esbel
i
evi
nghi
msel
fto
beawi
dowerorhehassexuali
nter
cour
se
wi
th a woman whom he bel
i
eves t
o be
unmar
ri
ed.I
tisal
soi
mmat
eri
alwhet
hert
he
exi
stence ornon-
exi
stence oft
he f
acti
s
condi
ti
onalupont
hepossessi
onofcer
tai
n
l
egalst
atusort
heexi
stenceofacer
tai
n
l
egalr
elat
ionshi
p(e.
g.qual
i
tyofbei
ng a
publ
i
c ser
vant
,or t
he owner of some
pr
oper
ty,
ort
her
elat
iveofsomeper
son)
.

Al
egalpr
ovi
sion,i
snotaf
actandAr
t.
80i
s
 239

i
nappl
i
cabl
e,whent
hedoeri
smi
stakenas
t
othel
egalconsequencesofanactwhi
ch
hedoes(
wit
hacl
earknowl
edgeoft
hef
act
s
oft
he case and cor
rect
lyappr
eci
ated by
hi
m). For exampl
e, he has sexual
i
nter
cour
se wi
th a woman whom he has
knownt
obemar
ri
edbutbel
i
evest
hatt
he
l
egalconsequencesoft
heacti
sint
hiscase
i
sthatsheonl
ycommi
tsanof
fence,orhe
hassex
uali
nter
cour
sewi
thagi
rlwhom he
hasknownt
hatshei
sagedsev
ent
eenbut
hebel
i
evesbyt
hel
aw.

3.
1.2. When Mi
stake of Fact May be
I
nvoked(
Appl
icabl
e):

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.80oft
hecr
imi
nalcode,a
per
son who commi
ts an of
fence i
n
 240

consequencesofer
roneousappr
eci
ati
onof
t
het
ruef
act
soft
hesi
tuat
ionmustbet
ri
ed
ast
hought
hesi
tuat
ion,
whi
chhebel
i
evest
o
exi
st,di
dact
ual
l
yexi
st.Ar
t58(
3)oft
he
cr
imi
nalcodesuppor
tst
hisr
ulest
ati
ngt
hat
“noper
sonshal
lbeconv
ict
edf
orwhathe
nei
therknew ofori
ntended,norf
orwhat
goesbey
ondwhathei
ntendedei
therdi
rect
ly
oraspossi
bil
i
ty,subj
ectt
othepr
ovi
si
ons
gov
erni
ng negl
i
gence “ because t
he
“awar
eness”(mens r
ea)componentof
i
ntent
ional
gui
l
tisv
iti
atedbyt
hemi
stake.

Ar
ti
cle80t
her
efor
emaybei
nvokedont
he
f
oll
owi
ngcases:
1.
Whent
hedoeri
smi
stakenast
oaf
act
,
whi
chi
samat
eri
ali
ngr
edi
entofanof
fence.
 241

Exampl
eI:
Suppose A shoot
s somet
hing whi
ch he
t
akest
obeagazel
l
ebutact
ual
l
yisB,he
cer
tai
nlyhasadesi
ret
oki
l
l,t
houghnott
he
desi
ret
o ki
l
la human bei
ng,whi
ch i
sa
r
equi
redel
ementofanof
fenceofhomi
cide.
Si
ncehedoesnotknow t
hathi
star
geti
sa
humanbei
ng(
mist
akeoff
act
),heshoul
d
not
,bef
oundgui
l
tyofi
ntent
ional
homi
ci
de.
Exampl
eII
:
I
fA,af
tershoot
ingBwi
tht
hei
ntent
ionof
ki
l
li
nghi
m,bur
ieshi
mint
hebel
i
eft
hathei
s
dead,butBi
sst
il
lal
i
veandact
ual
l
ydi
esof
suf
focat
ion.A i
s notgui
l
tyofi
ntent
ional
homi
cideast
heactdonet
ocauseB’
sdeat
h
(t
heshoot
ing)mi
ssesi
tspur
poseandact
causi
ngB’
s(t
hebur
ial
)isnotdonewi
tha
v
iewt
oter
minat
ethel
i
feofahumanbei
ng,
 242

whi
chi
sar
equi
redel
ementoft
heof
fence
ofi
ntent
ional
homi
cide.

2.
When t
hedoeri
smi
staken ast
ofact
,
whi
ch di
dit
,exi
st,woul
dlegi
ti
mat
e or
j
ust
if
yhi
sact
.
Mi
stakes i
n doi
ng an actoft
he nat
ure
def
ined i
n Ar
t.
68:as i
magi
nar
ynecessi
ty;
i
magi
nar
ylegi
ti
mat
edef
ense.
Thi
sAr
ti
cleexcusesaper
sonwhohasdone
what by l
aw i
s an of
fence, under a
mi
sconcept
ion of f
act
s,l
eadi
ng hi
m t
o
bel
i
eve i
n good f
ait
h t
hat he was
commandedbyl
awt
odoi
t.

Exampl
eI:
A,an of
fi
cerofa Cour
tofj
ust
ice,bei
ng
or
der
edbyt
hatcour
ttoar
restY,andaf
ter
 243

dueenqui
ry,bel
i
evi
ngZt
obeY,ar
rest
sZ.A
hascommi
tt
ednoof
fence.
Exampl
eII
:
AseesZcommi
twhatappear
stoAt
obea
mur
der
.A,i
ntheexer
ciset
othebestofhi
s
j
udgmentexer
tedi
ngoodf
ait
h,oft
hepower
whi
ch t
he l
aw gi
ves t
o al
lper
sons of
appr
ehendi
ngmur
der
ersi
ntheact
,sei
zesZ,
i
n or
der t
o br
ing Z,bef
oret
he pr
oper
aut
hor
it
ies.A has commi
tt
ed no of
fence,
t
houghi
tmayt
urnoutt
hatZwasact
ingi
n
sel
f-
def
ense.

3.
Whent
heact
ori
sunawar
eoft
hef
act
t
hatheact
sinaggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ances:
Exampl
e:
Ai
nsul
tsB,notknowi
ngt
hatt
hel
att
eri
sa
publ
i
cser
vantondut
y.I
nthi
scase,Ai
snot
 244

l
i
abl
etot
heaggr
avat
edpuni
shmentashe
dosenotknow oft
hef
acti
nconsequences
ofwhi
cht
hepenal
tyi
sincr
eased,namel
y
t
hespeci
alst
atust
hev
ict
im has.

3.
1.3.Negl
igence(
Bad–f
ait
h):Puni
shabl
e

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
80oft
hecr
imi
nalcode,a
per
son who commi
ts an of
fence i
n
consequencesofer
roneousappr
eci
ati
onof
t
he t
rue f
act
s oft
he si
tuat
ion shal
lbe
excl
uded f
rom puni
shmentbut
,the doer
may nonet
hel
ess be puni
shed f
orhav
ing
commi
tt
ed t
his of
fence because of
negl
i
gence,he coul
d hav
e av
oided t
he
mi
stakebyexcr
eti
ngt
hecar
ewhi
chcoul
d
r
easonabl
y be expect
ed of hi
m i
nthe
ci
rcumst
ances (
Art
.80 (
1),second al
i
ena.
 245

Thusadoct
orwhocausedt
hedeat
hofa
pat
ientbygi
vi
nghi
m,bymi
stake,apoi
son
i
nst
ead of a dr
ug i
s not gui
l
ty of
i
nter
nat
ionalhomi
cide;y
etaper
soni
nhi
s
posi
ti
on shoul
d obv
iousl
y be par
ti
cul
arl
y
car
efulnott
ocommi
tami
stakeoft
hiski
nd.
Hecoul
dandshoul
dhav
eensur
edt
hathe
act
ual
l
ywas admi
nist
eri
ng a medi
ci
ne or
t
hatt
hepat
ientwasnotal
l
ergi
ctot
hedr
ug.
Ther
efor
e,t
he doct
or i
s puni
shabl
efor
homi
cidebynegl
i
gence.

3.
1.4.Separ
ate and I
ndependentOf
fence
shal
lbePuni
shabl
e:Ar
t.
80(
2)

Thedoerofanactwhoi
sfr
eef
rom any
puni
shmentduet
othemi
stakeoff
acti
snot
f
ree f
rom puni
shmentofanot
herof
fence
 246

whi
chi
nthemsel
vesconst
it
uteasepar
ate
of
fenceAr
t.
80(
2).I
ntent
ionalgui
l
t,ev
eni
fit
i
sto be excl
uded i
nrel
ati
on t
o a gi
ven
of
fense,maybepr
esent
edi
nrel
ati
ont
oa
di
ff
erentof
fence,
asi
sthecase,
fori
nst
ance
whenconcur
rentof
fencesar
ecommi
tt
ed.

Exampl
eI
SupposeA,
insi
ghtoft
hepubl
i
c,hassexual
i
nter
cour
se wi
th a gi
rl whose age he i
s
mi
staken.HeAi
spuni
shabl
eforcommi
tt
ing
anof
fenseofpubl
i
cindecencyi
ntent
ional
l
y
commi
tt
edev
ent
houghhei
snotpuni
shabl
e
f
orsexual
int
ercour
se.
 247

Exampl
eII
SupposeA,del
i
ber
atel
yfai
l
stocomet
othe
assi
stanceofB,whom hehaswoundedi
na
st
ateofi
magi
nar
ylegi
ti
mat
edef
enset
hat
br
oughtaboutbyanunav
oidabl
emi
stakeor
uses,i
ndef
endi
nghi
msel
finsuchast
ate,
an unl
i
censed gun he i
s puni
shabl
efor
hav
ing act
ed i
n v
iol
ati
on t
he r
elev
ant
pr
ovi
sioni
nthespeci
alpar
t,ev
ent
houghhe
i
snotpuni
shabl
eforhav
ing,causedbodi
l
y
i
njur
y.

3.
1.5.Mi
stakeoft
heI
dent
it
yoft
heVi
cti
m
ort
heObj
ect
iveoft
heOf
fense:

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
80(
3),ami
stakeast
oa
f
act
,such as a mi
stake concer
ning t
he
i
dent
it
yoft
hev
ict
im ort
heobj
ectoft
he
 248

of
fense i
s nott
o be t
aken i
nto account
.
Mi
stakeoft
hiski
ndar
esomet
imesr
efer
red
t
o as non-
fundament
al mi
stakes, i
n
opposi
ti
on t
o f
undament
al or essent
ial
mi
stakeswhi
char
etheonl
yonest
hatwhi
ch
Ar
t.
80i
sconcer
nedwi
th.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
‘
A’wai
tsnearB’
shousewi
thi
ntent
ionof
shoot
inghi
m whenhecomeshome.Seei
ng
someoneappr
oachi
ngt
hehouse,heshoot
s
Ct
hinki
ngt
hati
tisBC.I
nthi
scase,Ai
s
gui
l
tyofi
ntent
ionalhomi
cideandhecannot
i
nvokeAr
t.
80.Si
ncet
hei
dent
it
yofhuman
bei
ngoneki
l
lsi
snotani
ngr
edi
entoft
he
of
fenseofhomi
cide.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
 249

‘
A’st
eal
sapai
nti
ng,whi
chi
sunknownt
o
hi
m,butwhi
chi
samer
ecopyoft
heone,
he
i
ntendst
ost
eal
.Int
hiscase,Ai
sgui
l
tyof
i
ntent
ionalt
hef
tandcannoti
nvokeAr
t.
80.
The pr
inci
plel
aid down i
n Ar
t.
80 (
3)i
s
howev
er,appl
i
cabl
eonl
ywhent
hemi
stake
ast
othei
dent
it
yoft
hev
ict
im ort
heobj
ect
oft
heof
fencei
swi
thoutt
hei
nfl
uenceoft
he
act
or’
sgui
l
t.Thus,Ai
snotgui
l
tyofi
ncest
whenhehassexuali
nter
cour
sewi
thMi
ssB
who,unknownt
ohi
m,i
shi
ssecondcousi
n
whom henev
ersawbef
orei
nhi
sli
fe;nori
s
hegui
l
tyofi
ntent
ionalt
hef
twhenhet
akes
B’
scoat
,bel
i
evi
ngi
ttobehi
sown,orof
aggr
avat
edt
hef
twhenhest
eal
sanobj
ect
whi
ch,
unknownt
ohi
m,i
sar
eli
giousone.

3.
2.Mi
stakeofLawandI
gnor
anceofLaw:
 250

Mi
stakef
rom t
hepoi
ntofv
iewoft
hel
awi
n
acr
imi
nalcasei
snodef
ense.Mi
stakeof
l
aw or
dinar
il
y means mi
stake as t
othe
exi
stenceofanyl
awonar
elev
antsubj
ectas
wel
lasmi
stakeast
owhatt
hel
awi
s.I
fany
i
ndi
vi
dualshoul
dinf
ri
nget
hest
atut
elaw of
t
he count
ry t
hrough i
gnor
ance or
car
elessness, he must abi
de by t
he
consequences of hi
s er
ror
;iti
s not
compet
entt
o hi
m t
o cl
aim i
n a cour
tof
j
ust
icet
hathewasi
gnor
antoft
hel
awoft
he
l
and,andnocour
tofj
ust
icei
satl
i
ber
tyt
o
r
ecei
vesuchapl
ea.

mi
Themaxi gnor
nti
ajur
isnonexcusat
,ini
ts
appl
i
cat
iont
ocr
imi
nalof
fences,admi
tsof
no except
ion,notev
en i
nthe case ofa
 251

f
orei
gn who can not r
easonabl
y be
supposedi
nfactt
oknowt
hel
awoft
hel
and.
I
nacaset
woFr
enchmenwer
echar
gedwi
th
wi
l
lfulmur
derbecauset
heyhadact
edas
secondsi
nadueli
nwhi
chonemanhadmet
hi
s deat
h.They al
l
eged t
hatt
hey wer
e
i
gnor
antoft
he f
actt
hatby t
he l
aw of
Engl
andki
l
li
nganadv
ersar
yinaf
airduel
amount
ed t
o mur
der
.Butt
he pl
ea was
ov
err
uled.(
Bar
ronet
,(1852)Dear
ly51.
).The
l
egalpr
esumpt
iont
hatev
ery
oneknowst
he
l
awoft
hel
andi
sof
tenunt
rueasamat
terof
f
actbutt
her
easonf
ort
hisseemst
o be
not
hingbutexpedi
ency
,ot
her
wiset
her
eis
no knowi
ng oft
he ext
entt
o whi
ch t
he
excuseofi
gnor
anceofl
awmi
ghtbecar
ri
ed.
I
ndeed,i
tmi
ghtbeur
gedal
mosti
nev
ery
case.Thi
srul
eofexpedi
encyhasbeenput
 252

t
ouseev
eni
nacasewher
etheaccused
coul
dnothav
epossi
blyknownt
hel
awi
nthe
ci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
chhewaspl
aced.Thus
aper
sonwhowasont
hehi
ghseasandas
suchcoul
dnothav
ebeencogni
zantofa
r
ecent
lypassedl
aw mi
ghtbeconv
ict
edf
or
cont
rav
eni
ng i
t. Al
though a per
son
commi
tsanact
,anof
fencef
ort
hef
ir
stt
ime
byast
atut
esor
ecent
lypassedt
orenderi
t
i
mpossi
blet
hatanynot
iceoft
hepassi
ngof
t
he st
atue cl
oud hav
ereached t
he pl
ace
wher
etheof
fencehasbeencommi
tt
ed;t
he
per
son’
signor
ance oft
he st
atue wi
l
lnot
sav
ehi
mfr
om puni
shment
.

I
gnor
ance of t
he l
aw has r
arel
y been
suf
fi
cientt
oexcusecr
imi
nalconduct
.Iti
s
per
mit
tedasadef
enseonl
yinsi
tuat
ioni
n
 253

whi
cht
hel
aw i
snotwi
del
yknownanda
per
soncannotbeexpect
edt
obeawar
eofa
par
ti
cul
ar l
aw.These si
tuat
ions ar
e not
common because ci
ti
zens ar
e gener
all
y
expect
edt
oknow t
hel
aw andacl
aim of
i
gnor
ancecoul
dbeusedt
oexcusev
irt
ual
l
y
anyt
ypeofi
l
legalconduct
.InaCal
i
for
nia
case, Nev
a Sny
der cl
aimed t
hat her
conv
ict
ionf
orpossessi
onofaf
ir
ear
m asa
conv
ict
edf
elonshoul
dbeov
ert
urned.She
mi
stakenl
ybel
i
evedt
hatherpr
iorconv
ict
ion
f
ormar
ij
uanasal
eswasonl
ymi
sdemeanor
.
Si
ncet
hecour
thel
dthatshewas“
presumed
t
oknow”whatt
hel
aw i
s,hermi
stakewas
notr
easonabl
e.

I
n anot
her case,an of
fender f
ail
ed t
o
r
egi
sterundera l
ocalor
dinance r
equi
ri
ng
 254

conv
ict
ed per
sons t
o do so. The U.
S.
Supr
eme Cour
trev
ersed t
he conv
ict
ion,
st
ati
ngt
hati
gnor
anceofl
awcoul
dbeused
as an excuse i
nthi
s case.Thus,i
fthe
i
gnor
anceormi
stakei
sreasonabl
eunder
t
heci
rcumst
ances,andt
her
eisnoev
idence
t
hatt
hedef
endantshoul
dhav
eknownoft
he
i
l
legal
i
ty of t
he conduct
,ignor
ance or
mi
stakeofl
awi
sadef
ense.

The pr
obl
em of mi
stake of l
aw and
i
gnor
anceofl
aw i
sandal
way
shasbeena
cont
rov
ersi
ali
ssue.Thei
ssuei
swhet
hera
per
sonwhodoesanactobj
ect
ivel
ycont
rar
y
t
othel
awmayj
ust
if
yhi
msel
font
hegr
ound
t
hathehasnogui
l
tyofmi
nd;
sinceowi
ngt
o
hi
sbei
ngunawar
eoft
heex
ist
enceoft
he
l
egal pr
ovi
sion whi
ch he v
iol
ates or
 255

mi
stakenast
oit
str
uemeani
ng,hebel
i
es
hi
sactt
obel
awf
ul.

3.
2.1.School
sofLawRegar
dingt
heRul
eof
I
gnor
anceofLawi
sNoExcuse:

Thequest
ionofwhet
hermi
stakeofl
awand
i
gnor
anceofl
aw i
sexcusabl
ehasbeena
cont
rov
ersi
ali
ssue f
ora l
ong t
ime.Wi
th
r
egar
dst
othi
squest
ion,t
her
ear
etwomai
n
school
soft
hought
.

a)Thef
ir
stschoolsuppor
tst
hegener
alr
ule:
t
hatst
ates“
Ignor
anceofLawi
snoExcuse.
”
Accor
ding t
othi
s schooloft
houghtan
of
fenderi
snotj
ust
if
iedbyhi
sunawar
eness
 256

or mi
sconcept
ion of a l
egal pr
ovi
si
on.
Whet
herornotheact
ual
l
yknowst
hel
awi
s
i
mmat
eri
al f
or he i
s i
n any ev
ent
concl
usi
vel
y pr
esumed t
o know i
t.Thi
s
pr
esumpt
ionwi
l
lmaket
hecour
tsf
reef
rom
ascer
tai
ningwhet
hert
heof
fenderknowshi
s
acti
scont
rar
ytot
hel
aw ornotwhi
chi
s
al
mosti
mpossi
ble.Thi
spr
esumpt
ioni
slai
d
downi
nthegener
ali
nter
est
,regar
dlessof
t
he f
actt
hatt
he consequences may be
har
dshi
p upon i
ndi
vi
dual
s,so t
hatsoci
al
peaceandor
derbenotconst
ant
lydi
srupt
ed
wi
thi
mpuni
ty.“
Ever
yper
sonmustbet
aken
t
obecogni
zantoft
hel
aw;ot
her
wiset
her
e
i
snoknowi
ngt
owhatext
entt
heexcuseof
i
gnor
ancemi
ghtbecar
ri
ed”
.Forpur
posesof
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
,ther
efor
e,i
tisi
rr
elev
ant
whet
her t
he doer i
s awar
e of t
he
 257

unl
awf
ulnessofhi
sactornot
.Hei
satf
aul
t
byt
hemer
efactt
hathemi
stakenl
ybel
i
eves
t
hathi
sbehav
iori
stobei
naccor
dancewi
th
he l
aw and t
he must bear al
lthe
consequencesofhi
sfai
l
ingi
nhi
sdut
yto
know t
hel
aw.Hi
smi
stakemay
,atbest
,be
consi
der
edi
nmi
ti
gat
ionoft
hepenal
ty.

b)Thesecondschoolsuppor
tsanexcept
ion
t
othegener
alr
uleandst
ates:“
Ignor
anceof
Law May be an Excuse i
n Cer
tai
n
Ci
rcumst
ances”
Accor
ding t
othi
s schooloft
hought
,the
maxi
m“i
gnor
anceofl
awi
snotanexcuse”I
t
i
snotaccept
abl
eont
hef
oll
owi
nggr
ounds:

(
1) Thecompl
exi
ti
esofmoder
nli
feandt
he
consequenti
ncr
easei
nthev
olumeofl
aws,
 258

makesi
tcompl
etel
yimpossi
blef
orany
one
t
oknow t
hel
aws,bei
tbet
hel
awsofhi
s
owncount
ry,
letal
onet
ounder
standt
hem.
(
2) I
tisi
nconsi
stentwi
tht
hepr
inci
ple“
nul
l
a
poena si
ne cul
pa” (
no penal
ty wi
thout
i
ntent
ionalgui
l
ty) upon whi
ch so many
moder
ncodes,i
ncl
udi
ngEt
hiopi
ancr
imi
nal
code,
arebased.
Thusami
stakeofl
aw,
li
keami
stakeoff
act
,
af
fect
s t
he “
knowl
edge” component of
i
ntent
ional
gui
l
t.Wheni
tent
ail
sthat“
ther
eis
no cr
imi
nali
ntent
ion”(
Art
.80 (
1)second
al
i
ena)
,itshoul
dpr
oducet
hesamej
uri
dical
ef
fect
sasami
stakeoff
act
.

3.
2.2 TheEt
hiopi
anLaw onMi
stakeand
I
gnor
anceofLaw:
 259

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
81(
20)oft
hecr
imi
nalcode
i
gnor
anceofl
awi
snotexcusebutt
hecour
t
mayr
educet
hepuni
shmentappl
i
cabl
etoa
per
sonwhoi
ngoodf
ait
hbel
i
evest
hathe
has a r
ightt
o actand has def
ini
te and
adequat
ereasonsf
orhol
dingt
hiser
roneous
bel
i
ef. Agai
n Ar
t.
81 (
3) st
ates t
hat i
n
except
ionalcasesofabsol
uteandj
ust
if
iabl
e
i
gnor
anceandgoodf
ait
handwher
ecr
imi
nal
i
ntenti
snotappar
ent
,thecour
tmayi
mpose
nopuni
shment
.Thi
sst
andoft
hecr
imi
nal
code showst
hati
tst
andsi
n a hal
fway
bet
ween t
he t
wo school
s of t
hought
di
scussedabov
e.I
tst
andsi
nahal
fwayi
n
suchamannert
hatt
heEt
hiopi
anpenall
aw
mayr
educet
hepuni
shmentoraonewhoi
s
ngoodf
i ait
hbel
i
evedt
hathehadar
ightt
o
actandhaddef
ini
teandadequat
ereasons
 260

f
orhol
dingt
hiser
roneousbel
i
efandmay
notpuni
shaper
sonwhooutofabsol
uteand
j
ust
if
iabl
eignor
ance and good f
ait
h and
wi
thoutcr
imi
nali
ntentcommi
ts a cr
ime.
Accor
dingl
y,t
he f
oll
owi
ng condi
ti
ons ar
e
st
ipul
atedasacondi
ti
ont
oappl
yAr
t.
81.

A.Whent
her
eisGoodFai
th
Ar
ti
cle81maynotbei
nvokedunl
ess,att
he
t
ime oft
he act
,the doeri
n good f
ait
h
bel
i
evest
hathei
slegal
l
yent
it
ledt
oactas
hedoes.I
fadoubt
,howev
er,cr
osseshi
s
mi
ndconcer
ninghi
sri
ghtt
oact
,hei
snoti
n
goodf
ait
h.Oncet
heper
soni
snoti
ngood
f
ait
h,i
tisi
mmat
eri
alwhet
herheknowst
he
exactpr
ovi
siont
owhi
chhi
sacti
scont
rar
y
orbel
i
evest
hathewi
l
lnotbepuni
shedori
s
 261

mi
staken as t
o t
he ki
nd or ext
ent of
puni
shment t
o whi
ch he i
s l
i
abl
e. An
of
fender
,whoi
s,awar
eoft
hef
actt
hathe
doessomet
hingunl
awf
ulmaynotpl
eadf
or
i
gnor
ance oft
he l
aw.I
n ot
herwor
ds an
honestmi
stake i
s notsuf
fi
ci
entf
ort
he
pur
posesofAr
t.
81exceptwher
ethedoer
has “
def
ini
te and adequat
ereasons f
or
hol
dingt
hiser
roneousbel
i
ef.Aper
soni
sin
goodf
ait
hwhenhei
snotabl
etobebl
ames
f
orhi
smi
stakebecausei
tist
her
esul
tof
ci
rcumst
ance,whi
chwoul
dequal
l
yhav
eled
a consci
ent
ious per
son i
nto er
ror
.The
f
ulf
il
lmentoft
hiscondi
ti
onmustbedeci
ded
f
rom casest
ocases,
wit
hregar
dpar
ti
cul
arl
y
t
othenat
ureoft
heof
fencecommi
tt
ed.
 262

B.WhenTheAccusedI
sNotAtFaul
t/No
Cr
imi
nalI
ntent
:
ForAr
t.
81t
obeappl
i
cabl
e,i
tisessent
ial
t
hatt
heaccusedshoul
dnothav
ebeeni
n
er
ror t
hrough hi
s own f
aul
t.Ar
t.
81 (
3)
pr
ovi
des t
hat i
n except
ional cases of
absol
uteandj
ust
if
iabl
eignor
anceandgood
f
ait
h and wher
e cr
imi
nali
ntent i
s not
appar
ent
,the cour
t may i
mpose no
puni
shment
.Thi
simpl
i
est
hati
tisonl
ywhen
t
heaccuseddi
dnotmaket
heer
rort
hrough
hi
sfaul
tthatt
he cour
tmaymi
ti
gat
ethe
penal
t mposenopuni
yori shment
.

1.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:
2.
Whyal
ljur
isdi
cti
onsper
mitt
hedef
ense
of mi
stake of f
act
? What ki
nd of
r
elat
ionshi
pexi
stsbet
weenAr
t.
80and
 263

Ar
t.
58?
3.
Mayamanwi
thoutf
ullknowl
edgeof
f
actst
il
lbepr
osecut
edunderAr
t.
80?
4.
Whatdoest
hewor
d“obj
ect
”meani
n
Ar
t.
80(
3)?
5.
Is Ar
t.
81 suf
fi
cient
ly adj
ust
ed t
othe
si
tuat
ioni
nEt
hiopi
a?
6.
Whatki
ndofdi
ff
erencedoy
ouseeas
t
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenf
actandl
aw?

CasePr
obl
em:
Johnwasasuccessf
ulKeny
ant
rader
.He
camet
oEt
hiopi
aforbusi
ness.Dur
inghi
s
st
ayi
nEt
hiopi
a,hef
ell
inl
ovewi
thAl
maz,
an
Et
hiopi
an gi
rlaged sev
ent
een.John and
Al
mazhadsexuali
nter
cour
se.Johnknew
v
ery wel
l t
hat Al
maz wassev
ent
een.
Howev
er,he di
d not know t
hat sexual
 264

i
nter
cour
sewi
thami
nori
spuni
shabl
eunder
ar
ti
cle626oft
heEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nal
Code.
1.Woul
dJohnbel
i
abl
etot
hecr
imeunder
ar
ti
cle626?
2.Assume t
hata Keny
an l
aw does not
pr
ohi
bitsexuali
nter
cour
se wi
th gi
rl
swho
ar
e ol
der t
han si
xteen y
ear
s. Fur
ther
,
assumet
hatJohnr
eadar
ti
cle581(
1)oft
he
Ci
vi
lCodet
hatpr
ovi
des“
amanwhohasnot
at
tai
nedt
hef
ullageofei
ght
eeny
ear
sanda
womanwhohasnotat
tai
nedt
hef
ullageof
f
if
teeny
ear
smaynotcont
ractmar
ri
age.
”
Woul
dyouranswerbedi
ff
erentf
rom t
hat
y
ouhav
egi
vent
oquest
iononeabov
e?Why
orwhynot
?

Uni
tSummar
y:
 265

Def
enses f
or cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity ar
e
ci
rcumst
ancest
hatr
eli
efanaccusedf
rom
conv
ict
ion of gui
l
t and i
ts consequent
penal
ty.These ci
rcumst
ances exempt a
cr
imi
nalf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity orent
it
le
hi
m/hert
oar
educedpuni
shment
.
Cr
imi
nall
aw r
ecogni
zest
wocat
egor
iesof
def
enses f
orcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.Tsese ar
e
speci
aldef
enses and gener
aldef
enses.
Al
thoughourCr
imi
nalCodedoesnotf
oll
ow
t
his di
chot
omy
, gener
al def
enses ar
e
cat
egor
izedi
ntoj
ust
if
icat
ionsandexcuses.
Cr
imi
nall
awpr
ovi
desf
ordef
ensesbecause
oft
womai
nreasons.Fi
rst
,just
icer
equi
res
t
he pr
ovi
sions of def
enses f
or cer
tai
n
cr
imi
nal
s.Secondl
y,acr
imei
snotcompl
ete
when t
her
ear
edef
ensesav
ail
abl
etot
he
accused.
 266

Excuses ar
e t
he def
ect
s and unusual
condi
ti
ons of t
he cr
imi
nal dur
ing t
he
commi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime.Thus,i
fper
sons
commi
t cr
ime unwi
l
li
ngl
y, wi
thout
under
standi
ngt
henat
ureandconsequences
oft
hei
ract
,wi
thmi
stakenbel
i
efoff
act
sor
l
aw,t
he l
aw excusest
hem f
rom cr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ity
.Int
hecasesoft
heexcuses,t
he
f
ocus i
s on t
he i
ndi
vi
dualcr
imi
nalr
ather
t
hanont
hecr
imecommi
tt
ed.

Just
if
icat
ions ar
e anot
her cat
egor
y of
def
ense f
orcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.In cases of
j
ust
if
icat
ions, t
her
e ar
e pr
eli
minar
y
condi
ti
onst
hatenabl
ethedoeroft
heactt
o
t
ake necessar
y and pr
opor
ti
onat
e act
ion.
Thus,when t
her
eis an at
tack on l
egal
l
y
pr
otect
edr
ight
s,t
hest
epst
akent
orev
erse
 267

t
heat
tacki
sjust
if
iabl
eact
.Si
mil
arl
y,i
fthe
per
sonsf
oundt
hemsel
vesi
nimmi
nentand
ser
iousdangerandt
hei
ronl
ychoi
cei
sto
av
oidt
hissi
tuat
ionbycommi
tt
ingacr
ime,
t
hei
racti
sjust
if
iabl
eift
heyhav
echosent
he
l
esserhar
m.I
njust
if
icat
ions,
thef
ocusi
son
t
he actr
athert
han on t
he cr
imi
nal
.The
soci
ety encour
ages t
hose act
s.
Just
if
icat
ions i
ncl
ude act
s r
equi
red or
aut
hor
ized by l
aw, l
egi
ti
mat
e def
ense,
necessi
tyandpr
ofessi
onal
dut
y.
Per
sons who r
aise def
enses f
orcr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ityi
nthecour
tsofl
aw admi
tthatt
hey
hav
edonet
hecr
imet
hatt
heyar
echar
ged
wi
th.Howev
er,t
heycl
aimt
hatt
hei
ract
sar
e
j
ust
if
iabl
eorexcusabl
eint
heey
esoft
he
l
aw because of t
he condi
ti
ons of t
he
cr
imi
naland ci
rcumst
ancesi
n whi
ch t
hey
 268

ar
ecommi
tt
ed.

Ref
erences:
Cases:
Rv
.Dudl
eyandSt
ephens,(
1884)14QBD
273:
[1881-
85]Al
lER61
ReaderNot
e:
1.
Art
icl
es52-
68oft
heCr
imi
nalCodeofFDRE,
2005
2.
Phi
l
ippe Gr
aven – “
An i
ntr
oduct
ion t
o
Et
hiopi
an PenalLaw”(
1965)
,HSI
U,Addi
s
Ababa,
Ethi
opi
a.
3. St
evenLowenst
ein–“
Mat
eri
alsf
ort
he
st
udyoft
hePenalLaw ofEt
hiopi
a”(
1967)
,
HSI
U,Addi
sAbaba,
Ethi
opi
a.
4.
J.C.Smi
thandBr
ainHogen–“
Cri
minalLaw”
7thEdi
( ti
on)1992.
5.
Kenny
,C.
S.—“
Out
li
nesofCr
imi
nalLaw”
(18th
 269

edn,
2004)Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess
6.
Flet
cher
,Geor 1990)Cr
ge P.( imeofSel
f-
Def
ense:Ber
nhar
dGoet
zandt
heLaw on
Tr
ial
,Chi
cago:
Uni
ver
sit
yofChi
cagoPr
ess.
7.
Nour Sel
se, f-
Def
enseandSubj
ect
ivi
ty,
(2001)
Vol
.68Uni
ver
sit
yofChi
cagoLaw Rev
iew,
1235
 270

UNI
T-I
II
CRI
MINALPUNI
SHMENTANDI
TS
APPLI
CATI
ON

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
I
nthi
s uni
t,y
ou wi
l
lst
udy how a cour
t
passessent
enceorpenal
tyonanaccused
t
hati
sfoundgui
l
tybey
ondr
easonabl
edoubt
.
Onceaper
soni
sfoundgui
l
tyoft
hecr
ime
he/
shei
saccusedof
,thenextt
hingt
odo
 271

f
ort
hecour
tist
opasssent
enceandpenal
ty
t
hati
tdeems appr
opr
iat
efort
he cr
ime
commi
tt
ed.The cour
ttakes manyt
hings
i
nto consi
der
ati
on bef
ore passi
ng t
he
sent
ence because puni
shmenti
sav
ery
deci
siv
est
epont
hel
i
fe,
li
ber
tyandpr
oper
ty
r
ight
soft
heaccused.Thus,i
nthi
spar
tof
t
heModul
eyouwi
l
lst
udymat
ter
srel
ati
ngt
o
t
he det
ermi
nat
ion and appl
i
cat
ion of
puni
shment
.

Thi
spar
texpl
ainswhatpuni
shmenti
sal
l
about i
ncl
udi
ng def
ini
ti
on,pur
pose and
t
ypesofpuni
shment
sasi
ncor
por
atedi
nthe
Rev
isedCr
imi
nalCode.Fur
therdi
scussi
ons
i
ncl
ude t
he gener
al pr
inci
ples of
det
ermi
nat
ion of puni
shment
, t
he
ci
rcumst
ances t
hat mi
ti
gat
e t
he
 272

puni
shment
s and t
he ci
rcumst
ances t
hat
aggr
avat
ethepenal
ti
esandl
i
mit
ati
ont
othe
puni
shment
.The l
astsect
ion oft
he uni
t
deal
swi
tht
hepostconv
ict
ionpr
ocesses.I
t
i
ncl
udes t
he concept
s of suspended
sent
ences, condi
ti
onal r
elease, par
don,
amnest
yandr
einst
atement
.
Obj
ect
ives:
Byt
heendoft
hisuni
tthest
udent
swi
l
lbe
abl
eto:
 Def
ine and under
stand t
he pur
poses of
puni
shment i
n gener
al and as i
tis
i
ncor
por
atedi
ntheCr
imi
nal
Code;
 Know t
he di
ff
erentt
ypes ofpuni
shment
i
ncor
por
atedi
nourCr
imi
nalCodeandt
hei
r
appl
i
cat
ion;
 I
dent
if
y t
he pr
inci
ples gui
ding t
he
det
ermi
nat
ionofpuni
shment
;
 273

 I
dent
if
ytheci
rcumst
anceswhi
chmayl
ead
t
othe r
educt
ion ofpenal
ty(
(ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances)
;and
 I
dent
if
ytheci
rcumst
anceswhi
chmayl
ead
t
othe i
ncr
ease of penal
ty(
aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances)
.

Sect
ion. 1. Def
ini
ti
on and Pur
pose of
puni
shment
:

1.
1.Def
ini
ti
onofPuni
shment
:

I
tisnoteasyt
ogi
veapr
eci
sedef
ini
ti
ont
o
t
hewor
d“puni
shment
”.si
ncebecausei
ts
meani
ngi
shi
ghl
yint
err
elat
edwi
thwhati
s
consi
der
edt
obet
hepur
poseofpuni
shment
.
I
nthi
sregar
dpuni
shmentcoul
dbet
akent
o
meant
hemaj
ormechani
sm bywhi
cht
he
 274

pur
posesofcr
imi
nal
lawar
eachi
eved.

But l
et us t
ry t
o under
stand some
concept
ionsaboutt
hemeani
ngoft
het
erm
puni
shment
.Br
oadl
yspeaki
ng puni
shment
i
sther
esponseoft
hesoci
etyt
o soci
all
y
danger
ousbehav
ior
.Iti
sint
endedt
omake
t
he of
fenderno mor
e danger
ous t
othe
i
ntegr
it
y oft
he soci
ety
.Buti
fiti
s not
i
mposed accor
ding t
o cer
tai
nreasonabl
e
pr
inci
plesi
tmi
ghtev
enpr
oduceunwant
ed
ef
fect
s.“
Puni
shmenti
nal
li
tsf
ormsi
sal
oss
ofr
ight
soradv
ant
agesconsequenton a
br
eachofl
aw.Wheni
tlosest
hisqual
i
tyi
t
degener
atesi
ntoanar
bit
rar
yactofv
iol
ence
t
hatcan pr
oduce not
hing butbad soci
al
ef
fect
s.”(
Wil
l
iams,
1961-
575)
 275

1.
2.Pur
poseofPuni
shment
:
Thehi
stor
yofcr
imi
nall
awshowst
hatwhat
i
sconsi
der
edt
obet
hepur
poseofcr
imi
nal
l
aw hasbeenchangi
ngf
rom t
imet
oti
me
wi
tht
hedev
elopmentofhumanknowl
edge
aboutt
hecr
imi
nalmi
ndi
.e.t
hedev
elopment
ofcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Ther
ear
evar
ioust
heor
ies
concer
ning t
he pur
pose of puni
shment
r
angi
ngf
rom r
etr
ibut
ion,t
hroughpr
event
ion,
det
err
ence,r
efor
mat
ion and educat
ion t
o
r
ehabi
l
itat
ion.The f
oll
owi
ng i
ssues hav
e
beenconsi
der
edast
hespeci
fi
cpur
posesof
puni
shmenti
nal
mostal
lcr
imi
nal
laws.

1.
2.1.Ret
ri
but
ion:

Theor
igi
nofr
etr
ibut
ivet
heor
yli
esi
nthe
 276

pr
imi
ti
venot
ion ofv
engeanceagai
nstt
he
wr
ong-
doer
. Puni
shment sat
isf
ies t
he
f
eel
i
ngofr
evenge.I
tlar
gel
yst
emsf
rom t
he
Bi
bli
calsay
ingof“
aney
eforaney
e:at
oot
h
f
ort
oot
h;andl
i
fef
orl
i
fe”
.Manyol
dfor
msof
puni
shment
shav
ebeeni
mposedbasedon
t
hisneedt
oav
enget
hev
ict
im ofacr
imeby
puni
shi
ngt
hecr
imi
nali
nthesamemanner
ashecommi
tt
edt
hecr
ime.Forexampl
e,i
n
ol
dent
imes,whenamani
njur
edanot
her
,it
wast
her
ightoft
hei
njur
edt
otaker
evenge
ont
heper
soncausi
ngi
njur
y.TheMosai
c
Law of t
he Bi
ble has been, i
n f
act
,
ov
eremphasi
zed,t
o expl
aint
he r
etr
ibut
ive
t
heor
y of puni
shment
. Consi
der t
he
f
oll
owi
ngcomment
:
Lext
ali
oni
s:
“
An ey
eforan ey
e… i
s nev
eri
nthe Ol
d
 277

amentofSav
Test ager
y,asi
tissomet
imes
por
tr ed,butofequi
ay ty.I
tisal
way
sof
fer
ed
as gui
dance f
ort
he j
udge t
o det
ermi
ne
appr
opr
iat
e sent
ence,nev
eras a r
ulef
or
per
sonalr
eact
ion.Ther
eisnoev
idencei
n
t
heOl
dTest
amentt
hatt
het
ermsoft
hel
aw
wer
eev
ercar
ri
edoutexact
ly(
eyesputout
,
t
eet
hext
ract
ed,
etc.
).I
tfunct
ionsr
atherasa
v
ivi
dst
atementoft
hepr
inci
pleofexact
it
ude:
t
heequi
val
enceofcr
imeandpenal
ty.Thi
s
pr
inci
ple was l
osti
n Engl
i
sh l
aw when a
per
son coul
dlosehi
swi
fef
orst
eal
i
ng a
sheep.I
tisl
ostt
odaywhenj
udi
ci
alf
eroci
ty
awar
dsadi
spr
opor
ti
onat
elyhar
shsent
ence
(
lengt
hy i
mpr
isonmentf
orshopl
i
fti
ng)
,or
when j
udi
ciall
eni
encyawar
dsa sent
ence
pl
ainl
ylesst
hanaser
iousof
fencemer
it
s(a
shor
tsent
encef
orr
apeorf
orcausi
ngdeat
h
 278

dr
ivi
ng undert
he i
nfl
uence ofal
cohol
).I
t
wasupt
othej
udgei
nOl
dTest
amentday
s--
asi
nour
s--
todet
ermi
nehow t
hepr
inci
ple
shoul
dbeappl
i
edi
nanygi
vencase.(
Ref
:
“
TheMessageofPr
over
bs”
—Dav
idAt
kinson)

Howev
er,i
n moder
nti
mes r
etr
ibut
ion i
s
usedi
nmor
ethanonesense.I
nthef
ir
st
sense,t
hei
deai
sthatofsat
isf
act
ionbyt
he
st
ateoft
hev
ict
im’
sdesi
ret
obeav
enged;i
n
t
hesecond,i
tist
hatoft
hest
atesmar
king
i
tsdi
sappr
ovaloft
hebr
eaki
ngofi
tsl
awsby
apuni
shmentpr
opor
ti
onalt
othegr
avi
tyof
t
hecr
ime.I
n moder
n penol
ogi
calt
hought
r
etr
ibut
ioni
snotsomuchconsi
der
edi
nthe
sense ofv
engeance buti
nthe sense of
r
epr
obat
ion.
 279

1.
2.2.Det
err
ence:

Thepur
poseoft
hepuni
shmenti
stodet
er
t
hecr
imi
nalf
rom commi
tt
ingcr
imei
nfut
ure
andt
osetasanexampl
etot
hepr
ospect
ive
cr
imi
nal
s.I
tcar
ri
est
hemessaget
hatt
hose
who v
iol
atet
hel
aw wi
l
lbepuni
shed l
i
ke
wi
se.Thei
deai
sthatpuni
shmentwi
l
lcur
b
t
he cr
imi
nal act
ivi
ti
es of t
he pot
ent
ial
cr
imi
nal
s. I
n ol
den t
imes sev
ere
puni
shment
s and publ
i
c ex
ecut
ions wer
e
hel
dmai
nlywi
tht
heobj
ectt
odet
erot
her
s
f
rom commi
tt
ing cr
imes and t
o setan
exampl
e t
hat v
iol
ati
on of l
aw wi
l
l be
puni
shed. Thus puni
shment ser
ves as
det
err
encei
ntwoway
s:

A.Gener
alDet
err
ence:
 280

The puni
shmentofone cr
imi
naland t
he
publ
i
cit
y gi
ven t
o i
t ar
e assumed t
o
di
scour
age ot
herpot
ent
iall
aw br
eaker
s.
Adv
ocat
esoft
hedeat
hpenal
ty,
forexampl
e,
bel
i
evet
hatf
earofdeat
hmayser
veasa
ser
ioust
hreatt
opeopl
e,andt
hust
hedeat
h
penal
ty ser
ves t
he f
unct
ion of gener
al
det
err
enceofser
iouscr
imes.

B.Speci
fi
c/I
ndi
vi
dualDet
err
ence:
Puni
shmentoft
hecr
imi
nali
sassumedt
o
keept
hatspeci
fi
ccr
imi
nalf
rom commi
tt
ing
ot
hercr
imesi
nthef
utur
e.Somet
heor
ies
assume t
hat cr
imi
nal
s l
ack i
nter
nal
i
nhi
bit
ors,andhenceunpl
easantsanct
ions
mustbeusedt
oteacht
hem al
esson.

1.
2.3.Pr
event
ion/
Incapaci
tat
ion:
 281

Accor
dingt
othi
sconcept
ion,
thepur
poseof
puni
shmenti
stopr
eventt
hecr
imi
nalf
rom
commi
tt
ing cr
imesbyphy
sical
l
ydi
sabl
i
ng
hi
m bysepar
ati
nghi
m andkeepi
nghi
min
secl
usi
on f
rom t
he soci
etyf
ora cer
tai
n
per
iodoft
ime.I
nthi
swayt
hesoci
etyi
s
spar
edf
rom t
hedi
stur
bancecr
eat
edbyt
he
cr
imi
nal
.Ifaconv
ict
edof
fenderi
ssentt
o
pr
ison,soci
etycanf
eelsaf
eandconf
ident
t
hatt
hecr
imi
nalwi
l
lnotcommi
tt
efur
ther
cr
imes.

Thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hedet
err
entt
heor
y
andpr
event
ivet
heor
yhast
obeunder
stood
cl
ear
ly.Accor
dingt
odet
err
entpur
poset
he
cr
imi
nal
s and t
he pr
ospect
ive cr
imi
nal
s
l
ear
n a l
esson by t
he f
ear of sev
ere
puni
shmentand v
olunt
ari
l
y abst
ainf
rom
 282

commi
tt
ingcr
imes.I
npr
event
iont
heyar
e
phy
sical
l
yincapaci
tat
edordi
sabl
edsi
nce
t
heyl
acksel
f-
cont
rol
andmustber
est
rai
ned.
Her
ether
est
rai
nti
sext
ernalbydepr
ivat
ion
oft
hei
rli
ber
ty.

1.
2.4.Ref
ormat
ion /
Rehabi
li
tat
ions:

Puni
shmentt
he pur
pose ofwhi
ch i
sto
change t
he char
act
eroft
he of
fenderi
s
known as r
efor
mat
ive puni
shment
.Thi
s
t
heor
yis al
so known as cor
rect
ive or
r
ehabi
l
itat
ivet
heor
y'
.Ref
ormat
ion means
“
theef
for
ttor
est
oreamant
osoci
etyasa
bet
terandwi
sermanandasagoodci
ti
zen.
”
Accor
ding t
o t
his t
heor
y, puni
shment
at
tempt
stomaket
hecr
imi
nalhar
mlessby
suppl
yi
nghi
m t
heunder
standi
nghel
acks
 283

and cur
eshi
m oft
hosedr
awbackswhi
ch
madehi
mtocommi
tcr
ime.I
facr
imi
nali
s
mor
all
y degener
ated hi
stendenci
es al
so
become,i
fnot
,ext
inctt
hen atl
eastl
ess
sensi
ti
ve.Puni
shmenthas,f
ort
hatr
eason,
been def
ined as “
a phy
sical measur
e
adopt
edt
oexci
tei
nthesouloft
hegui
l
ty
t
rue r
epent
ance, r
espect f
or j
ust
ice,
sy
mpat
hyf
ort
hei
rfel
l
owcr
eat
uresandl
ove
ofmanki
nd.
"(Oppenhei
mer
."Rat
ional
e of
Puni
shment
,"p.
244)Byr
efor
mat
ionoft
he
cr
imi
nal i
s meant t
he cr
imi
nal
’
s mor
al
r
egener
ati
on,anddev
elopi
ngt
hesenseof
honest
yinhi
m.A per
son,whocommi
tsa
cr
ime and suf
fer
s puni
shment f
or t
hat
,
comesbackt
othesoci
etyandl
i
vesi
nal
ong
wi
th hi
s ot
her f
ell
ow bei
ngs.Ther
efor
e,
puni
shmentmustai
m atmaki
ng a man
 284

wor
thyofl
i
vingi
nthesoci
ety
.

Theadv
ocat
esofr
efor
mat
ivet
heor
yai
m at
t
he r
ehabi
l
itat
ion of t
he cr
imi
nali
nthe
soci
ety
.Thi
stheor
yadmi
tsonl
ysucht
ypes
ofpuni
shment
s whi
ch ar
e educat
ive and
di
sci
pli
ne t
he cr
imi
nal
,not t
hose whi
ch
i
nfl
i
ctpai
nonhi
m.Rehabi
l
itat
iveel
ementof
t
hepuni
shmenti
ncl
udesr
est
orat
ionoft
he
cr
imi
nalt
oef
fect
ivenessornor
mall
i
feby
t
rai
ning et
c.I
nmoder
nti
me’
sref
ormat
ive
measur
esar
eadopt
edi
ncasesofj
uveni
l
e
of
fender
s.I
n pr
ison t
heyar
e gi
ven some
educat
ionandar
esubj
ect
edt
osomesuch
pr
ison pr
ogr
ams so t
hatt
hey can l
ear
n
someki
ndofwor
kwhi
chmayhel
pthem i
n
ear
ningt
hei
rli
vel
i
hoodaf
tercomi
ngoutof
t
he pr
ison.The adv
ocat
es oft
hist
heor
y
 285

emphasi
zet
hatwhent
hepr
isonergoest
o
j
ailhef
indshi
msel
fqui
tecutof
ffr
om t
he
r
estoft
he wor
ld.The conf
inementt
he
depr
ivat
ionofsoci
ali
nter
cour
seandot
her
way
sofsubj
ect
iont
ori
giddi
sci
pli
nenev
er
al
l
ow hi
m t
o dev
elop hi
s char
act
er.
Ther
efor
e, what i
s i
mpor
tant i
s t
he
r
efor
mat
ionoft
hecr
imi
nalbymaki
nghi
m
wor
thyofl
i
vingi
nthesoci
ety
.

1.
2.5.TheI
ntegr
ati
vev
iew:
Sosaywehav
edi
scussedv
ari
oust
heor
ies
r
egar
dingt
hepur
poseofpuni
shment
.We
f
eelt
hatwhi
l
eeachoneoft
hem hassome
v
alueofi
tsownnoneoft
hem i
suni
ver
sal
l
y
accept
abl
e. I
f cor
rect
ion al
one i
s
emphasi
zed,t
he r
etr
ibut
ive and det
err
ent
el
ement
s become i
nef
fect
ive.I
n of
fi
ci
al
 286

ci
rcl
es,det
err
encei
sst
rongl
ysuppor
tedas
anecessar
yandpot
entdef
enseofsoci
al
v
alues. Pur
e r
etr
ibut
ioni
st v
iew makes
puni
shmentbar
bar
icandl
eav
esl
i
ttl
eroom
f
orr
efor
mat
ion.On t
he ot
herhand,such
t
reat
menti
sli
kel
ytomaket
hesecr
imi
nal
s
f
eel
bit
terandt
urnt
ohabi
tual
cri
minal
i
ty.

I
tisnow r
ecogni
zedt
hat‘
thepr
event
ionof
cr
imeand pr
otect
ionofsoci
ety
'ar
eends
asser
ted byev
eryone.Thus,ani
ncl
usi
ve
t
heor
y'whi
ch i
s a cul
ti
vat
ion ofal
lthe
el
ement
s of r
etr
ibut
ion, det
err
ence,
pr
event
ion and r
efor
mat
ion has been
gai
ninggr
oundi
nrecenty
ear
s.

1.
2.Pur
poses of Puni
shment under t
he
Cr
imi
nalCodeof2004:
 287

Thepr
inci
plesofCr
imi
nall
awr
egar
dingt
he
pur
poseofpuni
shmentwedi
scussedabov
e
ar
ecl
ear
lyi
ncor
por
atedi
nthepr
ovi
si
onsof
t
heCr
imi
nalCodeof2004.Ar
t.
1.Par
a2of
t
heCodeset
soutt
hespeci
fi
cobj
ect
ivesof
t
heCodei
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
:
“
Itai
ms att
he pr
event
ion ofcr
imes by
gi
vi
ng due not
ice of t
he cr
imes and
penal
ti
espr
escr
ibedbyl
aw andshoul
dthi
s
be i
nef
fect
ive by pr
ovi
ding f
or t
he
puni
shmentofcr
imi
nal
sinor
dert
odet
er
t
hem f
rom commi
tt
inganot
hercr
imeand
make t
hem a l
esson t
o ot
her
s,or by
pr
ovi
dingf
ort
hei
rref
orm andmeasur
est
o
pr
eventt
hecommi
ssi
onoff
urt
hercr
imes.
”

Thi
spr
ovi
sionmakesagener
alst
atementof
 288

t
heai
msandobj
ect
ivesoft
hecr
imi
nal
code.
Fur
ther
, t
he pur
poses of det
err
ence,
pr
event
ion,r
efor
mat
ion and r
ehabi
l
itat
ion
ar
especi
fi
cal
l
yment
ionedi
nthepr
ovi
si
ons
r
elat
ingt
odi
ff
erentt
ypesofpuni
shment
s.
Letusseesomeoft
hem:
Ar
t.87TheCr
imi
nal Puni
shmentAndI
ts
Appl
icat
ion-Pr
inci
ple.
“
Thepenal
ti
esand measur
espr
ovi
ded by
t
hiscodemustbeappl
i
ed i
n accor
dance
wi
tht
hespi
ri
toft
hisCodeandsoast
othe
achi
evet
hepur
posei
thasi
nvi
ew(
Art
.1)
”

Ar
ti
cle.107:Subst
it
uti
on ofCompul
sor
y
Labourf
orSi
mpl
eImpr
isonment
.
“
Wher
everbyr
easonofl
ocaladmi
nist
rat
ive
di
ff
icul
ti
est
heex
ecut
ionofasent
enceof
si
mpl
eimpr
isonmenti
snotpossi
bleort
he
 289

car
ryi
ng out of such sent
ence i
s not
conduci
vet
other
efor
m ort
her
ehabi
li
tat
ion
oft
hecr
imi
nal
,thecour
tmay
,inr
espectof
cr
imesf
orwhi
ch t
he speci
alpar
toft
his
Code pr
ovi
des f
or a t
erm of si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng si
x mont
hs,
i
nfl
i
cta sent
ence of compul
sor
ylabour
i
nst
ead of t
he sent
ence of si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonment
."

Ar
ti
cle.108Ri
gor
ousI
mpr
isonment
.
Sub(
1)Par
a(2)"Besi
despr
ovi
dingf
ort
he
puni
shmentandf
ort
her
ehabi
li
tat
ionoft
he
cr
imi
nal
,thi
ssent
encei
sint
endedal
sot
o
pr
ovi
def
orst
ri
ctconf
inementoft
hecr
imi
nal
andf
orspeci
alpr
otect
iont
osoci
ety
."
Ar
t.190Condi
ti
onal
Suspensi
onofPenal
ty:
"
Whent
hecour
t,hav
ing r
egar
dtoal
lthe
 290

ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecase,consi
der
sthat
condi
ti
onalsuspensi
on oft
hepenal
tywi
l
l
pr
omot
ether
efor
m andr
einst
atementof
t
he cr
imi
nal
,it may or
der condi
ti
onal
suspensi
on oft
he sent
ence as pr
ovi
ded
her
einaf
ter
."

Now,l
etusf
indt
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heCode
whi
ch adv
ocat
e f
or t
he pr
inci
ple of
i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionofpuni
shment
.

Ar
t.
88Cal
cul
ati
onofSent
ence.
Sub.Ar
t(2)
"Thepenal
tyshal
lbedet
ermi
ned
accor
dingt
othedegr
eeofi
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
t,
t
aki
ng i
n t
o account t
he danger
ous
di
sposi
ti
onoft
hecr
imi
nal
,hi
sant
ecedent
s,
mot
ive and pur
pose, hi
s per
sonal
ci
rcumst
ancesandst
andar
dofeducat
ion,
 291

aswel
last
hegr
avi
tyoft
hecr
imeandt
he
ci
rcumst
ancesofi
tscommi
ssi
on.
"

1.
3.The Pr
inci
ple ofI
ndi
vi
dual
izat
ion of
Puni
shment
:

What
evermi
ghtbe t
he r
elat
ive ut
il
it
y or
i
mpor
tanceofapar
ti
cul
art
heor
y,t
her
eisno
uni
for
m,gener
all
yrecogni
zedanduni
ver
sal
t
heor
yofpuni
shmentf
oral
lagesandf
oral
l
peopl
e. Ther
efor
e,what
ever puni
shment
mi
ghthav
ebeensui
tabl
einpastmaynotbe
so i
nthe pr
esent
,orwhat
evermi
ghtbe
usef
uli
n one count
rymaynotbe so i
n
anot
her
.Then agai
nthe same ki
nd of
puni
shmentmaynotbr
ingaboutt
hedesi
red
ef
fectonal
lty
pesofcr
imi
nal
sal
i
ke.I
nshor
t,
i
t can be sai
dthat
,uni
ver
sal
i
zat
ion of
 292

puni
shmenti
simpossi
ble.Ther
efor
e,we
hav
etost
udyt
hecr
imi
nalbef
orepr
escr
ibi
ng
t
he pr
oper f
orm of puni
shmentt
o hi
m
accor
dingt
ohi
sphy
sical
,soci
al,
educat
ional
orcul
tur
almake-
upt
odesi
gnapuni
shment
t
hat sui
ts hi
m per
fect
lyt
o achi
evet
he
speci
fi
c obj
ect
ives of cr
imi
nal j
ust
ice.
Moder
ncr
imi
nall
aw,t
her
efor
e,emphasi
zes
up on t
hei
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ion ofpuni
shment
al
though t
her
e ar
e di
ff
icul
ti
es i
n i
ts
i
mpl
ement
ati
on.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Whatar
ethepur
posesofpuni
shment
?
2. Def
ine puni
shment
. What do y
ou
under
stand by i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ion of
puni
shment
?

Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ng!
 293

Whi
choneoft
hepur
posesofpuni
shment
,
i
nyouropi
nion,
ispr
efer
abl
e?Why
?
Act
ivi
ti
es:

1.Fi
ndoutatl
eastf
ivear
ti
clesi
ntheCr
imi
nal
Codewhi
chspeci
fi
cal
l
yst
atet
hepur
poses
of puni
shment y
ou hav
elear
nt i
n t
he
f
oregoi
ngdi
scussi
on.

2.Doy
ouf
indanyar
ti
clei
ntheCr
imi
nalCode
ment
ioni
ng r
etr
ibut
ion/
vengeance as i
ts
pur
pose?

Sect
ion.
2.Ki
ndsOfPuni
shment
s:
The Cr
imi
nalCode car
eful
l
y desi
gns and
pr
escr
ibes puni
shment
s f
or cr
imes of
v
ari
ous ki
nds and cr
imi
nal
s of v
ari
ous
cat
egor
ies.
Thus,t
her
e ar
ethr
ee di
ff
erent set
s of
puni
shment
sundert
hecode.
 294

Or
dinar
ypuni
shment
sappl
i
cabl
etoAdul
ts
–BookI
I,
Tit
leI
,Ar
ti
cles90-
156.
Measur
es and penal
ti
es appl
i
cabl
eto
y
oungper
sons-
BookI
I,
Tit
leIAr
ti
cl
es57-
177.
Penal
ti
es and measur
es appl
i
cabl
eto
Pet
tyof
fences-
Pet
tyCode,BookVI
ITi
tl
eII
Ar
ti
cles746-
764.

Her
e,undert
hissect
ion wear
e goi
ng t
o
di
scuss about puni
shment
s t
hat ar
e
appl
i
cabl
eto adul
ts. Eachoft
hecr
imes
def
ined under t
he speci
al par
t of t
he
Cr
imi
nal Code car
ri
es i
ts own penal
ty.
Howev
er,ont
hewhol
ethesepenal
ti
escan
becat
egor
izedbasedont
hei
rnat
ure.Thus,
we f
ind t
hree cat
egor
ies ofpuni
shment
s
ment
ionedi
nAr
ti
cles90-
156:
I
.Pr
inci
pal
penal
ti
es
 295

I
I.Secondar
ypenal
ti
es
I
II
.Speci
almeasur
esappl
i
cabl
etoAdul
ts

2.
1.Pr
inci
palPenal
ti
es
:
Pr
inci
palpenal
ti
es can be putundert
he
f
oll
owi
ngheads:
Pecuni
aryPenal
ti
es-
art
.90-
102.
Puni
shment
s Rest
ri
cti
ng or Depr
ivi
ng
Li
ber
ty–Ar
t.103-
116
Deat
hPenal
ty–Ar
t.117-
120.

2.
1.1.Pecuni
aryPenal
ti
es:
The Cr
imi
nalCode i
ncl
udes t
he f
oll
owi
ng
t
ypes ofpenal
ti
es whi
ch ar
e pay
abl
ein
t
ermsofmoney
:
a)
Fine
b) Sequest
rat
ion
 296

c)
Otherpecuni
aryef
fect
s

A.Rul
esGov
erni
ngFi
ne:Ar
ts.90-
97
Undercr
imi
nall
aw f
inemaybedef
inedas,
“
apecuni
arycr
imi
nalpuni
shmentpay
abl
eto
t
he publ
i
c t
reasur
y”. Thi
s penal
ty i
s
gov
ernedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ulesundert
he
abov
ement
ionedpr
ovi
sions:

Fi
nei
spai
dinmoneyandi
sfor
fei
tedt
o
t
hest
ate(
Art
.90(
1))
Theamountoff
ine,i
n nor
malcases,
mayext
endf
rom 10bi
rrt
o10,
000bi
rr
.
Thi
samounti
ssubj
ectt
oanypr
ovi
si
ons
orl
awt
othecont
rar
y.
I
ncaseofj
uri
dicalper
sont
hef
inemay
ext
endf
rom 100Bi
rrupt
o500,
000Bi
rr
.
The speci
fi
c ci
rcumst
ances of t
he
 297

cr
imi
nal t
hat ar
e t
aken i
n t
o
consi
der
ati
on i
nfi
xi
ng t
he amountof
f
inear
e:(
Art90(
2))

I
ncaset
heCr
imi
nali
saNat
uralPer
son:
-
Thedegr
eeofgui
l
t.
-
His/
herf
inanci
alcondi
ti
on
-
His/
herf
ami
l
yresponsi
bil
i
ties
-
His/
heroccupat
ionandear
ning
-
His/
herageandheal
th.
I
ncaset
heCr
imi
nali
saJur
idi
calPer
son:
Wher
eaj
uri
dicalper
son(
Art
.90(
3))suchas
a cor
por
ati
on i
s conv
ict
ed of a cr
ime
puni
shabl
ebyonl
yimpr
isonmenti
tshal
lbe
conv
ert
edi
ntof
inei
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
:
oAmaxi
mum amountof10,
000Bi
rrf
ora
cr
ime puni
shabl
e wi
th si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng5y
ear
s.
 298

oAmaxi
mum amountof20,
000Bi
rrf
ora
cr
ime puni
shabl
e wi
th r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng5y
ear
s.
oAmaxi
mum amountof50,
000Bi
rrf
ora
cr
ime puni
shabl
e wi
th r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentmor
ethan5y
ear
sbutnot
exceedi
ng10y
ear
s.
oAmaxi
mum amountof500,
000Bi
rrf
or
a cr
ime puni
shabl
e wi
th r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentexceedi
ng10y
ear
s.
oFora cr
ime wher
ethe Speci
alPar
t
pr
ovi
des f
oronl
yfi
ne as penal
ty,t
he
amountshal
lbemul
ti
pli
edbyf
ivet
imes
i
n case of j
uri
dical per
son (
Art
.
90(
4))
Evenwher
e‘f
ine’
ispr
ovi
dedasan
al
ter
nat
ive t
o i
mpr
isonment by t
he
Speci
alPar
toft
heCode,t
heCour
tmay
i
mposebot
hfi
neandi
mpr
isonmenti
fit
 299

appear
sexpedi
ent
.Thedegr
eeofgui
l
t
and ot
her ci
rcumst
ances shal
l be
consi
der
edi
nthi
sregar
d(Ar
t91)
.
oThegener
almaxi
mum amountoff
ine
f
ixedbyt
heAr
t.90(
1)(
500,
000Bi
rr
)may
be doubl
ed (
100,
000 bi
rr
)wher
ethe
cr
ime has been commi
tt
ed wi
th a
mot
ive ofgai
n orwher
ethe cr
imi
nal
makesabusi
nessofcr
ime(
Art92)I
n
addi
ti
on:
oThepr
ofi
tshal
lbeconf
iscat
ed.
oI
mpr
isonmentormeasur
espr
ovi
dedby
l
awmaybei
mposed(
Art
.92(
2))
.
oRecov
eryoff
ineshal
lbeaccor
dingt
o
t
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ules:
oOncef
inei
simposedi
tshal
lbepai
dfor
t
hewi
th(
wit
houtdel
ay)(
Art93(
1))
oA maxi
mum per
iod of6 mont
hsmaybe
 300

al
l
owedbyt
hecour
tfort
hepay
mentoff
ine
wher
ethecr
imi
nalcannotpayi
tatonce.
Thi
sis subj
ect t
o t
he r
equi
rement of
sur
eti
esorsecur
it
ypur
suantt
oAr
t94(
1).
Subj
ectt
other
equi
rementofsur
eti
esor
secur
it
yasl
aiddownbyAr
t.94(
1),
thecour
t
mayal
l
ow pay
mentoff
inebyi
nst
all
ment
s.
I
n such a case t
he maxi
mum per
iod of
pay
mentshal
lnotexceed3y
ear
s.Thecour
t
shal
l t
ake i
n t
o consi
der
ati
on t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecr
imi
nalandshal
lfi
x
t
heamountanddat
eforpay
mentofeach
i
nst
all
ment
.(Ar
t.
93(
3))

Wher
ethecour
trequi
rest
hecr
imi
nalt
o
pr
oduce sur
eti
es and secur
it
y,t
he same
shal
lbe det
ermi
ned hav
ing r
egar
dtot
he
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecase,t
hecondi
ti
onof
 301

t
he cr
imi
naland t
he i
nter
est
s ofj
ust
ice.
Ar
t.
(94(
1)Par
a2)
The cour
t shal
lrequi
ret
he sur
ety or
secur
it
yto be deposi
ted i
n def
aul
t of
pay
ment
.(Ar
t94(
2))
I
n caseofdel
i
ber
atef
ail
uret
o pr
oduce
sur
etyorsecur
it
y:
oThepr
oper
tyoft
hecr
imi
nalshal
lbesei
zed
i
naccor
dancewi
thl
aw.
oTher
eaf
ter
,sal
e oft
he pr
oper
ty shal
lbe
ef
fect
ed except t
he pr
oper
ti
es
pr
otect
edbyAr
t98(
3).
oFi
nemaybeconv
ert
edi
ntol
abour
.Wher
e
r
ecov
eryoft
hef
inecoul
dnotbeef
fect
edi
n
accor
dancewi
thAr
t.93and94,t
hecour
t
shal
lor
dert
hecr
imi
nalt
opayt
hef
ineby
doi
ngwor
kfort
hest
ateoff
oranypubl
i
c
aut
hor
it
y(Ar
t.95Par
a(1)
)
 302

oThecour
tshal
ldet
ermi
net
heper
iodwi
thi
n
whi
cht
heamountoff
ineshoul
dbeset
tl
ed.
Suchper
iodshal
lnotexceedamaxi
mum of
t
woy
ear
s.
oAr
t.96pr
ovi
desf
orcondi
ti
onconv
ersi
onof
f
ine i
nto compul
sor
ylabour
;wher
ethe
cr
imi
nali
s notabl
eto set
tl
ethe f
ine as
r
equi
red under Ar
ti
cles 93-
95. The
expr
essi
on compul
sor
ylabourhas t
o be
def
inedt
odi
sti
ngui
sht
hescopeofAr
ti
cl
es
95 and 96.Compul
sor
ylabour
,gener
all
y,
means,“
Wor
kexact
edf
rom aper
sonunder
t
hreatofpenal
ty.I
tist
hewor
kforwhi
cht
he
per
sonhasnotof
fer
edhi
msel
forher
sel
f
v
olunt
ari
l
y.”Howev
er,compul
sor
ylabouras
af
orm ofpenal
tydoesnotv
iol
atehuman
r
ight
s of t
he pr
isoner
. Under t
he U.
N.
Conv
ent
ion on Ci
vi
l and Pol
i
tical Ri
ght
 303

(
Art
icl
e8)t
hef
oll
owi
ngdonotcomeunder
t
hedef
ini
ti
onoff
orcedorcompul
sor
ylabor
:
1.
Penal
ti
esi
mposedbyt
hecour
t.
2.
Compul
sor
ymi
l
itar
yser
vice
3.
Act
iont
akeni
nemer
gency
4.
Nor
mal
communal
ser
vices.

Ther
efor
e,underAr
ti
cle95,t
hecr
imi
nali
s
gi
venanot
heral
ter
nat
ivet
oset
tl
ehi
sfi
ne
amount
.Heshal
lbegi
venanoppor
tuni
tyt
o
wor
kwhi
chhedoesv
olunt
ari
l
yandwhi
chi
s
par
tofhi
sincome ort
he whol
e oras
di
rect
edbyt
hecour
theshal
lpayt
oset
tl
e
hi
sfi
ne.ButunderAr
ti
cle96i
tisext
ract
ion
ofwor
kfr
om hi
m.He/
sheshal
lbef
orcedt
o
puti
nwor
kwor
thhi
sfi
neamount
.Themai
n
di
ff
erencebet
weent
heexpr
essi
ons‘
l
abour
’
undert
heAr
t.95and‘
compul
sor
ylabour
’
 304

under Ar
t. 96, i
s t
he el
ement of
v
olunt
ari
nessoft
hecr
imi
nali
near
ningand
pay
ingoft
hesamet
oset
tl
efi
neamount
.
The maxi
mum per
iod ov
er whi
ch
compul
sor
ylaborcanbei
mposedi
s‘t
wo
y
ear
s’asi
ndi
cat
edunderAr
t.
96al
so.

Enf
orcementofcompul
sor
ylaborcanbe
suspendedpur
suantt
oAr
ti
cl
es97and105,
i
fthe cr
imi
nali
s unabl
eto car
ry out
compul
sor
ylabor
:
obyr
easonofhi
spov
ert
y
ohi
sfami
l
yobl
i
gat
ion
ohi
sst
ateofheal
thor
o-
foranyot
hergoodr
eason.
B. Conf
iscat
ionofPr
oper
ty:Ar
t.
98
‘
Conf
iscat
ion’ means, “
appr
opr
iat
ion of
pr
ivat
e pr
oper
tyt
othe publ
i
ctr
easur
yby
 305

way of penal
ty.
” The Cour
t may or
der
conf
iscat
ionanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
ti
es
oft
hecr
imi
nal
:
o Hi
sest
ateorpar
tofhi
sest
ate.
o Anypr
oper
tyoft
hecr
imi
nal
:
-
Acqui
red i
nthe commi
ssi
on oft
he
cr
imedi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly.
-Acqui
redl
awf
ull
ybyt
hecr
imi
nal
,if
necessar
y.
Pr
oper
tyExemptf
rom Conf
iscat
ion:
Sub.Ar
t(3) 98 exempt
sthe f
oll
owi
ng
pr
oper
ti
esoft
hecr
imi
nal
from conf
iscat
ion:
Ar
ti
clesnecessar
yfort
hel
i
vel
i
hoodoft
he
cr
imi
nal
andhi
sfami
l
y,i
ncl
ude:
-domest
icar
ti
clesnor
mal
l
yinuse,
-i
nst
rument
soft
radeorpr
ofessi
on
andagr
icul
tur
ali
mpl
ement
s;
- Foodst
uff
sandmoneyasar
e
 306

necessar
yfort
hesuppor
toft
hef
ami
l
yof
t
hecr
imi
nalf
oraper
iodofnotl
esst
han6
mont
hsorf
oral
ongerper
iodt
hatt
hecour
t
r
egar
dsj
ustandr
easonabl
ehav
ingr
egar
dto
t
heci
rcumst
ances.
Goods,f
ormi
ngpar
toff
ami
l
yinher
it
ance
ov
erwhi
ch t
he cr
imi
nalhas no absol
ute
r
ight
sincl
udi
ng;
Hal
foft
hecommonpr
oper
tywi
thr
egar
d
t
othei
nnocentspouseoft
hecr
imi
nal
,
The per
sonal goods of t
he i
nnocent
spouse,chi
l
drenorot
herper
sonsofwhi
ch
t
he cr
imi
nalhas,by l
aw orcust
om,t
he
char
ge, admi
nist
rat
ion, management or
powert
odi
spose.

C. Sequest
rat
ionofpr
oper
ty:
‘
Sequest
rat
ion’
, i
s ‘
a l
egal pr
ocess
 307

consi
sti
ng oft
empor
ary depr
ivat
ion ofa
per
sonorhi
spr
oper
ty,unt
ilt
hecl
aimson
suchpr
oper
tyar
eset
tl
edort
omakehi
mto
doorabst
ainf
rom doi
nganactwi
thi
na
speci
fi
edt
ime.
”Thi
spenal
tyi
sresor
tedt
oin
t
he case ofspeci
fi
c cat
egor
y ofcr
imes
ment
ionedi
nAr
t99,
namel
y:
Conspi
ri
ng orengagi
ng i
n host
il
e act
s
agai
nstt
heconst
it
uti
onal
order
,or
,
Conspi
ri
ng orengagi
ng i
n host
il
e act
s
agai
ntot
hei
nter
nalandext
ernalsecur
it
yof
t
hest
ate.
Sequest
rat
ion maybeor
der
ed subj
ectt
o
t
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons:
Thecr
imi
nalshoul
dhav
ebeenconv
ict
ed
andsent
encedi
nhi
sabsence,
Sequest
rat
ion of t
he pr
oper
ty of t
he
cr
imi
nalmaybeor
der
edi
naddi
ti
ont
oany
 308

ot
herpenal
ty.
The pr
oper
ti
es oft
he cr
imi
nalwhi
ch ar
e
exempt
edf
rom conf
iscat
ionunderAr
t.98(
3)
ar
eal
soexemptf
rom sequest
rat
ion.
D. Ot
herPecuni
aryEf
fect
s:
The pecuni
ary penal
ti
es i
ncl
ude t
he
f
oll
owi
ng ‘
otherpecuni
ary ef
fect
s’.These
ar
e:
1.For
fei
tur
eofmat
eri
albenef
it
stot
hest
ate
2.Compensat
ionf
ordamagescausedt
othe
v
ict
im.
a.
Tobepai
dbyt
hecr
imi
nal
Art
.101.
b.
Tobepai
dfor
mthepr
oceedsofsal
eof
conf
iscat
edpr
oper
ty,
etc.Ar
t102.
The f
oll
owi
ng ar
ethe i
mpor
tant poi
nts
r
elat
ingt
othesepecuni
aryef
fect
s:
For
fei
tur
etot
hest
ate:
Anymat
eri
albenef
it
sgi
venori
ntendedt
obe
 309

gi
vent
oacr
imi
nalt
ocommi
tacr
imeshal
l
bef
orf
eit
edt
othest
ate.(
Art
.100)
.Ifsuch
mat
eri
alsdonotexi
sti
nthef
ormt
heyar
e
acqui
red,t
he per
son who r
ecei
ved t
hem
shal
lbeor
der
edt
oref
undt
hei
rval
ue.(
Art
.
100(
1))
For
fei
tur
e oft
he ‘
cri
me pr
oceeds’t
othe
st
atei
ssubj
ectt
othef
oll
owi
ngpr
ovi
dedby
Ar
t.100(
2):
Anyf
rui
tsofacr
imeshal
lber
etur
nedt
o
t
heowneroranyot
hercl
aimant
.
Wher
ethe owner of such pr
oper
ty
r
ecov
eredundersub.Ar
t(1)
,isnotf
ound
t
hef
oll
owi
ngst
epsshal
lbet
akenbyt
he
cour
t:
oA not
ice shal
lbe publ
i
shed not
if
ying t
he
r
ecov
eryofsuchpr
oper
ty.
oI
ncaset
heownerorot
hercl
aimantoft
he
 310

pr
oper
tydoesnotappear t
ocl
aimt
hem
wi
thi
n5y
ear
sfr
om t
hedat
eofpubl
i
cat
ion
of not
ice,t
he f
rui
ts of cr
ime shal
lbe
f
orf
eit
edt
othest
ate.
oI
fsuchpr
oper
tyi
saper
ishabl
epr
oper
tyi
t
shal
lbesol
dinaccor
dancewi
tht
heusual
pr
ocedur
e.Themoneyshal
lbeent
rust
edt
o
a compet
entaut
hor
it
yfora per
iod not
exceedi
ng5y
ear
s.Af
tert
hisper
iodi
tshal
l
bef
orf
eit
edt
othest
ate(
Art100(
2))
Compensat
iont
otheI
njur
ed:Ar
t.101
A.To Be Pai
d byt
he Cr
imi
nalorThose
Li
abl
eonHi
sBehal
f:
Ar
ti
cle.
101.i
ntends t
o compensat
ethe
i
njur
edpar
tyf
ort
he‘
damage’hesuf
fer
ed.
‘
Damage’means“
lossori
njur
ytoper
sonor
pr
oper
ty.
”
 Lossori
njur
ytot
hepr
oper
tyhasbeen
 311

deal
t wi
th by Ar
t.
101 by f
oll
owi
ng
al
ter
nat
iver
emedi
es:
oTomakegoodt
hedamage,
or
oByr
est
it
uti
oni
.e.r
etur
norr
est
orat
ionof
t
hespeci
fi
cthi
ngt
oit
sri
ghtt
heowner
.or
oBy pay
ing ‘
damages’ by way of
compensat
ion.

Per
sonalI
njur
ies:
Ar
t.
101of t
he Cr
imi
nal Code does not
expr
essl
yst
ateaboutt
heper
sonali
njur
ies.
I
nfact
,the1957PenalCodeAr
t.
100has
much expr
essi
ve about i
njur
ies t
o t
he
per
son.I
tis cl
ear
lyst
ated.
”that
,inj
uri
es
r
efer
stoort
hei
njur
iest
othebody
,mi
nd
andr
eput
ati
onoft
heper
son.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,
t
henew Cr
imi
nalCodedoesn’
tspeakany
t
hingaboutt
hemeani
ngoft
het
erm“
inj
ury
”.
 312

Undert
heAr
ti
cle101,compensat
ioncanbe
cl
aimedbyt
hei
njur
edper
sonorbyper
sons
hav
ingr
ight
sfr
om hi
m.
Ci
vi
lSui
tsf
orCompensat
ion:
Aci
vi
lsui
tal
somaybej
oinedal
ongwi
tht
he
cr
imi
nalsui
tasperAr
t.101oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code,f
orcl
aimi
ngcompensat
ion. I
nsuch
casest
hecl
aim shal
lbegov
ernedbyt
he
pr
ovi
sionsofCr
imi
nal
Procedur
eCode.

B.TobePai
dfr
om t
heSal
ePr
oceedset
c.
Ar
t102
Wher
ethecour
tisoft
heopi
niont
hatt
he
compensat
ion wi
l
lnot be pai
d by t
he
cr
imi
nalorhi
slegalhei
rs due t
othei
r
per
sonalci
rcumst
ancest
hecour
tmayor
der
pay
mentofcompensat
iont
obepai
dfr
om:
 313

oThepr
oceedsorpar
toft
hepr
oceedsof
t
hesal
eoft
hear
ti
clesdet
ained,
or
oApar
toft
hef
ineor
oThei
ncomeoft
hewor
konconv
ersi
onsof
f
inei
ntol
abor
s,or
oConf
iscat
edpr
oper
ty
Thei
njur
ed par
ty,hasbeen compensat
ed
undert
hesub.Ar
t(1)andt
heseshal
lassi
gn
hi
scl
aimt
othest
ate.Thest
atemayenf
orce
i
tagai
nstt
hewr
ong-
doer
.(Sub.Ar
t(2)
)
Rev
iewquest
ions:

1. Expl
ainwhatsor
tofpenal
ti
esaf
fect
sthe
pr
oper
tyoft
hecr
imi
nal
?
2. Not
ethedi
ff
erences,i
tany
,bet
weent
he
compensat
ion i
n ci
vi
llaw and pecuni
ary
penal
ti
esi
nthecr
imi
nal
law?

3.
Forwhi
cht
ypeofcr
imesar
ethepecuni
ary
penal
ti
esi
mposed?
 314

2.
1.2.Penal
ti
esResul
ti
ngi
nRest
ri
cti
onor
LossofLi
ber
ty:

Thepenal
ti
esf
all
i
ngundert
hissect
ionof
t
heCr
imi
nalCodeaf
fectt
hel
i
ber
tyoft
he
cr
imi
nal
. The penal
ti
es may absol
utel
y
depr
ivehi
m ofhi
sli
ber
tyorr
est
ri
ctt
hesame
t
oal
i
mit
edext
ent
.
Compul
sor
yLabour
:
I
n cases of mi
nor cr
imes whi
ch ar
e
puni
shabl
ewi
thsi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentf
ora
t
erm notexceedi
ng6mont
hs;
thecour
tmay
sent
encet
hecr
imi
nalt
ocompul
sor
ylabour
wi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngv
ari
ati
ons:
Compul
sor
ylabour wi
th deduct
ion of
wagest
othebenef
itoft
hest
ate,
(Ar
t,103)
 315

Compul
sor
ylabour wi
th r
est
ri
cti
on of
per
sonal
li
ber
ty(
Art
.104)
The Poi
nts To RememberUnderThese
Pr
ovi
sionsAr
e:

Thecr
imi
nal
shoul
dbeaheal
thyper
son.
Thecr
imi
nalshal
lnotbeadangert
othe
soci
ety and hi
s i
mpr
isonment i
s not
necessar
y.
The dur
ati
on ofcompul
sor
ylabourmay
ext
endf
rom onedayt
osi
xmont
hs.
Thesent
enceofcompul
sor
ylabourmaybe
ser
vedatanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpl
aces:
- At a pl
ace wher
e he
nor
mal
l
ywor
ks,
ori
sempl
oyedor
-I
napubl
i
cest
abl
i
shmentor
publ
i
cwor
ks.
 316

Anamountnotexceedi
ngonet
hir
doft
he
cr
imi
nal
’
s wages or pr
ofi
ts shal
l be
deduct
edandf
orf
eit
edt
othest
ate.
Thej
udgmenti
mposi
ngcompul
sor
ylabour
shal
lst
atet
hef
oll
owi
ngdet
ail
s:

- The exactamountt
o be
deduct
ed,
-Thedur
ati
onoft
hepenal
ty,
- The pl
ace wher
ethe
sent
encei
stobeser
ved,
and
-Thenat
ureofsuper
visi
on.
Compul
sor
ylabour wi
th r
est
ri
cti
on of
per
sonall
i
ber
tyunderAr
t.104 shal
lbe
r
esor
ted t
o under t
he f
oll
owi
ng
ci
rcumst
ances:
-Wher
ethe cr
imi
nalf
ail
sto di
schar
ge hi
s
obl
i
gat
ionasspeci
fi
edunderAr
t.103(
1),
or
 317

-Wi
thav
iewt
okeept
hecr
imi
nalawayf
rom
unf
avor
abl
e sur
roundi
ngs or undesi
rabl
e
company
.
Thenat
ureanddur
ati
onoft
her
est
ri
cti
on
ofper
sonall
i
ber
tyshal
lbedet
ermi
nedby
t
hecour
taccor
dingt
otheci
rcumst
ancesof
t
hecase.
The nat
ure ofr
est
ri
cti
on orl
i
ber
tymay
i
ncl
ude,r
equi
ri
ngt
hecr
imi
nalt
odi
schar
ge
t
hecompul
sor
ylabourundert
hesuper
visi
on
ofgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
ssubj
ectt
oanyort
he
f
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons:
-Byr
emai
ningi
napar
ti
cul
arpl
aceof
wor
k,or
-Wi
thapar
ti
cul
arempl
oyer
,or
-Wi
thoutl
eav
inghi
sresi
dent
ial
area,
or
-Wi
thoutl
eav
ingar
est
ri
ctedar
ea(
Art
.
104(
2).
 318

 Non-
compl
i
ance wi
th any oft
he abov
e
r
equi
rement
sshal
lmaket
hecr
imi
nall
i
abl
e
t
osi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentf
oraper
iodequal
to
anyunf
ini
shed per
iod oft
he sent
ence of
compul
sor
ylabour
.
 Ar
t.105pr
ovi
desf
orsuspensi
onoft
he
sent
enceofcompul
sor
ylabordur
ingi
l
lness,
undert
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons:
-Undert
hecondi
ti
onspr
ovi
dedunder
Ar
t97and105,
and
-Wher
ehef
all
sil
ldur
ingt
heper
iodof
hi
ssent
enceofcompul
sor
ylabour
.
-Heshal
lnotber
equi
redt
odoany
wor
kunt
ilhi
srecov
ery
,(Ar
t105Par
a(1)
-Thecr
imi
nalshal
lbeor
der
edt
oresumet
he
compul
sor
ylabouraf
terr
ecov
eryf
rom hi
s
si
ckness.
- I
f he i
s not abl
e t
o r
esume t
he
 319

compul
sor
ylabourheshal
lbeor
der
edt
o
car
ryoutanot
herwor
kwhi
chi
ssui
tabl
eto
hi
sheal
thandper
sonal
cir
cumst
ances.
Howev
er,i
fiti
simpossi
blet
o gi
ve or
i
mpl
ementsuchanor
der
,thecour
tmaynot
i
mposeanyot
herpenal
tyont
hecr
imi
nal
.
I
mpr
isonment
:
Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofi
mpr
isonment
.These
ar
e:
1.Si
mpl
eImpr
isonment
2.Ri
gor
ousI
mpr
isonment
.
‘
I
mpr
isonment
’,asapuni
shment
,isdef
ined
as t
he depr
ivat
ion oft
he l
i
ber
ty oft
he
cr
imi
nalby det
aini
ng hi
m i
n pr
ison.The
expr
essi
on ‘
i
mpr
ison’l
i
ter
all
y means,t
o
conf
ine,t
oincar
cer
ateort
odepr
iveoneof
hi
sli
ber
ty.
1.
Simpl
eImpr
isonment
:
 320

Ther
ulesr
elat
ingt
osi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentar
e
l
aiddowni
nAr
ti
cles.106and107asf
oll
ows:
Thesent
encei
sappl
i
cabl
etol
essser
ious
cr
imeswhi
char
ecommi
tt
edbyper
sons
who ar
e not ser
ious danger
stot
he
soci
ety
.
Thedur
ati
onoft
hissent
encer
angesshal
l
bef
ixedbyt
hecour
tini
tsj
udgment
.The
per
iodshal
lbe:
Nor
mal
ly
,ten day
s mi
nimum and t
hree
y
ear
smaxi
mum.
Except
ional
ly
,itmay ext
end up t
ofi
ve
y
ear
s under t
he f
oll
owi
ng
ci
rcumst
ances¬¬¬¬¬:
oWher
eiti
spr
escr
ibedso byt
heSpeci
al
Par
toft
heCodeowi
ngt
o t
hegr
avi
tyoft
he
cr
ime,
or
oWher
e t
her
e ar
e concur
rent cr
imes
 321

puni
shabl
ewi
thsi
mpl
eimpr
isonment
,or
oWher
ethe cr
imi
nalhas been puni
shed
r
epeat
edl
y.
oThe sent
ence of si
mpl
eimpr
isonment
shal
lbe ser
ved i
n a pr
ison whi
ch i
s
speci
all
ykeptf
ort
hepur
poseofsi
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonment
oI
ncer
tai
ncasessi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentmay
besubst
it
utedbycompul
sor
ylabour
.For
t
woi
mpor
tantr
easons subst
it
uti
onmay
begi
ven(
Art
.107)
:
oI
f by r
eason of l
ocal admi
nist
rat
ive
di
ff
icul
ti
es,t
heexecut
ionoft
hesent
ence
ofsi
mpl
eimpr
isonmenti
snotpossi
ble.
oI
fiti
sfoundt
hatt
hecar
ryi
ngoutofsuch
sent
encei
snotconduci
vet
other
efor
m or
t
her
ehabi
l
itat
ionoft
hecr
imi
nal
.
Suchsubst
it
uti
oni
spossi
bleonl
yinr
espect
 322

t
ocr
imesf
orwhi
cht
hespeci
alpar
toft
he
code pr
ovi
des f
or a t
erm of si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ngsi
xmont
hs.
Thesubst
it
uti
onofsi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentby
compul
sor
y l
abour under Ar
t. 107 i
s
possi
blet
houghnosuchr
efer
encei
smade
undert
hespeci
alpar
toft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.

2.
Rigor
ousI
mpr
isonment
:
‘
Rigour
’her
e means ‘
the qual
i
tyofbei
ng
st
ri
ct.
’Ar
t.
108expr
essl
yspeaksaboutt
he
nat
ureoft
her
igor
ousi
mpr
isonment
,butnot
v
erycl
ear
ly.I
tsay
sthatt
hissent
encei
s
i
ntendedt
opr
ovi
def
or:
Ast
ri
ctconf
inementoft
hecr
imi
nal
,
Speci
alpr
otect
iont
osoci
ety
,and
Thepuni
shmentandr
ehabi
l
itat
ionoft
he
cr
imi
nal
.
 323

Sub.Ar
t.(
2)Par
a(2)f
urt
heraddst
othe
nat
ureofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonmentst
ati
ngt
hat
,
“
thecondi
ti
onsofenf
orcementofr
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentar
emor
esev
eret
hant
hoseof
si
mpl
eimpr
isonment
. The t
erms “
Str
ict
Conf
inement
”undersubAr
t(1)and‘
Sev
er
condi
ti
onsofenf
orcement
’undersub-
Art(
2)
seem t
ogi
vewi
descopef
ori
nter
pret
ati
on.
Ther
ear
enospeci
fi
cgui
del
i
nesf
oundi
nthe
Cr
imi
nalCodet
ounder
standt
he‘
str
ict
ness’
or‘
sev
eri
ty’i
nthi
ski
ndori
mpr
isonment
.It
appear
sfr
om Ar
t.
109t
hatt
hesear
elef
tto
pr
isonr
egul
ati
ons.
Thedur
ati
onofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonmenti
s:
Nor
mal
ly
,rangesf
rom ami
nimum ofone
y
eart
otwent
yfi
vey
ear
s.
Except
ional
ly
,itmaybe“
forl
i
fe”
,wher
eiti
s
expr
essl
ylai
ddownbyl
aw(
Art
.108(
1).
 324

The sent
ence of r
igor
ous i
mpr
isonment
shal
lbeser
vedi
nthosepr
isonswhi
char
e
est
abl
i
shedf
ort
hepur
pose.(
Art
.108(
2))
.

Pr
ovi
sionsCommonf
orbot
h‘Si
mpl
e’and
‘
Rigor
ous’
Impr
isonment
s:
Ar
ti
cles 109-
116 l
ay down t
he f
oll
owi
ng
pr
ovi
sionswhi
char
ecommonl
yappl
i
cabl
e
t
obot
hfor
msofi
mpr
isonment
:

The‘
ai
m’ofbot
hfor
msofi
mpr
isonmenti
s,
“
achi
evementoft
hepur
posesofpenal
ti
es”
.
Thedet
ermi
nat
ionofeacht
ypeofpenal
ty
hasadef
ini
tepur
posespeci
all
yment
ioned
i
n t
he r
espect
ive ar
ti
cles, i
ncl
udi
ng
r
efor
mat
ion,r
ehabi
l
itat
ion,pr
otect
ionoft
he
soci
etyet
c.(
Art
s.87,
108)
.Theenf
orcement
of i
mpr
isonment shal
l be f
or t
he
 325

achi
evementoft
heseobj
ect
ives.
The f
oll
owi
ng aspect
s ofenf
orcementof
i
mpr
isonment shal
lbe pr
ovi
ded by ‘
the
pr
isonr
egul
ati
ons”
.
Themannerofexecut
ionofsent
ences,
Theadmi
ssi
ont
opr
ison,
Thesegr
egat
ionf
orpr
isoner
s,
The cont
actofpr
isoner
s wi
th per
sons
out
side.
Thei
nter
val
disci
pli
nei
nthepr
ison,
and
Fort
heeducat
ionandspi
ri
tualwel
far
eof
t
hepr
isoner
.

Segr
egat
ionofPr
isoner
s:
Ar
t.110i
ntendst
osegr
egat
ethef
oll
owi
ng
cat
egor
iesofcr
imi
nal
sandkeept
hem ei
ther
i
n di
ff
erent pr
isons or wher
eiti
s not
possi
blet
o keep t
hem so,at l
east i
n
 326

“
dif
fer
entsect
ion’
oft
hesamepr
ison:
 Mal
e and f
emal
e pr
isoner
s shoul
d be
kept i
n separ
ate pr
isons or separ
ate
sect
ionsoft
hesamepr
ison,
(Ar
t.110(
1))
 Cr
imi
nal
s sent
enced t
o r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentorspeci
alconf
inementt
obe
keptawayf
rom t
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
iesof
pr
isoner
sAr
t.110(
2):
-Pr
isoner
sundert
heageof18y
ear
s,
or
- Adul
tpr
isoner
swhoar
eser
vinga
sent
enceofsi
mpl
eimpr
isonment
.
 The f
oll
owi
ng per
sons shal
l be kept
separ
atel
y f
rom t
he pr
isoner
s ser
ving
sent
ence:
-Pr
isoner
sawai
ti
ngj
udgment
,or
-Per
sonsdet
ainedf
orci
vi
ldebt
s,or
-Publ
i
c ser
vant
s who,by v
irt
ue oft
hei
r
 327

of
fi
cialdut
y,hadcont
actwi
th pr
isoner
s,
and who ar
eimpr
ison f
ora cr
ime or
det
ainedf
orci
vi
ldebt
s.

Obl
igat
ion t
o Do Wor
k and Benef
it
s
Accr
uingTher
eFr
om (
Art
.111)
:
Obj
ect
iont
owor
kisanessent
ialel
ementof
sent
enceofi
mpr
isonment
.Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
111,
iti
sanobl
i
gat
iononpr
isoner
sser
vinga
sent
encet
odowor
k.Thecondi
ti
onst
hatar
e
t
obef
ulf
il
ledwhi
l
eenf
orci
ngt
hisessent
ial
r
equi
rementofi
mpr
isonmentar
e:
oThewor
kshal
lbeassi
gnedbyt
heDi
rect
or
ofPr
isons.
oThepr
isonershoul
dbei
ngoodheal
tht
o
becompel
l
edt
odowor
kwhi
l
ebei
ngan
i
nmat
eofpr
ison.
oThenat
ureofsuchwor
kshal
lbe:
 328

-Sui
tabl
etot
hepr
isoner
’sabi
l
ity
,
-Ofsuchanat
ureast
oref
orm and
educat
ethepr
isoner
,and
-Conduci
vet
ohi
srehabi
l
itat
ion.
The pr
isoner shal
l be ent
it
led t
o
compensat
ionf
orev
eryday
’swor
k.I
fhi
s
wor
kandconductar
esat
isf
act
ory
.
The Pr
ison Regul
ati
ons l
ay down r
ules
r
egar
ding:
- The amount of such dai
l
y
compensat
ion,
-Themannerofkeepi
ngi
tdur
ingt
he
per
iodofi
mpr
isonment
,and
- Themannerofi
tspay
mentupon
r
eleasef
rom i
mpr
isonment
.
Var
iat
ions i
n t
he Condi
ti
ons of
I
mpr
isonment(
Art
.122)
:
Dur
ing t
he per
iod of i
mpr
isonment
,
 329

v
ari
ati
onsi
ncondi
ti
onsofi
mpr
isonmentar
e
possi
bleei
therl
i
ber
ali
zi
ngt
hem ormaki
ng
t
hem muchmor
esev
ere.Thesear
eint
ended
t
obr
ingr
efor
mat
iveef
fectont
hepr
isoner
andt
oenabl
ehi
mtor
esumeanor
mall
aw
abi
ding soci
all
i
fe on hi
srel
ease.Bot
h
Pr
isonRegul
ati
onsandt
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
he
Cr
imi
nalCodeunderAr
t.
112l
aydownr
ules
r
elat
ing t
o such v
ari
ati
ons.Thei
mpor
tant
v
ari
ati
onsaspossi
blepur
suantt
oAr
t.
112
ar
e:

I
mposi
ti
onofsol
i
tar
yconf
inement(
sub.
Ar
t(1)
)
I
sol
ati
ondur
ingper
iodsofwor
kand
Mor
e f
avor
abl
e t
reat
ment f
or good
conduct
.
 330

Sol
it
aryConf
inement
:
Thepr
isonadmi
nist
rat
ionhast
hepowert
o
i
mposesol
i
tar
yconf
inementsubj
ectt
othe
f
oll
owi
ngdi
rect
ions:
Sol
i
tar
yconf
inementmaybei
mposedat
t
hebegi
nni
ngordur
ingt
hecour
seoft
he
execut
ion of t
he sent
ence,whenev
er i
t
appear
sasnecessar
y.
Thedur
ati
onofsuchameasur
eshal
lbe
f
ixed af
ter consul
tat
ion wi
th a medi
cal
doct
orandwher
enecessar
y,apsy
chi
atr
ist
.
Thedur
ati
onofsol
i
tar
yconf
ermentshal
l
notexceedamax
imum of3mont
hs.
Conf
ini
ngapr
isoneri
nisol
ati
onf
ormor
e
t
han t
his per
iod maybe har
mfulf
orhi
s
ment
alandphy
sical
heal
th.

I
sol
ati
onoft
hePr
isonerdur
ingwor
kTi
me
 331

andNi
ghtTi
me:
Anot
herst
ri
ctur
ethatcanbei
mposedunder
Sub.Ar
t(2)i
stokeephi
misol
atedasf
aras
possi
blef
rom t
he ot
herpr
isoner
s dur
ing
per
iodsofwor
kanddur
ingni
ghtt
ime.

Mor
e Fav
orabl
e Tr
eat
ment f
or Good
Conduct
:
Thepr
isonaut
hor
it
iesmayal
sodeci
det
o
gi
vemor
efav
our
abl
etr
eat
mentt
opr
isoner
s
showi
ng i
mpr
ovementi
nthei
rconductt
o
encour
ager
efor
mat
ionandr
ehabi
l
itat
ionof
t
hepr
isoner
s.Thef
avor
abl
etr
eat
mentmay
i
ncl
ude:
-Rel
axat
ionsasr
egar
dsf
ood,
-Accesst
ovi
sit
ors,
-Fav
orabl
etr
eat
menti
nthenat
ureofwor
k
andl
eisur
e.
 332

Thef
avor
abl
etr
eat
mentmaybef
urt
her
i
mpr
ovedwi
th:
-I
mpr
ovedconductoft
hepr
isoner
,and
-Theappr
oachoft
hepr
isoner
’sr
elease.
I
f t
he pr
isoner abuses t
he f
avor
abl
e
t
reat
ment or f
all
s back t
o per
sist
ent
mi
sconduct
,thei
mpr
ovedt
reat
mentmaybe
wi
thdr
awnorsuspendedf
oradef
ini
teoran
i
ndef
ini
teper
iodoft
ime.

 Condi
ti
onalRel
easebef
oret
heExpi
ryoft
he
Per
iodofI
mpr
isonment
:
Thepr
isonermayber
eleasedonpr
obat
ion
bef
oret
heex
pir
yofasent
enceofei
ther
f
orm or i
mpr
isonment
.Thi
sis possi
ble
undert
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons:
-I
fthepr
isoner
’sconducthasbeenf
oundt
o
besat
isf
act
ory
,and
 333

-Theot
hercondi
ti
onsl
aiddownbyl
aw
underAr
t.
202hav
ebeenf
ulf
il
led.
Bef
orebei
ngr
eleasedt
hepr
isonermaybe
r
equi
redt
oli
veonpr
obat
ioni
napeni
tent
iar
y
or l
abour set
tl
ement or ot
her si
mil
ar
est
abl
i
shment
.‘Pr
obat
ion’l
i
ter
all
y mans,
“
test
ing ofa per
son’
s conduct
,abi
l
iti
es,
qual
i
tieset
c.bef
orehei
sfi
nal
l
yaccept
ed
f
oraposi
ti
onoradmi
tt
edi
ntot
hesoci
ety
”.
Pr
obat
ion,undert
hecr
imi
nall
aw i
stest
ing
t
hepr
isoner
,bef
orehei
sfi
nal
l
yrel
eased
i
nto t
he soci
ety
, whet
her or not hi
s
r
efor
mat
ion and r
ehabi
l
itat
ion hav
e been
compl
ete.Toensur
ethathei
snomor
ea
t
hreatt
othesoci
etyheshal
lbekeptunder
t
heobser
vat
ionoft
heaut
hor
it
iesment
ioned
i
nAr
t.
113.
 334

Thecondi
ti
onsandt
hemannerofi
mposi
ng
t
hepr
obat
ionorcondi
ti
onalr
eleasear
elai
d
downbyt
hel
awr
elat
ingt
otheExecut
ionof
Sent
encesandt
heRegul
ati
onsRel
ati
ngt
o
Pr
isons.

Deduct
ionofPer
iodof‘
Remand’
:
‘
Remand’
isr
etur
nofanar
rest
eet
ocust
ody
,
especi
all
yto al
l
ow f
urt
heri
nqui
ryi
.e.t
he
pr
isoneri
skepti
ncust
odypendi
ngt
ri
al.I
n
caset
heper
son so det
ained i
n pr
ison i
s
conv
ict
ed,att
he t
ime ofsent
enci
ng,t
he
cour
tshal
lspeci
fywhatper
iodofr
emand
shal
lbededuct
ed f
rom t
heper
iod oft
he
sent
ence(
Art
.115)
.
Howev
er,i
fther
emandwasnecessi
tat
edor
pr
olongedduet
ocr
imi
nal
’
sownf
aul
t,t
he
cour
tmaynotmakeanysuchdeduct
ionsi
n
 335

t
heper
iodofsent
ence(
Art
.115(
1)Par
a).
Thecondi
ti
onsofr
emandandt
hemanneri
n
whi
chi
tiscar
ri
edi
ntoef
fectar
egov
erned
byt
he Code ofCr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
e.(
Art
.
115(
2))
.

Per
iodofHospi
tal
izat
iont
oBePar
toft
he
Sent
ence:
I
fapr
isonerf
all
ssi
ckdur
ingt
heper
iodof
sent
enceofi
mpr
isonmentand hast
o be
t
ransf
err
edt
oahospi
talf
ort
reat
ment
,the
per
iod spent i
n t
he hospi
tal shal
l be
consi
der
edaspar
toft
hesent
ence.
Howev
er,such per
iod of hospi
tal
i
zat
ion
shal
lnotbecount
edaspar
toft
heper
iodof
sent
ence,
if:
- The per
iod spenti
n hospi
taldue t
o
i
l
lnessi
sdel
i
ber
atel
ycausedbyt
hepr
isoner
;
 336

f
orexampl
e,hei
njur
eshi
msel
forat
tempt
s
t
oki
l
lhi
msel
f,or
-The admi
ssi
on t
o hospi
tali
s by t
he
mi
sleadi
ng st
atement
sorbehav
ioroft
he
pr
isoner
.
Thi
s means t
hatt
he per
iod spenti
nthe
hospi
tal by t
he del
i
ber
ate act
s of t
he
pr
isonershal
lbe added t
othe per
iod of
sent
ence.Forexampl
e,i
fhei
ssent
encedt
o
oney
earofi
mpr
isonmentandspendsone
mont
h i
n hospi
tal by mi
sl
eadi
ng t
he
aut
hor
it
ies,
heshal
lremai
nint
hepr
isonone
mont
hbey
ondt
heor
igi
nalsent
enceofone
y
earofi
mpr
isonment
.

Ef
fect
sont
heSent
enceofI
mpr
isonmentI
n
CaseofMent
alDi
sor
der
sofPr
isoner
s:
I
ncase,i
fapr
isoneri
sdeemedbymedi
cal
 337

exper
tst
obesuf
fer
ingf
rom somement
al
di
sor
derori
rr
esponsi
blef
orhi
sact
s,Ar
t.
116
(
3)pr
ovi
desf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ules:
-Hi
ssent
enceshal
lbesuspended.
-Thecr
imi
nalshal
lbet
ransf
err
edt
oa
pr
operi
nst
it
uti
onf
orcar
eandt
reat
ment
.
- I
fthe ment
aldi
sor
derorst
ate of
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty of t
he cr
imi
nal i
s of a
per
manentnat
uret
her
emai
ningper
iodof
t
hesent
enceshal
lnotbecar
ri
edi
ntoef
fect
.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Howmanyt
ypesofpuni
shment
sresul
tin
depr
ivat
ionorl
ossofl
i
ber
ty?

2.Def
ine‘
i
mpr
isonment
’.Howmanyki
ndsof
i
mpr
isonment
s ar
e ment
ioned i
n t
he
Cr
imi
nal
Code?

3.Whatar
ethespeci
alf
eat
uresof‘
ri
gor
ous
 338

i
mpr
isonment
’?
4.Whati
s‘sol
i
tar
yconf
inement
’?Li
stt
he
r
ulesr
elat
ingt
othi
sty
peofpuni
shment
.
5.Wr
it
eanot
eon‘
segr
egat
ionofpr
isoner
s’.

2.
1.3.Deat
hPenal
ty:

Thi
sisst
atei
mposeddeat
haspuni
shment
f
ora ser
ious cr
ime and i
s al
so t
ermed
"
capi
talpuni
shment
".Whi
l
e pr
etendi
ng t
o
suppor
trev
erence f
orhuman l
i
fe,capi
tal
puni
shmentdoesi
nfactdest
royi
t.Capi
tal
puni
shmenti
sgener
all
yresor
tedt
oincase
orser
iouscr
imesl
i
kehomi
cide.

2.
1.3.
1.The Ar
gument
s Forand Agai
nst
Capi
talPuni
shment
:
 339

Ar
gument
s ar
e made bot
hinf
avourand
agai
nstt
her
etent
ionofcapi
talsent
enceas
af
orm ofpuni
shment
."TheTempor
aryNew
Yor
kSt
ateCommi
ssi
ononRev
isi
onoft
he
PenalLaw (
1965) summar
izes such
ar
gument
sasf
oll
ows:

Ar
gument
s i
n f
avour of Abol
it
ion
(
Maj
ori
ty)
:
Theexecut
ionoft
hepenal
tyofdeat
hcal
l
s
i
nescapabl
yupont
heagent
soft
hest
atet
o
per
pet
rat
eanactofsupr
emev
iol
enceunder
t
heci
rcumst
ancesoft
hegr
eat
estcr
uel
tyof
t
hei
ndi
vi
duali
nvol
ved.Thesoci
alneedf
or
t
hegr
iev
ouscondemnat
ionoft
hegr
avest
 340

cr
ime can be met ev
en by al
ter
nat
ive
measur
es.
Ther
etent
ion oft
hedeat
h penal
tyhasa
ser
iousl
y banef
ul ef
fect on t
he
admi
nist
rat
ionofcr
imi
nalj
ust
ice.Thev
ery
f
actt
hatl
i
fei
satst
akei
ntr
oducesamor
bid
and sensat
ionalf
act
ori
nthe t
ri
aloft
he
accused and i
ncr
eases t
he danger t
hat
publ
i
c sy
mpat
hy wi
l
lbe ar
oused f
ort
he
def
endant
,regar
dless ofhi
s gui
l
toft
he
cr
imechar
ged.Thi
smor
bidf
act
orcar
ri
es
t
hrought
heper
iodpr
ecedi
ngexecut
ionand
publ
i
csent
iment
,whi
chshoul
dsuppor
tthe
l
aw and i
ts admi
nist
rat
ion, i
s of
ten
mar
shal
edont
heot
hersi
de.

Someer
roneousconv
ict
ionsar
einev
itabl
e
i
nthe cour
se oft
he enf
orcementoft
he
 341

penall
aw ander
rorsomet
imescannotbe
est
abl
i
shed unt
ilt
ime has passed.Such
er
ror
scannotbecor
rect
edaf
terexecut
ion.
Ani
njust
iceoft
hiski
nddest
roy
sthemor
al
f
orceoft
heent
ir
epenal
law.

Exper
ience has shown t
hat t
he deat
h
penal
tycannotbeadmi
nist
eredi
ntheUni
ted
St
ateswi
thev
enr
oughequal
i
ty.Al
lSt
ates
hav
efoundi
tnecessar
ythatt
hepenal
tybe
onet
hati
sdi
scr
eti
onar
ywi
tht
heCour
tor
j
ury
;ev
eni
fthesent
encei
simposed,t
he
chi
ef execut
ive must wr
est
le wi
th t
he
demands f
orcl
emency and cl
emency i
s
of
tengr
ant
ed.Thenumberofexecut
ionsi
s
i
nconsequence,
ext
remel
ysmal
l
.

Theconsi
der
ati
onswehav
est
atedwoul
d
 342

l
eadust
ofav
ourabol
i
tion,whet
herornot
t
het
hreatofdeat
hhasagr
eat
erdet
err
ent
ef
fi
cacy t
hat t
he t
hreat of l
ong
i
mpr
isonment
.Ther
emay
,indeed,becases
i
nwhi
chsuchuni
quedet
err
entpowerhasi
n
f
actbeenexer
ted.Suchdat
aaswehav
e
car
ry assur
ance t
hatt
hisf
act
orhas no
maj
orquant
it
ati
vesi
gni
fi
cance.

Ar
gument
s i
n f
avour of Ret
ent
ion
(
Minor
it
yRepor
t):
Capi
tal puni
shment i
s as har
sh a
puni
shmentasmur
deri
shei
nousacr
ime.
Because want
on mur
deri
s so ext
remel
y
mor
all
y wr
ong,t
he puni
shmentt
her
efor
e
must r
emai
n pr
opor
ti
onat
ely ext
remel
y
sev
eret
o emphasi
ze t
o ot
her‘
woul
d-be’
mur
der
erst
he hi
gh out
rage t
hatsoci
ety
 343

f
eel
s agai
nst t
he commi
ssi
on of such
cr
imes. Conv
ersel
y, any unj
ust
if
ied
l
esseni
ngoft
hesev
eri
tyofpuni
shmentf
or
mur
deri
n appr
opr
iat
esi
tuat
ionscoul
d be
t
akenbyt
hemur
der
erandbyot
her
sasan
i
ndi
cat
iont
hatoursoci
etynol
ongerr
egar
ds
such mur
der
ers as t
he mosthei
nous of
cr
imes.

“
Humannat
ure,bei
ngwhati
tis,mustbe
under
stood t
o demand,on occasi
on of
r
etal
i
ati
on,v
engeance,and t
o paci
fyt
he
out
raged communi
ty.The exper
iences of
ot
her st
ates t
hat hav
e,ov
er t
he y
ear
s,
abol
i
shed capi
tal puni
shment and l
ater
r
etur
nedt
oitbecauseoft
heoccur
renceof
someonepar
ti
cul
armur
der
,shoul
dser
veas
a war
ning f
or any mov
e made f
or i
ts
 344

abol
i
tion; t
hat abol
i
tion shoul
d not be
ent
ered upon ei
therl
i
ght
lyoron gr
ounds
t
hatdo notf
ull
ytake i
nto accountt
he
f
rai
l
tiesofhumannat
ureort
hecompl
exi
ti
es
oft
hesoci
etyandt
hedi
stur
bancesoft
he
t
imesi
nwhi
chwel
i
ve…”
I
nthe end,t
he abov
e sai
d Commi
ssi
on
choset
ovot
eforabol
i
tionofdeat
hpenal
ty.

2.
1.3.
2Capi
talPuni
shmenti
nEt
hiopi
a:

Capi
talpuni
shmenthasbeenr
etai
nedbyt
he
PenalCodeof1957.TheCodepr
ovi
dedt
hat
i
tshal
lbeexecut
edbyhangi
ngandmayi
n
t
hedi
scr
eti
onoft
hecour
t,becar
ri
edouti
n
publ
i
ctosetanexampl
etoot
her
s.I
nthe
past
,tr
adi
ti
on and publ
i
c sent
iment i
n
Et
hiopi
ahav
etender
edt
oconsi
dermur
dera
 345

f
ami
l
ymat
tert
obedi
sposedof
fei
therby
pay
mentof“
bloodmoney
”orr
evengeont
he
per
pet
rat
or,of
ten i
nthe same manneri
n
whi
ch he had ki
l
led hi
svi
cti
m. These
f
eel
i
ngswer
esost
rongt
hati
twasr
epor
ted
t
hataf
terenact
mentoft
he1930Penal
Code,
a memberoft
he mur
der
ed man’
sfami
l
y
wasal
l
owed,i
napr
escr
ibedpl
ace,t
opul
l
t
he t
ri
ggerwhi
ch car
ri
ed outt
he cour
t’
s
sent
enceofdeat
h.
I
ntheRev
isedCr
imi
nalCodeof2004,t
her
e
r
emar
kabl
e changesar
e made r
elat
ing t
o
deat
h penal
ty, par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
he publ
i
c
hangi
ngmodeofexecut
ionandexecut
ion
byshoot
ingi
ncaseofaccusedser
vingi
n
t
he Ar
med For
ces ofEt
hiopi
a hav
e been
abol
i
shed.
 346

Bot
htr
adi
ti
onal
l
yandundert
hepr
ovi
si
ons
oft
heConst
it
uti
onandt
heCr
imi
nalCode,
no sent
ence ofdeat
h can be execut
ed
wi
thoutt
heconf
ir
mat
ionoft
heHeadoft
he
St
ate.Accor
dingt
othePr
isonSt
ati
sti
csof
1956,E.
C,(
1963-
64G.
C.)997per
sonswer
e
hel
dinpr
isonundersent
enceofdeat
hwhi
l
e
onl
y 39 deat
h sent
ences wer
e execut
ed.
Al
though t
his may par
ti
all
y be due t
o
i
nef
fi
ciencyi
nobt
aini
ngconf
ir
mat
ions,t
he
mor
e l
i
kel
y r
eason i
s t
hat t
he qui
te
t
radi
ti
onal
leni
encyoft
heEmper
ori
ntheuse
ofHi
spar
donandamnest
ypower
s.

2.
1.3.
3Const
it
uti
onal
it
yofDeat
hPenal
ty:

Thedeat
hpenal
tyorcapi
talpuni
shmentas
i
tIs,ot
her
wise known,cont
inues t
o be
 347

l
egi
ti
mat
e and pr
act
iced i
n a numberof
st
atesar
oundt
hewor
ld.Somest
ateshav
e
out
lawedt
hedeat
hpenal
tyexceptf
ormost
ext
remecasese.
g.cr
imescommi
tt
eddur
ing
war
.Ot
herst
ateswhi
l
etheymaynothav
e
out
lawedt
hedeat
hpenal
tyar
einpr
act
ice
abol
i
tioni
st by not act
ual
l
y sent
enci
ng
of
fender
sto deat
h.Some oft
he ear
li
est
human r
ight
s act
ivi
sm,f
or exampl
e,by
Amnest
y I
nter
nat
ional concer
ned wi
th
pr
otect
ing pol
i
ticalpr
isoner
sfr
om bei
ng
sent
encedt
odeat
hfort
hei
rpol
i
tical
bel
i
efs.

The deat
h penal
ty mi
ght appear t
o
const
it
uteav
iol
ati
onoft
her
ightt
oli
febut
humanr
ight
slawf
all
sshor
tofi
nsi
sti
ngt
hat
i
tdoes.I
tleav
esst
atest
heopt
iont
oimpose
t
hedeat
hpenal
tybutur
gest
hem t
omov
e
 348

t
owar
dsabol
i
tionandal
soi
mposescer
tai
n
l
i
mit
sont
hewayi
nwhi
cht
hedeat
hpenal
ty
canbei
mposed.Capi
tal
puni
shment
:
1. Mayonl
ybei
mposedf
ort
hemostser
ious
cr
imes, pur
suant t
o a f
inal j
udgment
r
ender
edbyacour
tandpr
ovi
dingi
tisnot
cont
rar
ytot
hepr
ovi
sionsofhumanr
ight
s
l
awe.
g.notacr
imeofgenoci
de.
2.Any
onesent
encedt
odeat
hhast
her
ightt
o
seek par
don or commut
ati
on of t
he
sent
ence;
3.Deat
hsent
encei
snott
obei
mposedon
any
onebel
owt
heageof18orcar
ri
edouton
pr
egnantwomen.

Ev
enf
orst
ateswhi
chhav
eagr
eedt
oabol
i
sh
t
hedeat
hpenal
ty,
humanr
ight
slawappear
s
ambi
guous,al
l
owi
ngt
hem i
nsomest
atut
es
 349

t
omaker
eser
vat
ionsmai
ntai
ningt
her
ight
t
ouset
hedeat
hpenal
tyatt
imesofwarf
or
exampl
e.Att
hesamet
ime,t
heuseoft
he
deat
hpenal
tyi
stot
all
ypr
ohi
bit
edf
rom use
byt
hev
ari
ousi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imi
nalcour
ts,
l
i
ket
heI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalTr
ibunalf
or
t
he For
mer Yugosl
avi
a,t
he I
nter
nat
ional
Cr
imi
nal Tr
ibunal f
or Rwanda and t
he
I
nter
nat
ional
Cri
minal
Cour
t.

3.
Rightt
oSur
viv
al:
Whent
alki
ngaboutchi
l
dren,t
her
ightt
oli
fe
canof
tenmeant
her
ightt
osur
viv
al.Human
r
ight
slaw al
readyf
orbi
dst
he use oft
he
deat
h penal
tyf
orchi
l
dren.Howev
er,chi
l
d
r
ight
str
eat
iesi
mposeanot
herobl
i
gat
ionon
st
atest
omeett
hebasi
cneedsoft
hechi
l
d
i
nter
msofnut
ri
ti
on,
heal
th,
food,
shel
teret
c.
 350

t
oenabl
ethechi
l
d'ssur
viv
al.

4.
Right
sofVi
cti
ms
Vi
cti
ms of ext
raj
udi
cial
, summar
y or
ar
bit
rar
yexecut
ionsar
eent
it
ledt
oadequat
e
compensat
ion f
rom t
he st
ate wher
ethe
v
iol
ati
on was commi
tt
ed. Gr
ant
ing
compensat
ion i
s separ
ate f
rom t
he
addi
ti
onalobl
i
gat
iononst
atest
oconduct
i
nvest
igat
ionsandpuni
shper
pet
rat
ors.

5.
Int
ernat
ionalandRegi
onalI
nst
rument
sfor
Pr
otect
ionandPr
omot
ion:
I
nter
nat
ionall
egali
nst
rument
staket
hef
orm
of a t
reat
y (
also cal
l
ed agr
eement
,
conv
ent
ion,or pr
otocol
)that bi
nds t
he
cont
ract
ingst
atest
othenegot
iat
edt
erms.
Whennegot
iat
ionsar
ecompl
eted,t
het
ext
 351

ofat
reat
yisest
abl
i
shedasaut
hent
icand
def
ini
ti
ve and i
s "
signed" by t
he
r
epr
esent
ati
vesofst
ates.Ast
atecanagr
ee
t
obeboundt
oat
reat
yinv
ari
ousway
s.The
er
mostcommonar at
if
icat
ionoraccessi
on.
Anew t
reat
yisr
ati
fi
edbyt
hosest
atest
hat
hav
enegot
iat
edt
hei
nst
rument
.Ast
atet
hat
hasnotpar
ti
cipat
edi
nthenegot
iat
ionsmay
,
atal
aterst
age,accedet
othet
reat
y.The
t
r yent
eat ersi
ntof
orce,orbecomesval
i
d,
when a pr
e-det
ermi
ned numberofst
ates
hav
erat
if
iedoraccededt
othet
reat
y.

Whenast
ater
ati
fi
esoraccedest
oat
reat
y,
t
hatst
atemaymaker
eser
vat
ionst
ooneor
mor
e ar
ti
cles of t
he t
reat
y, unl
ess
r
eser
vat
ions ar
e pr
ohi
bit
ed by t
he t
reat
y.
Reser
vat
ionsmaynor
mal
l
ybewi
thdr
awnat
 352

anyt
ime.I
n somecount
ri
es,i
nter
nat
ional
t
reat
iest
akepr
ecedenceov
ernat
ionall
aw;
i
not
her
saspeci
fi
claw mayber
equi
redt
o
gi
vear
ati
fi
edi
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
ythef
orce
ofanat
ionall
aw.Pr
act
ical
l
yal
lst
atest
hat
hav
erat
if
iedoraccededt
oani
nter
nat
ional
t
reat
ymusti
ssuedecr
ees,changeexi
sti
ng
l
aws,ori
ntr
oducenew l
egi
sl
ati
oni
nor
der
f
ort
het
reat
yto bef
ull
yef
fect
iveont
he
nat
ional
ter
ri
tor
y.

Thebi
ndi
ngt
reat
iescanbeusedt
ofor
ce
gov
ernment
s t
o r
espect t
he t
reat
y
pr
ovi
sionst
hatar
erel
evantt
othehuman
r
ightt
oli
fe.The non-
bindi
ng i
nst
rument
s,
suchasdecl
arat
ionsandr
esol
uti
ons,
canbe
used i
nrel
evantsi
tuat
ions t
o embar
rass
gov
ernment
sbynegat
ivepubl
i
cexposur
e;
 353

gov
ernment
s who car
e about t
hei
r
i
nter
nat
ionali
magemayconsequent
lyadapt
t
hei
rpol
i
cies.

6.
Ethi
opi
a’sObl
igat
iont
o St
and Commi
tt
ed
t
o t
he I
nter
nat
ional Tr
eat
ies and
I
nst
rument
s:
Wi
thi
nthemeani
ngoft
heAr
t13/
2oft
he
Const
it
uti
onofFDRE1995,t
hef
undament
al
r
ight
s and f
reedoms ensur
ed by t
he
Const
it
uti
onshal
lbei
nter
pret
edi
namanner
conf
ormi
ng t
o t
he pr
inci
ples of The
Uni
ver
sal Decl
arat
ion of Human Ri
ght
s,
I
nter
nat
ionalCov
enant
s on Human Ri
ght
s
and I
nter
nat
ionalI
nst
rument
s adopt
ed by
Et
hiopi
a.Ther
efor
ethemostpr
eci
ousr
ight
t
o l
i
fe embodi
ed under Ar
t 15 of t
he
Const
it
uti
on whi
ch obv
iousl
y per
mit
sthe
 354

depr
ivat
ion ofl
i
fe as a puni
shmentf
or
ser
iouscr
imeswi
thoutdoubti
sint
erpr
eted
subj
ectt
othemosti
mpor
tanti
nter
nat
ional
i
nst
rument
sthatguar
ant
eet
her
ightt
oli
fe.

7.
Prot
ect
ion Agai
nst Cr
uel
,Inhuman or
Degr
adi
ng Puni
shment
:Ar
t18/
1 oft
he
Const
it
uti
on:
The Bl
ack’
s Law Di
cti
onar
y(7th edi
ti
on)
def
ines‘
cruelandunusualpuni
shment
’as
‘
puni
shmentt
hati
stor
tur
ous,degr
adi
ng,
i
nhuman,gr
ossl
y di
spr
opor
ti
onat
etot
he
cr
imei
nquest
ion,orot
her
wiseshocki
ngt
o
t
hemor
alsenseoft
hecommuni
ty”
.Taki
ng
t
his meani
ng oft
he cr
ueland i
nhuman
puni
shmentt
o be of
fensi
vet
othe mor
al
senseoft
hecommuni
tyt
hequest
ioni
s‘i
s
execut
ion ofa cr
imi
nalof
fendi
ng t
othe
 355

mor
alsenses?
’

Suppor
ter
soft
hedeat
hpenal
tyar
guet
hat
,
t
hedeat
hpenal
tyi
snotcr
uelandunusual
puni
shment
.Thef
ramer
soft
heConst
it
uti
on
suppor
ted t
he deat
h penal
ty,and i
nfact
const
ruct
edl
awsi
nor
dert
ocar
ryi
tout
,soi
t
i
sri
dicul
oust
ocl
aimt
hatcr
uelandunusual
puni
shmentr
efer
stot
he deat
h penal
ty.
Theyt
ryt
oar
gueher
ethatt
hedeat
hpenal
ty
i
smor
alandj
ustandt
hati
tshoul
dnotbe
f
orgot
tent
hat‘
noonehast
obeexecut
ed;i
f
no one mur
der
s,no one i
s execut
ed’
.
Mur
der
ersar
enoti
nnocentpeopl
efi
ght
ing
f
ort
hei
rli
ves;
thatst
atementdescr
ibest
hei
r
v
ict
ims.Theyemphasi hatv
zet ict
imr
ight
s
ar
emor
eimpor
tantt
hancr
imi
nalr
ight
s.
Howev
er heAmnest
,t yInt
ernat
ionalar
gues
 356

t
hat
,“t
hedeat
hpenal
tyv
iol
atest
her
ightt
o
l
i
feandi
tist
heul
ti
mat
ecr
uel
,i
nhumanand
degr
adi
ngpuni
shmentandi
thasnopl
acei
n
amoder
ncr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem”
.Amnest
y
I
nter
nat
ionalwor
ksf
oranendt
oexecut
ions
and t
he abol
i
tion of t
he deat
h penal
ty
ev
ery
wher
e.The maj
orgr
ounds f
ort
his
ar
gumentar
e:
oAn execut
ion,j
ustl
i
ke t
ort
ure,i
nvol
ves a
del
i
ber
ateassaul
tonapr
isoner
.Ev
enso-
cal
l
ed '
humane'met
hods such as l
ethal
i
nject
ioncanent
ail
excr
uci
ati
ngsuf
fer
ing.
oCapi
tal
puni
shmenti
sir
rev
ocabl
e.Al
lj
udi
ci
al
sy
stemsmakemi
stakes,andasl
ongast
he
deat
hpenal
typer
sist
s,i
nnocentpeopl
ewi
l
l
beexecut
ed.
oI
tisal
sodi
scr
imi
nat
oryandi
sof
tenused
di
spr
opor
ti
onat
ely agai
nst t
he poor
,the
 357

power
lessandt
hemar
ginal
i
zed,aswel
las
agai
nst peopl
e whom r
epr
essi
ve
gov
ernment
swantt
oel
i
minat
e.
oThe deat
h penal
ty does notdet
ercr
ime
mor
ethanot
herpuni
shment
s.I
nCanadat
he
homi
cider
atehasf
all
enby40percentsi
nce
1975;t
hedeat
hpenal
tywasabol
i
shedf
or
mur
deri
n1976.
oI
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
str
eat
iespr
ohi
bit
cour
tssent
enci
ngany
onewhowasunder18
y
ear
sol
datt
het
imeoft
hecr
imet
odeat
h,
orexecut
ingt
hem.Butasmal
lnumberof
count
ri
es cont
inue t
o execut
e chi
l
d
of
fender
s,v
iol
ati
ngt
hei
robl
i
gat
ionsunder
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

 Met
hodsofExecut
ion:
Ther
ear
eei
ghtmai
nmet
hodsofexecut
ion
 358

i
ncur
rentusewor
ldwi
de:
 
oBeheadi
ng: Onl
ytwo count
ri
es execut
e
peopl
e bychoppi
ng t
hei
rhead of
f:Saudi
Ar
abi
aandI
raq.

oEl
ect
ri
cchai
r:(
USonl
y)Nobodyknowshow
qui
ckl
yaper
sondi
esf
rom t
heel
ect
ri
cshock,
or what t
hey exper
ience. The ACLU
descr
ibes t
wo cases wher
e pr
isoner
s
appar
ent
lyl
i
ved f
orf
ourt
oten mi
nut
es
bef
oref
inal
l
yexpi
ri
ng.

oFi
ri
ng squad:The pr
isoneri
s bound and
shot t
hrough t
he hear
t by mul
ti
ple
mar
ksmen.Deat
h appear
sto be qui
ck,
assumi
ngt
heki
l
ler
sdon'
tmi
ss.I
ntheU.
S.,
onl
y Ut
ah used t
his met
hod. I
t was
 359

abandoned i
nfav
orofl
ethali
nject
ion on
2004-
MAR-
15,except f
or f
our conv
ict
ed
ki
l
ler
s on deat
hrow who had pr
evi
ousl
y
chosendeat
hbyf
ir
ingsquad.
Thi
sisusedi
n
Bel
arus,
Chi
na,
Somal
i
a,Tai
wan,
Uzbeki
stan,
Vi
etnam,
andot
her
s.

oGui
ll
oti
ne:A f
amousFr
enchi
nvent
ion,not
usedi
nNor
thAmer
ica.I
tsev
erst
heneck.
Deat
hcomesv
eryqui
ckl
y.

oHangi
ng:i
fpr
oper
l ed,t
yconduct hisi
sa
humanemet
hod.Thenecki
sbr
okenand
deat
hcomesqui
ckl
y.Howev
er,i
fthef
ree-
f
all
dist
ancei
sinadequat
e,t
hepr
isonerends
upsl
owl
ybei
ngst
rangl
edt
odeat
h.I
fiti
s
t
oogr
eat
,ther
opewi
l
ltearhi
s/herheadof
f.
 360

Thi
smet
hodi
susedi
nEgy
pt,Et
hiopi
a,I
ran,
I
ndi
a,Japan,Jor
dan,Paki
stan,Si
ngapor
e
andot
her
s.

oLet
hali
nject
ion:Let
haldr
ugsar
einj
ect
ed
i
ntot
he pr
isonerwhi
l
e he l
ays st
rapped
downt
oat
abl
e.Ty
pical
l
y,sodi
um pent
othal
i
s i
nject
ed t
o make t
he pr
isoner
ous.Thenpancur
unconsci oni
um br
omi
dei
s
i
nject
ed. I
t t
ermi
nat
es br
eat
hing and
par
aly
zest
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
 Fi
nal
l
y,pot
assi
um
chl
ori
de i
sinj
ect
ed t
o st
op t
he hear
t.I
f
pr
oper
ly conduct
ed, t
he pr
isoner f
ades
qui
ckl
yint
ounconsci
ousness.I
fthedosage
ofdr
ugsi
stool
ow,
theper
sonmayl
i
ngerf
or
many mi
nut
es, exper
ienci
ng par
aly
sis.
Execut
ionsi
ntheU.
S.ar
egr
adual
l
yshi
ft
ing
t
othi
s met
hod.Thi
stechni
que has been
 361

chal
l
engedr
ecent
lybyt
hosewhof
eelt
hat
t
he pr
isoner may not be r
ender
ed
unconsci
ousbyt
hedr
ugs.Somesuggest
t
hatt
hismet
hodcanbeext
remel
ypai
nful
.
Af
terabot
chedexecut
ionofAngelNi
eves
Di
azi
nFl
ori
dai
n2006-
DEC,
Flor
idaandni
ne
ot
her st
ates hav
e pl
aced a hol
d on
execut
ions.Thi
smet
hodi
susedi
nChi
na,
Guat
emal
a,Phi
l
ippi
nes,Thai
l
and,and t
he
U.
S.

oPoi
songas:Cy
ani
decapsul
esar
edr
opped
i
nto aci
d pr
oduci
ng Hy
drogen Cy
ani
de,a
deadl
ygas.Thi
stakes manymi
nut
es of
agonybef
oreaper
sondi
es.

oSt
oni
ng:Thepr
isoneri
sof
tenbur
iedupt
o
 362

herorhi
sneckandpel
tedwi
thr
ocksunt
il
t
heyev
ent
ual
l
ydi
e.Ther
ocksar
echosenso
t
hat t
hey ar
e l
arge enough t
o cause
si
gni
fi
canti
njur
ytot
hev
ict
im,
butar
enotso
l
arget
hatasi
ngl
erockwi
l
lki
l
lthepr
isoner
.
Thi
s met
hodi
susedi
nNor
thAf
ghani
stan
andI
ran,asapenal
tyf
ormur
der
,adul
ter
y,
bl
asphemy
,andot
hercr
imes.

Not
e: Fi
nd i
mpor
tant Cases on t
he
const
it
uti
onal
it
y ofdeat
h penal
tyi
nthe
Appendi
x.
Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng:

1.Ev
eni
fthedeat
hpenal
tyi
sconst
it
uti
onal
,
doesi
tfol
l
ow t
hatal
lexi
sti
ngf
ormsoft
he
execut
ionofdeat
hpenal
tyar
econst
it
uti
onal
?
2. Doest
heexper
iencesuggestt
hatt
he
 363

deat
hpenal
tydet
ersmur
deranymor
ethan
asent
enceofl
i
fewi
thoutt
hepossi
bil
i
tyof
par
ole?
 Ifi
tdoesn'
t,doesi
tsuggestt
hat
‘
the deat
h penal
ty i
s an excessi
ve
puni
shment
’?
3.Whati
sthebestar
gumentf
ort
her
etent
ion
ofdeat
h penal
ty?
 Ist
he deat
h penal
ty
necessar
yto det
er l
i
fe pr
isoner
s f
rom
commi
tt
ingmur
deri
npr
isons?
4.Doy
out
hinkt
hatexecut
ionofacr
imi
nali
s
of
fendi
ng t
o t
he mor
al sense of t
he
communi
ty?
5.Do y
ou j
ust
if
ythe r
etent
ion ofdeat
h
penal
tyi
nEt
hiopi
a?

2.
1.3.
4. Gener
al Pr
inci
ples Rel
ati
ng t
o
 364

Deat
hPenal
tyAr
ts.117-
120:

Sent
enceofdeat
hshal
lbepassedonl
yin
casesofgr
avecr
imesandonexcept
ional
l
y
danger
ouscr
imi
nal
s,i
nthecaseswher
eiti
s
speci
fi
cal
l
y l
aid down by l
aw as a
puni
shment
.
Deat
hsent
enceshal
lbegi
venonl
yincase
ofcompl
etedcr
imes,andnotf
ort
hest
age
ofat
temptoft
hosespeci
fi
cof
fencesf
or
whi
chdeat
hpenal
tyi
spr
escr
ibed.
I
tshal
lbepassedonl
ywher
ether
ear
eno
ext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances.
I
tshal
lnotbepassedonacr
imi
nalwho
hasnotat
tai
nedt
heageof18y
ear
satt
he
t
imecommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime.
Deat
hsent
enceshal
lbecar
ri
edoutonl
y
af
terobt
aini
ngconf
ir
mat
ionoft
hesameby
 365

t
heHeadoft
heSt
ate.
I
tshal
lbeexecut
edonl
yaf
terascer
tai
ning
ofi
tsnon-
remi
ssi
onornon-
commut
ati
onby
par
donoramnest
y.
The means of execut
ion shal
l be
det
ermi
ned byt
he execut
ive bodyhav
ing
aut
hor
it
yov
ert
heFeder
alort
heRegi
onal
Pr
isonAdmi
nist
rat
ionconcer
ned.
Thedeat
hsent
enceshal
lnotbecar
ri
ed
outi
n publ
i
cbyhangi
ng orbyanyot
her
i
nhumanmeans.I
tshal
lbeexecut
edwi
thi
n
t
he pr
eci
nct
soft
he pr
ison bya humane
means.Theexecut
ionoft
hesent
enceshal
l
be car
ri
ed out wi
thout any cr
uel
ti
es,
mut
il
ati
onsorot
herphy
sical
suf
fer
ing.
Thebodyoft
heexecut
edper
sonshal
lbe
gi
vent
ohi
sfami
l
y,upont
hei
rrequest
.Ifno
onecl
aimsf
ort
hebody
,itshal
lbegi
vena
 366

decentbur
ial
(Ar
t.117(
4))
.
Tr
eat
ment of t
he Pr
isoner Awai
ti
ng
Execut
ion:
 A pr
isonerawai
ti
ng t
he conf
ir
mat
ion
andexecut
ionoft
hesent
enceshal
lbekept
undert
he same condi
ti
ons as a pr
isoner
ser
vingsent
enceofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonment
.
 Al
lst
epsshal
lbet
akenf
ort
hesaf
etyof
t
hepr
isonerundert
hesuper
visi
on oft
he
Di
rect
orofPr
isons.
Att
hewi
shoft
hepr
isonerawai
ti
ngt
he
deat
hpenal
tyandwher
eiti
spossi
blehe
shal
lbegi
vensomewor
ktodowi
thi
nhi
s
cel
l
.
Suspensi
on and Commut
ati
on of Deat
h
Sent
ence:
Suspensi
on and commut
ati
on ofdeat
h
penal
ty ar
e possi
ble i
n t
he f
oll
owi
ng
 367

ci
rcumst
ances:
I
ncaseoff
ull
yorpar
ti
all
yir
responsi
bleor
ser
iousl
yil
lper
sonsorapr
egnantwoman.
Thedeat
hsent
encemaybecommut
edt
o
“
Rigor
ousI
mpr
isonmentf
orLi
fe”
,incaseof
awomanwi
thchi
l
dandi
fshegi
vesbi
rt
hto
al
i
vechi
l
d.
Theot
hercasesofsent
encesofdeat
h
maybecommut
edorr
emi
tt
edonl
ybyway
ofpar
donoramnest
yaspr
ovi
dedbyt
he
Ar
ts.229and230oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.

Rev
iewQuest
ion:
Whatar
ether
ulesr
elat
ing t
oimposi
ti
on,
execut
ion and commut
ati
on of deat
h
penal
ty?
 368

2.
2.Secondar
yPenal
it
it
es
Acour
tmayi
mposeasecondar
ypenal
tyon
a cr
imi
nal i
n addi
ti
on t
o t
he pr
imar
y
puni
shment
.Secondar
y penal
ti
es ar
e not
equalt
opr
imar
ypuni
shment
.Thus,bef
ore
i
mposi
ngasecondar
ypenal
tyt
hecour
thas
t
o pr
onounce a pr
imar
ypenal
ty,whi
ch i
t
deems t
o be appr
opr
iat
efor a cr
ime.
Howev
er,t
hey may r
epl
ace t
he pr
inci
pal
penal
tyundert
hecondi
ti
onsst
atedbyt
he
pr
ovi
sionofar
ti
cle122(
2).
I
fsuchi
sspeci
fi
cal
l
ylai
ddownbyt
hel
aw;
or
Wher
e t
her
e ar
e ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances;
or
Wher
e t
he l
aw pr
ovi
des f
or a f
ree
mi
ti
gat
ion oft
he puni
shment(
art
icl
e 82
&83)
;or
 369

Wher
e enf
orcementoft
he sent
ence i
s
post
poned.

I
sthe cour
tobl
iged t
o al
way
simpose
secondar
ypenal
ti
esi
naddi
ti
ont
opr
imar
y
penal
ti
es?
Thecour
tisnotobl
i
ged.Thel
aw gi
vest
he
di
scr
eti
on whet
her or not t
o i
mpose
secondar
y penal
ti
es t
othe cour
t under
ar
ti
cle122(
2).

2.
2.1.Ty
pesofSecondar
yPenal
ti
es:

Ther
e ar
e di
ff
erent t
ypes of secondar
y
penal
ti
es.Thesear
e:
A. Caut
ion, Repr
imand, Admoni
shment
(
Art
icl
e122)
:
Thesear
epenal
ti
esaf
fect
ingt
hehonorand
 370

per
sonali
ntegr
it
yoft
hecr
imi
nal
.Ifacour
t
consi
der
sthatmaki
ng an appealt
othe
honoroft
he cr
imi
nalwi
l
lhav
e benef
ici
al
ef
fect
sont
hecr
imi
nalandsoci
etyatl
arge,
i
tmayi
nopencour
tei
therdur
ingori
nit
s
j
udgmentcaut
ion,admoni
sh orr
epr
imand
t
heof
fender
.

Fory
ourcl
earunder
standi
ngoft
het
erms,
t
hei
rdi
cti
onar
ymeani
ngi
sasf
oll
ows:
Caut
ion:
war
ning
Admoni
shment
:expr
essi
onofdi
sappr
oval
ofonesact
ionsorbehav
ior
Repr
imand:st
rongof
fi
cialdi
sappr
ovalof
someone
Publ
icapol
ogy(
Art
icl
e.122)
Thecr
imi
naldoest
hist
otheper
soni
njur
ed
att
heor
derofacour
t.
 371

B. Depr
ivat
ionofr
ight
s(Ar
t.
123)
Thecour
tmaygi
vesuchor
derwhent
he
of
fender has, by hi
s unl
awf
ul act or
omi
ssi
on,shown hi
msel
funwor
thyoft
he
exer
cise ofsuch r
ight
s.The r
ight
sto be
depr
ivedar
e:

Ci
vi
lri
ght
s,par
ti
cul
arl
yther
ightt
ovot
e,t
o
t
akepar
tinanyel
ect
ionort
obeel
ect
edt
oa
publ
i
c of
fi
ce orof
fi
ce orhonor
,to be a
wi
tness t
o ora sur
etyi
n any deed or
document
,to bean exper
twi
tnessort
o
ser
veasassessor
;or
Fami
lyr
ight
s,par
ti
cul
arl
ythoseconf
err
ing
t
he r
ight
s of par
ent
al aut
hor
it
y or of
guar
dianshi
p;or
The r
ightt
o exer
cise a pr
ofessi
on,ar
t,
t
rade or t
o car
ry on any i
ndust
ry or
 372

commer
cef
orwhi
chal
i
censeoraut
hor
it
yis
r
equi
red.
Theycoul
dbeper
manentort
empor
ary
.Ifi
t
i
stempor
ary
,theper
iodofdepr
ivat
ionshal
l
bef
rom onet
ofi
vey
ear
s.Thecour
twi
l
lfi
x
t
he per
iod t
aki
ng i
nto consi
der
ati
on t
he
gr
avi
tyoft
hecr
ime,t
heant
ecedent
sand
char
act
eroft
he cr
imi
nal
,the dangerof
r
elapsei
ntocr
ime,
thepr
obabl
eef
fectoft
he
puni
shment and t
he i
nter
est of soci
ety
(
Art
icl
e124)
.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.
Whati
sther
ati
onal
ebehi
ndt
hesecondar
y
penal
ti
es?
2.
When can t
he Cour
t awar
d secondar
y
penal
ti
es?
3.
Whatar
ether
ulesr
elat
ingt
o‘depr
ivat
ionof
r
ight
s’asasecondar
ypenal
ty?
 373

2.
3 Speci
alMeasur
es Appl
icabl
eto
Adul
ts:

Ourl
awdoesnotonl
ypenal
i
zeacr
imi
nal
but
i
tal
so hasdesi
gned pr
otect
ive measur
es
speci
all
y t
o achi
eve r
efor
mat
ive and
r
ehabi
l
itat
ory pur
poses.These measur
es
hav
e t
he pur
poses of r
efor
ming and
educat
ingt
heper
sonso t
hatheabst
ains
f
rom commi
tt
ingf
urt
hercr
imewhenheget
s
back t
o t
he soci
ety af
ter ser
ving hi
s
sent
ence i
nthe pr
ison.I
thas been t
he
exper
ience t
hatt
hese measur
es achi
eve
bet
ter r
epr
essi
on of cr
imi
nal
i
ty and
r
ehabi
l
itat
ionandr
eint
egr
ati
onofacr
imi
nal
.

Measur
esmaybei
mposedev
eni
ftheyar
e
 374

notspeci
fi
cal
l
yindi
cat
edi
ntheSpeci
alPar
t
oft
heCodeasf
arast
hecour
tfi
ndsi
ttobe
desi
rabl
ekeepi
ngi
nvi
ew t
hepur
posesof
t
hecr
imi
nal
law.

Measur
es coul
d be i
mposed bot
h on a
per
sonconv
ict
edf
oracr
imeandt
hosenot
r
esponsi
blef
ora cr
ime because i
tisa
pr
otect
ivest
ep.Howev
er,f
ort
hesakeof
cl
ari
tyandunder
standi
ngourcodehast
hree
cat
egor
ies ofmeasur
es.These ar
e deal
t
wi
thasf
oll
ows:

2.
3.1.Measur
es appl
icabl
eIr
responsi
ble
per
sons and cr
imi
nal
s wi
th l
imi
ted
r
esponsi
bil
it
y:

Foraper
sont
obepuni
shedf
oracr
imehe
 375

shoul
dber
esponsi
blei
.e.t
her
eshoul
dbeno
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.I
faper
soncommi
tsacr
ime
f
orwhi
chhei
sabsol
utel
yir
responsi
bleor
r
esponsi
blei
nal
i
mit
edmanner
,thenhei
s
ei
ther not puni
shabl
e or t
he penal
tyi
s
r
educedast
hecasemaybe.Howev
er,
ther
e
wi
l
lbepr
otect
ivemeasur
est
obei
mposed
onsuchper
sons.

Thesesar
ethemeasur
esofconf
inement
andt
reat
ment
.Accor
dingt
oar
ti
cl
es130(
1),
i
facr
imi
nali
sfoundt
obeat
hreatt
opubl
i
c
saf
ety or or
der or i
f he pr
oves t
o be
danger
oust
otheper
sonsl
i
vingwi
thhi
m,
t
hecour
tshal
lor
derhi
sconf
inementi
na
sui
tabl
einst
it
uti
on.As perar
ti
cl
e 131,i
f
such cr
imi
nali
s suf
fer
ing f
rom a ment
al
di
seaseordef
ici
ency
,deafanddumbness,
 376

epi
l
epsy
,chr
oni
c al
cohol
i
sm,i
ntoxi
cat
ion
duet
otheabuseofnar
cot
icsoranyot
her
pat
hol
ogi
caldef
ici
encyandr
equi
rest
obe
t
reat
edorpl
acedi
nahospi
talorasy
lum,
the
cour
tshal
lor
derhi
str
eat
menti
nasui
tabl
e
i
nst
it
uti
onordepar
tmentofani
nst
it
uti
on.

Thedur
ati
onoft
heconf
inementi
sindef
ini
te
as i
ndi
cat
ed under ar
ti
cle 132 of t
he
Cr
imi
nalCode.Howev
er,t
he cour
tshal
l
r
evi
ew i
ts deci
sion ev
eryt
wo y
ear
s.The
cr
imi
nali
srel
easedonl
yifhehaspr
ovedt
o
becur
ed.

2.
3.2.Gener
alMeasur
esf
ort
hePur
poses
ofPr
event
ionandPr
otect
ion:

These t
ypes of measur
es ar
e appl
i
ed
 377

t
oget
herwi
thpr
inci
palpenal
ti
eswhent
he
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecasej
ust
if
ythem i
n
t
heopi
nionoft
hecour
t.Theyar
eappl
i
ed
ev
eni
ftheyar
enotment
ionedi
nthespeci
al
par
toft
hecode.Suchmeasur
esar
edi
vi
ded
i
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies

2.
3.3.Measur
esofaMat
eri
alNat
ure:

Guar
ant
eeofGoodConduct(
Art
icl
e135)
Acour
tmayr
equi
reaconv
ict
edper
son,t
o
ent
eri
ntoar
ecogni
zance t
o be ofgood
behav
iort
oget
herwi
thasur
etyorsur
eti
esi
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngcases:
I
n case ofa cr
imi
nalwho i
ndi
cat
es hi
s
i
ntent
ionofcommi
ttof
urt
hercr
ime,
or
Wheni
tisl
i
kel
ythathewi
l
lcommi
taf
urt
her
cr
imeasi
nacaseofdecl
aredhost
il
it
yor
 378

t
hreat
.
Aper
sonwhohasnotbeenpr
osecut
edmay
al
sober
equi
redt
oent
eri
ntoar
ecogni
zance
asst
atedabov
ewher
esuchper
sonbehav
es
ori
sli
kel
yto behav
ein a mannerwhi
ch
t
hreat
enspeaceorsecur
it
yoft
hepubl
i
cora
membert
her
eof
.
Suchr
ecogni
zanceshal
lbef
oraper
iodof
f
rom onet
ofi
vey
ear
sandt
hesur
etyshal
l
bei
nthef
orm ofaper
sonalormonet
ary
guar
ant
ee.

Sei
zur
eofDanger
ousAr
ti
cle(
140)
A cour
t shal
lor
der t
he sei
zur
e of al
l
danger
ous ar
ti
cles,when t
hey endanger
publ
i
c saf
ety
,heal
th ordecency
,int
he
f
oll
owi
ngcases:
Thosear
ti
cleswhi
chhav
ebeenusedi
nthe
 379

commi
ssi
onofacr
ime,
or
Wher
esuchdanger
ousar
ti
cl
esar
eli
kel
yto
beusedf
ort
hecommi
ssi
onofacr
ime,
or
The danger
ous ar
ti
cles whi
ch hav
e been
obt
ainedast
her
esul
tofacr
ime,
I
naddi
ti
ont
othesei
zur
e,t
hecour
tmayal
so
or
der such ar
ti
cles t
o be dest
roy
ed or
r
ender
edusel
essorhandedov
ert
oapol
i
ce
oracr
imi
nol
ogi
cali
nst
it
ute.Howev
er,i
fthe
possessi
onofsuchar
ti
clesi
snotf
orbi
dden
byl
awt
heyshal
lber
etur
nedt
othei
rowner
.

2.
3.4.Measur
es Ent
ail
ing Rest
ri
cti
on on
Act
ivi
ti
es:

Suspensi
onandwi
thdr
awalofal
icense
(
Art
icl
e142)
:
The suspensi
on and wi
thdr
awal or
 380

r
evocat
ionr
efer
stocr
imesr
elat
edt
oany
pr
ofessi
on oract
ivi
ty oft
he cr
imi
nalf
or
whi
ch he gota l
i
cense.I
fsuch per
son
commi
tt
edacr
imei
nagr
aveorr
epeat
ed
mannert
hen t
he cour
twi
l
lsuspend hi
s
l
i
censef
oraper
iodoff
rom onemont
hto
oney
earorf
orl
i
feast
hecasemaybe.
Pr
ohi
bit
ionandcl
osi
ngofanunder
taki
ng
(
art
icl
e143)
:
Thepr
ohi
bit
ionandcl
osi
ng appl
i
est
oany
under
taki
ng or est
abl
i
shment whet
her
commer
cial
,indust
ri
alcul
tur
alorpol
i
tical
whi
chwasut
il
izedt
ocommi
torf
urt
hert
he
commi
ssi
onofacr
ime,
wher
ethecr
imehas
beenpuni
shedwi
thasent
enceofr
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentexceedi
ngoney
ear
.

2.
3.5.Measur
esEnt
ail
ingaRest
ri
cti
onon
 381

Per
sonalLi
ber
ty:

Pr
ohi
bit
ion f
rom r
esor
ti
ng t
o cer
tai
n
pl
aces(
Art
icl
e145)
:
Thi
sisr
est
ri
cti
on on a conv
ict
ed per
son
f
rom hav
ing access t
o or r
emai
ning i
n
cer
tai
npl
aceswhi
char
edeemedt
o hav
e
cont
ri
but
edt
othecommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime
ormayexposet
hecr
imi
nalt
ocommi
tt
ing
f
reshcr
ime,
inpar
ti
cul
arpubl
i
c-houses,
inns,
ent
ert
ainment
s hal
l
s,mar
ket
s and ot
her
publ
i
cpl
aces.Thedur
ati
onofsuchr
est
rai
nt
maybef
rom t
hreemont
hst
ooney
ear
.

Pr
ohi
bit
iont
oset
tl
edownorr
esi
dei
na
pl
ace(
Art
icl
e146)
:
Thi
srest
ri
cti
on i
s si
mil
arwi
tht
he abov
e
except t
hat i
tref
ers t
o set
tl
ement or
 382

r
esi
dencei
nat
own,
vil
l
ageoraspeci
fi
edar
e.
Such r
est
ri
cti
on coul
d be t
empor
ary or
per
manent
.Ifi
tist
empor
ary
,itmayl
ast
f
rom onet
oteny
ear
s.

Obl
igat
iont
oResi
dei
nSpeci
alPl
aceor
Ar
eaAr
ti
cle.147:
Suchanor
deri
sgi
venwher
ethecr
imi
nali
s
l
i
kel
yto cause f
urt
her di
stur
bances or
pur
sue a l
i
fe ofcr
ime.The ar
ea t
o be
sel
ect
ed shoul
d be a pl
ace wher
ethe
l
i
kel
i
hoodofhi
scommi
tt
ingaf
urt
hercr
ime
i
slessened.Theper
iodofsuchr
esi
dence
mustbenotl
esst
hanoney
earormor
ethan
f
ivey
ear
s.

Pl
aci
ngunderSuper
visi
on(
Art
icl
e148)
Anor
derundert
hispr
ovi
sioni
sgi
venona
 383

cr
imi
nalwho i
spr
oved danger
ousbyt
he
gr
avi
tyorr
epet
it
ionofhi
scr
imi
nalact
sand
whowassent
encedt
oatl
eastat
erm of
si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentofoney
ear
.

Suchmeasur
emayal
sobei
mposedona
per
sonwhoi
sunabl
etof
urni
sht
hesur
etyor
per
sonalguar
ant
eer
equi
redasaguar
ant
ee
ofgoodconduct(
Art
.138)
.
Thesuper
visi
oncoul
dbeei
therbyt
hepol
i
ce
orbyachar
it
abl
eor
gani
zat
ion.Super
visi
on
byachar
it
abl
eor
gani
zat
ioni
sconsi
der
edt
o
beanessent
ialf
eat
ureoft
hesy
stem ai
ming
at obt
aini
ng good r
esul
ts f
rom t
he
enf
orcementofpenal
ti
esandmeasur
esand
t
he v
ari
ous met
hods wher
e by such
endor
sementi
scar
ri
edout
.
Thedur
ati
onoft
hesuper
visi
onmayext
end
 384

f
rom oney
eart
ofi
vey
ear
s.

Wi
thdr
awalofOf
fi
cialPaper
sAr
ti
cle.149:
Thi
sist
he hol
ding ofof
fi
ci
alpaper
s or
passpor
tofa conv
ict
ed per
son f
ort
he
pur
poseofsuper
visi
onorsaf
ety
.

Expul
sion(
Art
icl
e150)
Thi
sis pr
ohi
bit
ion f
rom r
esi
ding i
nthe
t
err
it
ory
.Itappl
i
est
o a conv
ict
ed per
son
whoi
sanal
i
enandpr
ovest
obeundesi
rabl
e
ordanger
ous.Thi
s or
deri
s gi
ven on a
conv
ict
ed per
son ofanyoft
he f
oll
owi
ng
cat
egor
ies:
who has been sent
enced t
oat
erm of
si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentoft
hreey
ear
sormor
e,
a habi
tual cr
imi
nal sent
enced t
o
i
nter
nmentor
 385

an i
rr
esponsi
ble orpar
ti
all
yresponsi
ble
cr
imi
nalr
ecogni
zedbyexper
topi
nionasa
dangert
opubl
i
cor
der
.

The expul
sion coul
d be t
empor
ary or
per
manent
, as t
he cour
t may deem
necessar
y.

2.
3.6. Measur
es f
or t
he Pur
pose of
I
nfor
mat
ion:

Thesear
eoft
hreet
ypes:
Not
if
icat
iont
otheCompet
entAut
hor
it
y
Ar
ti
cle.154:
Whenacour
tgi
vesanor
derofsecondar
y
penal
tyorpr
otect
iveorpr
event
ivemeasur
e,
such or
der shoul
d be not
if
ied t
o t
he
compet
entadmi
nist
rat
ive,ci
vi
l,mi
l
itar
yor
 386

pol
i
ceaut
hor
it
ysot
hatt
heor
derwoul
dbe
enf
orcedandi
tsobser
vat
ioncont
rol
l
ed.

Publ
icat
ionoft
heJudgmentAr
ti
cle.155:
Such publ
i
cat
ion coul
d bemadet
o ser
ve
publ
i
corpr
ivat
eint
erest
s.Such an or
der
shal
lbegi
venasamat
terofcour
sewheni
t
i
sdeemedt
oser
vepubl
i
cint
erest
.Butf
or
pr
ivat
eint
eresti
tis gi
ven onl
ywhen t
he
accusedort
hei
njur
edper
sonr
equest
sit
.

Thepubl
i
cat
ionmaybeef
fect
edbymeans
ofpost
ersi
npubl
i
cpl
ace,ort
hroughot
her
massmedi
a.

Theor
derofpubl
i
cat
ionwi
l
lal
soi
ndi
cat
e
t
hecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
cht
hepubl
i
cat
ion
shal
ltake pl
ace and t
he number of
 387

publ
i
cat
ions.

Ent
ryi
nthe JudgmentRegi
sterAr
ti
cle.
156:
Thi
s ar
ti
cl
e r
equi
res t
hat an or
der of
r
egi
str
ati
on of penal
ti
es i
s measur
es
pr
onouncedi
naj
udgmentshal
lbeent
ered
i
nthej
udgmentr
egi
ster
.Thesepr
ovi
si
ons
shal
lal
so det
ermi
net
hepar
ti
cul
arst
o be
i
ncl
udedi
ntheent
it
ies.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Whatar
ethe di
ff
erentki
nds ofspeci
al
measur
es desi
gned f
or adul
t cr
imi
nal
s?
Whatar
etheobj
ect
iveoft
hesemeasur
es?

Sect
ion.
3.Det
ermi
nat
ionOfPuni
shment
:
3.
1.Gener
alPr
inci
plesofDet
ermi
nat
ionof
 388

Puni
shment
:Ar
ts.87-
89:

Thef
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
pleshav
etobekepti
n
v
iew byt
hecour
tatt
het
imeoff
ixi
ngt
he
quant
um ofpuni
shmentandt
henat
ureof
t
hemeasur
etobeappl
i
ed:
 Puni
shment
sandmeasur
esdesi
gnedby
t
he Cr
imi
nalCode ar
e supposed t
o be
appl
i
ed
oI
n accor
dance wi
tht
he spi
ri
t of t
he
Cr
imi
nal
Code,
and
oI
n or
dert
o achi
evet
he pur
pose oft
he
Cr
imi
nal
Codei
nter
msofAr
t.
1
oGi
vi
ng due r
espect t
o human di
gni
ty.
(
Art
s.18(
1)andAr
t.
21oft
heConst
it
uti
on)
 The cal
cul
ati
on of sent
ences i
s
expect
edt
obebyamet
icul
ouscor
rel
ati
on
oft
heGener
alPar
tandt
heSpeci
alPar
tof
 389

t
he Cr
imi
nalCode.Due r
egar
d shoul
d be
gi
vent
othegener
alpr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nal
l
i
abi
l
ityandt
hedef
ini
ti
onsofspeci
fi
ccr
imes
asputf
orwar
dbyt
heSpeci
alPar
toft
he
Code.
 The pr
inci
ple of i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ion of
puni
shmentshoul
d be gi
ven ef
fectt
o by
gi
vi
ng due consi
der
ati
on t
othe per
sonal
ci
rcumst
ances of t
he cr
imi
nalsuch as
degr
eeofgui
l
t,danger
ousdi
sposi
ti
onoft
he
cr
imi
nal
, hi
s ant
ecedent
s, mot
ive and
pur
pose.Thest
andar
dofhi
seducat
ional
so
maybeamat
tert
obeconsi
der
edi
nthe
appl
i
cat
ion ofdi
ff
erentpr
ovi
si
ons oft
he
Code.The gr
avi
ty oft
he cr
ime and t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesofi
tscommi
ssi
onar
eot
her
maj
orconsi
der
ati
onsi
nthedet
ermi
nat
ionof
penal
ty.
 390

 Car
efulexami
nat
ion oft
he compl
ete
r
angeofpuni
shment
sfr
om t
hel
i
ght
estt
o
t
he sev
ere most shoul
d be made i
n
choosi
ngt
her
ightpuni
shment
.
 The Feder
alSupr
eme Cour
tissues a
‘
ManualRel
ati
ngt
oSent
enci
ng’i
nor
dert
o
ensur
ethe cor
rect
ness and uni
for
mit
yof
sent
enci
ng.The cour
ts ar
e expect
ed t
o
mai
ntai
n st
andar
ds wel
las uni
for
mit
yby
conf
ormi
ngcar
eful
l
ytot
hesai
dmanual
.
 I
n r
elat
ion t
o t
he det
ermi
nat
ion of
sent
encesi
ncasesof‘
MinorCr
imes’t
her
e
ar
etwo al
ter
nat
ives pr
ovi
ded byAr
t.89.
Thesear
e:
oThecour
tmayappl
ythepr
ovi
si
onsofAr
t.
122r
elat
ingt
orepr
imandswar
ning,
or
The pr
ovi
sions of t
he Law of Pet
ty
Of
fences
 391

‘
MinorCr
imes’ar
edef
inedas“
cri
meswhi
ch
ar
e puni
shabl
e wi
th si
mpl
eimpr
isonment
notexceedi
ngt
hreemont
hsorf
inenotmor
e
t
han1000Bi
rr
.

3.
2.Ext
enuat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:

The puni
shment
sto be i
mposed on a
cr
imi
nalneednotnecessar
il
ybeexact
lyt
he
one whi
ch i
s pr
escr
ibed f
ort
he speci
fi
c
cr
ime.I
tcanbemi
ti
gat
ed(
orext
enuat
edor
r
educed)oraggr
avat
ed (
incr
eased)i
nthe
ci
rcumst
ances l
i
sted outby t
he Cr
imi
nal
Code. Ar
ts. 82-
86 cat
egor
ize t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
nggr
oups:
Gener
al Ext
enuat
ing Ci
rcumst
ances-
Ar
t.
82
Speci
alMi
ti
gat
ingCi
rcumst
ances-Ar
t.83
 392

Gener
alAggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances-Ar
t.
84
Speci
alAggr
avat
ing Ci
rcumst
ances-Ar
t.
85
Ot
her Gener
al Ext
enuat
ing and
Aggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances-Ar
t.86
Letus f
ir
stsee t
he mai
n cat
egor
ies of
ext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances:

3.
2.1.Gener
alExt
enuat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:
Ar
t.82

Thesameki
ndofcr
imecanbecommi
tt
ed
by di
ff
erent per
sons under di
ff
erent
ci
rcumst
ances.Theseci
rcumst
ancescoul
d
ei
therl
eadt
oreducedpuni
shmentormor
e
sev
ere puni
shment
s. Ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances ar
e t
hose f
act
ors
 393

sur
roundi
ng t
he commi
ssi
on ofa cr
ime
whi
chf
avourt
hecr
imi
nal
sandt
husl
eadt
o
or
dinar
y mi
ti
gat
ion of puni
shment
s i
n
accor
dancewi
thAr
t.1790ft
heCode.The
gener
alext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ancesi
ncl
ude,
per
sonalci
rcumst
ances oft
he Cr
imi
nal
suchashi
s/herage,i
ntel
l
igence,si
mpl
i
cit
y
of mi
nd,mot
ive,mor
al di
str
ess,gr
ave
t
empt
ati
onorser
iouspr
ovocat
ionorv
iol
ent
emot
ion or an unj
ust i
nsul
t et
c.
Ci
rcumst
ancesaf
tert
hecommi
ssi
onoft
he
cr
ime al
so may pr
ovi
de gr
ound f
or
mi
ti
gat
ion.Fori
nst
ance,t
hecr
imi
nalshows
asi
ncer
erepent
ancef
orhi
sact
saf
tert
he
commi
ssi
on of t
he cr
ime,speci
all
y by
r
ender
inghel
ptohi
svi
cti
m,orsur
render
ing
hi
msel
ftot
heaut
hor
it
ies,orbyr
epai
ri
ng,as
f
araspossi
ble,t
hel
ossori
njur
ycausedby
 394

hi
scr
imeorbyconf
essi
ngt
hecr
imeatt
he
t
ri
al, al
lthese can be consi
der
ed as
ext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances.

NoDoubl
eMi
ti
gat
ion:Ar
t.
82(
2)
Someoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heSpeci
alpar
t
i
ncor
por
ate one of t
hese ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances as one of t
he essent
ial
el
ementoft
he cr
ime oras a f
act
orof
ext
enuat
ion of a pr
ivi
l
eged cr
ime. For
exampl
e,underAr
t.541 i
tisessent
ialt
o
pr
oveexcessofsel
fdef
enseorexcessof
necessi
ty,orpr
esenceofgr
osspr
ovocat
ion,
orv
iol
entemot
ion,ori
ntensepassi
on t
o
est
abl
i
sht
hecr
imeof‘
Ext
enuat
edHomi
ci
de’
.
I
nsuchcases,t
heCour
tmaynotal
l
ow f
or
t
he same ci
rcumst
ance t
o r
educe t
he
penal
tyappl
i
cabl
etot
hatcr
ime.
 395

3.
2.2.Speci
alMi
ti
gat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:Ar
t.
83

These ci
rcumst
ances r
elat
eto cr
imes by
omi
ssi
onofsomel
egaldut
y,duet
othef
ear
ofexposi
ngaf
ami
l
ymemberorsomeone
cl
oset
iesofaf
fect
iont
oacr
imi
nalpenal
ty
or di
shonour or gr
ave i
njur
y. Such
r
elat
ionshi
psi
ncl
ude:
Anynearr
elat
ivebybl
oodormar
ri
age,
or
Anyper
sonwi
thwhom hei
sconnect
edby
speci
alcl
oset
iesofaf
fect
ion
Theci
rcumst
ancest
hatcanbeconsi
der
ed
asbasi
sforf
reemi
ti
gat
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
othe
speci
alr
elat
ionshi
psabov
ement
ionedar
e:
 Act
ing cont
rar
ytot
he l
aw and i
n
par
ti
cul
arf
ail
i
ngi
nthedut
ytor
epor
ttot
he
 396

aut
hor
it
y,or
 Fai
l
sto af
for
d assi
stance t
o t
he
aut
hor
it
ies,
 Maki
ngaf
alse st
atementordeposi
ti
on
orsuppl
yoff
alsei
nfor
mat
ion,
or
 Gi
vi
ng assi
stance t
o a cr
imi
nal i
n
escapi
ngt
hepr
osecut
ionorapenal
ty.
Theexi
stenceandadequat
enat
ureoft
he
speci
alr
elat
ionshi
pshal
lbeexami
nedand
det
ermi
nedbyt
heCour
t.

Det
ermi
nat
ion of Sent
ence under
Ext
enuat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:
Ther
e ar
e t
hree f
avour
abl
e t
reat
ment
s
av
ail
abl
efort
he cr
imi
nalbasi
ng on t
he
ext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances.Theyar
e:

a.
Ordi
nar
yMi
ti
gat
ionAr
t.
179:
 397

I
n al
lthe cases ofgener
alext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances ment
ioned i
n Ar
t.82 t
he
sent
encei
ssubj
ectt
oor
dinar
ymi
ti
gat
ion.I
n
t
hist
ypemi
ti
gat
ion,t
heext
entofmi
ti
gat
ion
t
hatshoul
dbeal
l
owedi
scl
ear
lyment
ioned.
Ther
efor
e,t
heCour
tcannotgobey
ondt
he
pr
escr
ipt
ionsi
nreduct
ionofpenal
ty.

b.
FreeMi
ti
gat
ionAr
t.180:
Wher
e speci
almi
ti
gat
ing ci
rcumst
ances
exi
stt
hesent
encemaybef
reel
ymi
ti
gat
ed
byt
heCour
twi
thoutanyr
est
ri
cti
on.

c.
Exempt
ionf
rom Puni
shmentAr
t.83(
2):
Undert
hispr
ovi
siont
heCour
tmayexempt
t
hecr
imi
nalf
rom puni
shmentandl
eav
ehi
m
by r
epr
imand or war
ning as has been
pr
ovi
ded by Ar
t.
122. The speci
al
 398

ci
rcumst
ances underwhi
ch t
his ki
nd of
r
educt
ionar
e:

 Wher
ethe actcommi
tt
ed i
s notv
ery
gr
ave,
and
 I
fthet
iesi
nquest
ionar
esocl
ose,
and
 Theci
rcumst
ancesar
esoi
mpel
l
ingt
hat
t
heypl
acedhi
minamor
aldi
l
emmaofa
hor
ri
fyi
ngnat
ure.

3.
3.Aggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:

Aggr
avat
ing ci
rcumst
ances ar
e t
hose
ci
rcumst
ancest
hatbearupont
hedegr
eeof
t
hegui
l
toft
hecr
imi
nalandi
ndi
cat
ethatt
he
cr
imi
nali
s par
ti
cul
arl
y ofhi
s danger
ous
di
sposi
ti
on.Ther
efor
e,t
heCour
tscanawar
d
ei
thermaxi
mum puni
shmentpr
ovi
ded f
or
 399

t
hespeci
fi
ccr
imeorsomet
imesev
enmor
e
puni
shmentt
hant
hati
spr
escr
ibedbyt
he
speci
fi
c pr
ovi
sion def
ini
ng t
he cr
ime
char
ged of
. The Cr
imi
nal Code put
s
aggr
avat
ed ci
rcumst
ancesal
so undert
wo
heads:

3.
3.1.Gener
alAggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances
Ar
t.84:

Thef
ir
stt
ypeofaggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ances
ar
e known as gener
al aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancessi
ncet
hesear
ethef
act
ors
t
hat can be used t
o i
ncr
ease t
he
puni
shment
sin al
lty
pes ofcr
imes.The
i
ncr
easei
nthepenal
tyi
sbaseont
hedegr
ee
oft
hegui
l
twhi
chcanbeaggr
avat
edbyt
he
pr
esenceoft
heseci
rcumst
ances.Thei
njur
y
 400

caused may be t
he same but t
he
puni
shment
s getaggr
avat
ed due t
othe
hei
nousnat
ureoft
hement
alel
ement
.For
exampl
eint
hecaseofext
enuat
edhomi
ci
de,
aggr
avat
edhomi
cideoror
dinar
yhomi
ci
de
t
hehar
mfulr
esul
tbr
oughtabouti
soneand
t
he same namel
ythe deat
h ofa human
bei
ng.Howev
er,f
oreachoft
hesespeci
fi
c
cr
imest
hequant
um ofpuni
shmentdi
ff
ers
consi
der
abl
ybecauseoft
hedi
ff
erencei
n
t
he ment
al el
ement and t
he mat
eri
al
ci
rcumst
ances pr
ecedi
ng, at
tendi
ng or
f
oll
owi
ngt
hecommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime.

Ar
t.84suggest
sthei
ncr
easei
nthepenal
ty
i
n t
he f
oll
owi
ng gener
al aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances:
 Whent
hecr
imi
nalact
swi
tht
reacher
y,
 401

basemot
ive,env
y,gr
eed,speci
alper
ver
sit
y
orcr
uel
ty.
 When t
he cr
ime i
s done i
n abuse of
power or f
unct
ions of conf
idence, or
aut
hor
it
ygi
vent
ohi
m.
 I
ncaseofaper
sonwhocanbef
oundt
o
bedanger
oushav
ingr
egar
dtohi
spr
evi
ous
cr
imi
nal r
ecor
d, habi
tual nat
ure of hi
s
cr
imi
nal
i
ty,
cir
cumst
ancesofcommi
ssi
onof
t
hecr
ime,useofdanger
ousweaponsand
v
iol
enti
nst
rument
s.
 I
fthe cr
imi
nal commi
ts t
he cr
ime
t
oget
herwi
thot
her
s,ori
samemberofa
gangor
gani
zedt
ocommi
tcr
imes,
organi
zer
orr
ingl
eader
.
 Wher
ethecr
imei
scommi
tt
eesagai
nst
av
ict
im who deser
ves speci
alpr
otect
ion
suchas,
achi
l
doranol
dper
son,
awoman,
a
 402

def
ensel
essper
son,
afeebl
emi
ndedper
son,
apr
isoner
,ar
elat
ive,asuper
iorori
nfer
ior
,a
mi
nist
erofr
eli
gion,a r
epr
esent
ati
ve ofa
dul
y const
it
uted aut
hor
it
y, or a publ
i
c
ser
vanti
nthedi
schar
geofhi
sdut
ies.

3.
3.2.Speci
alAggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:

The speci
al cases of aggr
avat
ion as
enumer
atedbyAr
t.85ar
e:
 The cases ofconcur
rence ofcr
imes,
and
 Thecasesofr
eci
div
ism

NoDoubl
eAggr
avat
ion:Ar
t.
84(
2)
Someoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heSpeci
alpar
t
i
ncor
por
ate one of t
hese aggr
avat
ing
 403

ci
rcumst
ances as one of t
he essent
ial
el
ementoft
he cr
ime oras a f
act
orof
aggr
avat
ionofaser
iouscr
ime.Forexampl
e,
underAr
t.539 i
tis essent
ialt
o pr
ove
pr
emedi
tat
ion, or mot
ive or use of
danger
ous weapon or t
he cr
ime bei
ng
commi
tt
ed by a member of a band
or
gani
zed t
o commi
thomi
ci
de orar
med
r
obber
y, t
o est
abl
i
sh t
he cr
ime of
‘
Aggr
avat
edHomi
cide’
.Insuchcases,t
he
Cour
tmaynott
akei
ntoaccountt
hesame
ci
rcumst
ance t
o aggr
avat
e t
he penal
ty
appl
i
cabl
etot
hatcr
ime.

Det
ermi
nat
ion of Sent
ence under
Aggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:
Ther
e ar
e t
wo ser
ious consequences
av
ail
abl
efort
he cr
imi
nalbasi
ng on t
he
 404

aggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ances.Theyar
e:

a.Or
dinar
yAggr
avat
ionAr
t.
183:
I
n al
lthe cases ofgener
alaggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances ment
ioned i
n Ar
t.84 t
he
sent
encei
ssubj
ectt
oor
dinar
yaggr
avat
ion.
I
nthi
sty
pe aggr
avat
ion,t
he ext
ent of
aggr
avat
iont
hatshoul
dbeal
l
owedi
scl
ear
ly
ment
ioned.Ther
efor
e,t
heCour
tcannotgo
bey
ondt
hepr
escr
ipt
ionsi
naggr
avat
ionof
penal
ty.Thi
sar
ti
clesuggest
sthesent
enci
ng
of t
he conv
ict t
othe maxi
mum ext
ent
possi
ble as pr
ovi
ded i
n t
he r
elev
ant
pr
ovi
sion oft
heSpeci
alPar
tdef
ini
ng t
he
cr
ime.TheCour
tshoul
dtaket
hef
oll
owi
ng
t
hingsi
ntoaccountbef
oref
ixi
ngt
heamount
ofpuni
shment
:
 The nat
ure and t
he mul
ti
pli
ci
ty of
 405

gr
oundsofaggr
avat
ion,
and
 Thedegr
eeofgui
l
toft
hecr
imi
nal

b.
Aggr
avat
ion of Penal
ty i
n Speci
al
Aggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ancesAr
ts.184-
188:
Wher
e speci
alaggr
avat
ing ci
rcumst
ances
exi
stt
hesent
encemaybeaggr
avat
edbyt
he
Cour
tin accor
dance wi
tht
he f
oll
owi
ng
pr
ovi
sions:
 Aggr
avat
ion of Penal
tyi
n case of
Concur
rentcr
imes-Ar
t.184
 Speci
alcasesofConcur
rence-
Art
.185
 Aggr
avat
ioni
ncaseof Ret
rospect
ive
Concur
rence-Ar
t.
186
 Aggr
avat
ion i
n case of Not
ional
Concur
rence-Ar
t.187
 Aggr
avat
ioni
ncaseofReci
div
ism-Ar
t.
188
 406


4.
Other Gener
al Ext
enuat
ing and
Aggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ancesAr
t.86:
Thi
s pr
ovi
sion i
s f
or gi
vi
ng some
di
scr
eti
onar
ypowert
otheCour
ttoconsi
der
t
heexi
stenceofanyot
heraggr
avat
ingor
mi
ti
gat
ing ci
rcumst
ance ot
hert
han t
hose
whi
char
eexpr
essl
yenl
i
stedi
ntheabov
e
di
scussedpr
ovi
sions.TheCour
tmayappl
y
t
he pr
ovi
sions of Ar
t.179 or Ar
t.183
r
espect
ivel
y, ei
ther t
o r
educe t
he
puni
shmentori
ncr
easet
hepuni
shmentas
t
hecasemaybe.TheCour
tshal
lrecor
dthe
r
easonsf
orsuchdepar
tur
emadef
rom t
he
expr
esspr
ovi
sionsoft
hel
aw.

3.
4 Cumul
ati
on of Di
ff
erentExt
enuat
ing
and Aggr
avat
ing Ci
rcumst
ances:Ar
ti
cle
 407

189

I
n case of di
ff
erent ext
enuat
ing and
aggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ances,t
heCour
tshal
l
det
ermi
net
hepenal
tyaspr
ovi
dedbel
ow:

I
ncaseofconcur
rentgener
alaggr
avat
ing
andext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances:
TheCour
tshal
lfi
rstf
ixt
hepenal
tyhav
ing
r
egar
dtot
he aggr
avat
ing ci
rcumst
ances
(
Art
.183)andt
henshal
lreducet
hepenal
ty
i
nli
ghtoft
he ext
enuat
ing ci
rcumst
ances
(
Art
s.179,
180)
.
I
nacaseofr
eci
div
ism:
Wher
ethecr
imi
nalhasatt
hesamet
ime
been conv
ict
ed ofconcur
rentcr
imes t
he
Cour
tshal
lfi
rstassess sent
ence f
ort
he
concur
rent cr
imes and t
hen i
ncr
ease i
t
 408

hav
ingr
egar
dtor
eci
div
ism.
I
n caseofdi
ff
erentt
ypesofaggr
avat
ing
and ext
enuat
ing ci
rcumst
ances: Wher
e
t
her
e exi
st bot
h concur
rent gener
al
aggr
avat
ingandext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances
andr
eci
div
ism asspeci
fi
edi
nsub-
art
icl
e(1)
and(
2)abov
e,t
heCour
tshal
lfi
rstf
ixt
he
penal
ty hav
ing r
egar
dtot
he aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances and t
hen shal
lreduce t
he
penal
ty i
n l
i
ght of t
he ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1. Wr
it
ethei
mpor
tantpr
inci
plesgov
erni
ng
t
hedet
ermi
nat
ionofpuni
shment
s.
2. Expl
ain out t
he di
sti
nct
ion bet
ween
gener
al and speci
al mi
ti
gat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances.
 409

3.
Expl
aint
hepur
poseandscopeofAr
t.86.

4. Howdoest
heCour
tdet
ermi
net
hepenal
ty
i
nacaset
hati
ncl
udesbot
haggr
avat
ingand
mi
ti
gat
ingci
rcumst
ances?

Sect
ion.
4.PostConv
ict
ionPr
ocesses:

The f
oll
owi
ng ar
e t
he ‘
post conv
ict
ion
pr
ocedur
es’
:
 Suspensi
on ofpenal
ty and condi
ti
onal
r
elease,
 Par
donandAmnest
y,
 Rei
nst
atement
.

4.
1.Suspensi
onofPenal
tyandCondi
ti
onal
Rel
ease:
 410

Apenal
tyorsent
encepassedbyt
heCour
t
onacr
imi
nalmaynotal
way
sbeenf
orced.
As we hav
e al
ready seen ear
li
er,
puni
shment
shav
ecer
tai
nspeci
fi
cpur
poses.
Speci
all
y,t
hepur
posesofr
efor
mat
ionand
r
ehabi
l
itat
ionar
ebet
terachi
eved,i
ncases
ofy
oungof
fender
sandf
ir
stof
fender
s,not
byenf
orci
ngt
hem butbysuspendi
ngt
hem
i
.e.bygi
vi
ng achancet
othecr
imi
nalt
o
r
eint
egr
atewi
tht
hesoci
etyhehasdi
stur
bed.

4.
1.1. Suspensi
onofPenal
ty:

 Meani
ngandPur
pose:Ar
t.190
Thepr
inci
pleofcondi
ti
onalsuspensi
onof
 411

penal
tyi
sfort
hepr
omot
ionoft
her
efor
m
andr
einst
atementoft
hecr
imi
nalbygi
vi
ng
hi
m r
oom t
o hel
p hi
msel
fin hi
s own
r
efor
mat
ion. Ther
e ar
e t
wo ki
nds of
suspensi
onofpenal
ti
esundert
heCr
imi
nal
Code.Thesear
e:

 Suspensi
on of Pr
onouncement of
Penal
ty,
Art
.191
 Suspensi
onofEnf
orcementofPenal
ty,
Ar
t.192

I
n‘suspensi
onofpr
onouncementofpenal
ty’
,
t
hecour
tsuspendst
hesent
enceandpl
aces
t
heof
fenderonpr
obat
ionaf
terconv
ict
ion.
“
Probat
ion i
s a sent
ence ser
ved i
nthe
communi
ty wi
thout conf
inement i
n t
he
pr
ison,undert
hesuper
visi
onofapr
obat
ion
 412

of
fi
cer and condi
ti
onal upon st
ri
ct
obedi
encet
other
ulesest
abl
i
shedbyt
he
cour
ts.
”Iti
sapr
ocessoft
est
ingorput
ti
ng
t
opr
ooft
hecr
imi
nal
’
sconductorchar
act
er
by pl
aci
ng under t
he super
visi
on of a
pr
obat
ionof
fi
cerwhoact
sasaf
ri
endand
adv
isor
.Thi
smeanst
hecour
twi
l
lst
atet
hat
t
hecr
imi
nali
sfoundgui
l
tyi
fthecr
imehe
was accused of but wi
l
l wi
thhol
d t
he
pr
onouncementofsent
encet
hatheshoul
d
bei
mposedonhi
m.Hi
sconv
ict
ionshal
lnot
beent
eredi
nther
ecor
d.

4.
1.3Essent
ialCondi
ti
onsf
orSuspensi
on
ofPr
onouncementofPenal
ty:
Art
.191

Thecr
imi
nalmustnothav
eanypr
evi
ous
conv
ict
ioni
.e.hemustbeaf
ir
stof
fender
,
 413

Heshoul
dnotappeart
obeofdanger
ous
char
act
er,
Thecr
imehei
sconv
ict
edofshoul
dbe
puni
shabl
eonl
ywi
thf
ine,
Art
.90
compul
sor
ylabour
,Ar
t.103and104,
or
Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentf
orl
esst
han3y
ear
s,
Ar
t.106
I
n‘suspensi
onofenf
orcementofpenal
ty’
t
hecour
tconv
ict
sthecr
imi
nal
,passesan
appr
opr
iat
esent
enceandpr
ompt
lyr
ecor
ds
such conv
ict
ion.But
,si
mul
taneousl
y,t
he
cour
tal
so gi
vesan or
dersuspendi
ng t
he
enf
orcementoft
hepenal
tyf
oraspeci
fi
ed
per
iod ofpr
obat
ion.Forexampl
e,i
fthe
cr
imi
nali
ssent
enced t
o one y
earsi
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonment
,itwi
l
lber
ecor
dedbuthewi
l
l
notbei
mpr
isoned.
 414

Condi
ti
onal
Rel
ease:Ar
t.201

Thi
sis pr
ovi
ded t
owar
ds t
he end oft
he
enf
orcementoft
hepenal
ty.Thi
spr
ovi
si
on
maybeappl
i
edi
nal
lcaseswher
eapenal
ty
ormeasur
eresul
ti
ngi
n‘l
ossofl
i
ber
ty’i
s
i
mposed.Condi
ti
onal
rel
easeal
soi
sbaseon
t
heconsi
der
ati
ont
hati
tser
vesasameans
of r
efor
m and soci
al r
einst
atement
.
Ther
efor
e,i
tmustbeawar
dedi
ncaseof
cr
imi
nal
s who sat
isf
ythe condi
ti
ons l
aid
downbyt
heCodeunderAr
t.202.Fur
ther
,
condi
ti
onalr
eleaseshoul
dbeadopt
edonl
y
i
n cases wher
eitaf
for
ds a r
easonabl
e
chanceofsuccess.

4.
1.4.
1.Essent
ialCondi
ti
onsf
or‘
Condi
ti
onal
Rel
ease’
:Ar
t.202
 415

The cour
tmay or
derf
ort
he condi
ti
onal
r
elease of t
he pr
isoner basi
ng on t
he
r
ecommendat
ion of t
he Pr
ison Di
rect
or
whi
chi
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion:
Thatt
hepr
isonerhas,
dur
ingt
heper
iodof
hi
sconf
inementi
nthepr
ison hasshown
t
angi
blepr
oofofhi
simpr
ovedchar
act
erby
hi
swor
kandconduct
;and,
Thathehasr
epai
red,
asf
arashecoul
dbe
r
easonabl
y expect
ed t
o do,t
he damage
f
ound by t
he cour
toragr
eed wi
tht
he
aggr
iev
edpar
ty:
and
Thathi
s char
act
erand behav
ioroft
he
cr
imi
nal
,aswel
last
hel
i
vingcondi
ti
onshe
mayexpectt
ofi
nduponhi
sdi
schar
ge,l
ead
t
otheassumpt
iont
hathewi
l
lbeofgood
conductaf
tert
he r
elease and t
hatt
his
 416

measur
ewi
l
lbeef
fect
ive

.
4.
1.4.
2.Ot
her I
mpor
tant Rul
es r
egar
ding
Condi
ti
onalRel
ease:
Thepr
isonershal
lbei
nfor
medaboutt
he
possi
bil
i
tyofhi
srel
easeonpr
obat
ionwhen
heent
erst
hepr
isonaf
terhi
sconv
ict
ion.He
shal
lbe br
ief
ed t
hati
fhe shows good
pr
ogr
essi
nhi
sbehav
iorandf
ulf
il
lscer
tai
n
condi
ti
onsheshal
lber
eleasedonpr
obat
ion
(
Art
.203)
.Thi
swi
l
lser
veasamot
ivat
ing
f
act
orf
orhi
mtoshowqui
cki
mpr
ovementi
n
hi
sbehav
ior
.

Thepr
isoneraf
terser
vingacer
tai
nper
iod
oft
hesent
enceshal
lmakeanappl
i
cat
iont
o
 417

t
hePr
isonDi
rect
ort
orecommendhi
scase
t
othecour
tfort
hecondi
ti
onal
rel
ease.

ThePr
isonDi
rect
orshal
lthenpr
epar
ehi
s
r
epor
taspert
hecondi
ti
onsl
aiddowni
nthe
ar
ti
cleandshal
lfor
war
dtheappl
i
cat
ionof
t
hepr
isonert
othecour
taccompani
edbyhi
s
r
epor
t.

4.
1.4.
3.Per
iodofPr
obat
ionAr
t.204:
Nor
mal
l
ytheper
iodofpr
obat
ionmaybea
mi
nimum oft
woy
ear
sandmayext
endupt
o
a maxi
mum off
ivey
ear
s,subj
ectt
o any
pr
ovi
sionst
othecont
rar
y.Howev
er,i
ncase
ofcr
imi
nalsent
encedt
oli
fei
mpr
isonment
t
hemi
nimum i
sfi
vey
ear
sandt
hemaxi
mum
i
ssev
eny
ear
s.
 418

4.
2.Par
donandAmnest
y:

Par
don may be def
ined as “
the actor
i
nst
anceofof
fi
cial
l
ynul
l
ify
ingpuni
shment
orot
herl
egalconsequencesofcr
ime”
.The
chi
efexecut
ive ofa gov
ernmentusual
l
y
gr
ant
sapar
don.Thepr
esi
denthast
hesol
e
powert
oissuepar
dons.

Amnest
yisal
so aspeci
esofpar
donbut
appl
i
est
oacer
tai
ncl
assesofcr
imi
nal
sand
speci
fi
c t
ype of cr
imes onl
y. Amnest
y
means, “
a par
don ext
ended by t
he
gov
ernmentt
oagr
ouporcl
assofper
sons
usual
l
yforapol
i
ticalof
fense;t
heactofa
sov
erei
gnpowerof
fi
cial
l
yfor
giv
ingcer
tai
n
cl
assesofper
sonswhoar
esubj
ectt
otr
ail
 419

buthav
enoty
etbeenconv
ict
ed.Unl
i
kean
or
dinar
y par
don, amnest
y i
s usual
l
y
addr
essed t
o cr
imes agai
nst st
ate
sov
erei
gnt
yi.
e.t
o pol
i
ticalof
fences wi
th
r
espectt
o whi
ch f
orgi
veness i
s deemed
mor
eexpedi
entf
ort
hepubl
i
cwel
far
ethan
pr
osecut
ion and puni
shment
.Amnest
yis
usual
l
y gener
al,addr
essed t
o cl
asses or
ev
en communi
ti
es,whi
ch al
so t
ermed as
‘
gener
alpar
don’
.

Ar
ti
cles.229and230oft
heCr
imi
nalCode
dealwi
tht
he concept
s of‘
Par
don’and
‘
Amnest
y’.We shal
ltr
yto appr
eci
atet
he
essent
ial
soft
hesepr
ovi
sionsbymaki
nga
di
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
het
wo.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenPar
donandAmnest
y:
 420

 Par
don i
sremi
tt
ance ofpenal
ty whi
l
e
amnest
yisagener
alpar
donespeci
all
yfor
pol
i
tical
cri
mesagai
nstgov
ernment
.
 Par
don i
s gr
ant
ed by t
he compet
ent
aut
hor
it
ywher
easamnest
yisgr
ant
edby
t
heappr
opr
iat
ecompet
entaut
hor
it
y.
 I
npar
don,t
her
emi
ssi
onofsent
encemay
bewhol
eori
npar
tandi
namnest
y,i
tis
al
way
scompl
eter
emi
ssi
on.
 Par
donmaycompl
etel
yremi
tthepenal
ty
orcommut
ethesamet
oapenal
tyofl
esser
nat
ureorgr
avi
ty.
 Par
don may appl
yto al
lpenal
ti
es and
measur
eswhet
herpr
inci
palorsecondar
y.
Butamnest
ymaybegr
ant
edi
nrespectt
o
cer
tai
n cr
imes and cer
tai
n cl
asses of
cr
imi
nal
sonl
y.
 Theor
derofpar
donmaydet
ermi
net
he
 421

condi
ti
onst
owhi
chi
tissubj
ect
edt
oandi
ts
scope.Amnest
ymaybeei
therabsol
uteor
subj
ectt
ocer
tai
ncondi
ti
onsandobl
i
gat
ions.
 Par
donshal
lnotcancelt
hesent
ence.The
ent
ry of sent
ence shal
lremai
n i
n t
he
j
udgment r
egi
ster of t
he cr
imi
nal and
cont
inue t
o pr
oduce i
ts ot
her ef
fect
s.
Howev
er, amnest
y, cancel
s bot
h t
he
i
ndi
ctmentand t
he sent
ence and bar
sor
di
scont
inues any pr
osecut
ion f
rom t
he
momentofi
tspr
omul
gat
ion.I
fthesent
ence
i
sal
ready
,passedamnest
ycancel
sitaswel
l
asal
lit
sconsequencesundert
hecr
imi
nal
l
aw.Theconv
ict
ionshal
lbepr
esumednon-
exi
stentandt
heent
ryshal
lbedel
etedf
rom
t
hej
udgmentr
egi
steroft
hecr
imi
nal
.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
 422

1.Whati
sthe meani
ng and pur
pose of
suspensi
onofsent
ences?
2.Expl
aint
heessent
ialcondi
ti
onsf
ort
he
gr
antofcondi
ti
onal
rel
ease.
3.Wr
it
ethe meani
ng oft
he expr
essi
ons
‘
par
don’
and‘
amnest
y’.
4.Di
sti
ngui
sh bet
ween t
he concept
s of
‘
par
don’
and‘
amnest
y’.

4.
3.Rei
nst
atement
:Ar
ts.
232-
237
4.
3.1.Meani
ngi
fRei
nst
atement
:

Pr
inci
ple:Ar
ti
cle232
Thepr
ocedur
eofr
einst
atementi
ssubj
ectt
o
t
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
ples:
1.Subj
ectt
othef
ulf
il
lmentoft
hecondi
ti
ons
l
aiddowni
nAr
t.233,
aconv
ictmayr
equest
 423

f
orhi
srei
nst
atementpr
ovi
dedhef
all
sunder
anyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies:
a.whohasunder
gonehi
spenal
tyor
b.whosepenal
tyi
sbar
redbyl
i
mit
ati
onor
hasbeenr
emi
tt
edbypar
donor
c.whosepenal
tyhasbeensuspendedon
pr
obat
ionor
d.whohasbeenr
eleasedcondi
ti
onal
l
y
2.Rei
nst
atementmustbedeser
vedand
shal
lnev
erbegr
ant
edasofr
ight
.
3.I
ftheconv
ictwhosat
isf
iest
he
r
equi
rement
spr
escr
ibedbyl
awi
sincapabl
e
ofact
ingbyhi
msel
forhasdi
ed,
ther
equest
maybemadebyhi
slegal
repr
esent
ati
veora
next
-of
-ki
n.

Condi
ti
onsf
orRei
nst
atement
:Ar
ti
cle233
 424

Rei
nst
atementshal
lbegr
ant
edbyt
heCour
t
subj
ectt
othef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons:
I
nthe cases of a penal
ty of r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonment
,
 I
fameasur
eofper
manentexpul
si
onora
penal
tyofgener
alconf
iscat
ionofpr
oper
ty
i
saper
iodofatl
eastf
ivey
ear
sofel
apse
si
ncet
hepenal
tywasunder
gone;
or
bar
redbyl
i
mit
ati
on;
or
si
ncet
heconv
ictwasr
eleasedbecausehi
s
penal
tywasr
emi
tt
edbypar
don,
or
 si
ncet
hepenal
tywassuspendedor
si
ncet
heconv
ictwascondi
ti
onal
l
yrel
eased,
wher
ehesuccessf
ull
yunder
wentt
heper
iod
of pr
obat
ion i
n case of suspensi
on of
penal
tyorcondi
ti
onal
rel
ease;
I
not
hercases,
theper
iodmustbet
woy
ear
s
atl
east
;
 425

I
fthe sent
ence has been enf
orced as
r
egar
dsanysecondar
ypenal
ti
esi
mposed;
I
fthe conv
ict
ed per
son has pai
d t
he
compensat
ion,damagesandcost
sor
der
ed
byt
hej
udgmenti
n,sof
arasi
tcoul
dbe
expect
ed f
rom hi
m hav
ing r
egar
d t
o
ci
rcumst
ances;
and
I
fdur
ingt
heper
iodspeci
fi
edi
nsub-
art
icl
e(a)
ofAr
t233t
heconv
ict
edper
sonwasal
way
s
of good behav
iour and has not been
conv
ict
ed of a cr
ime puni
shabl
e wi
th
i
mpr
isonment
.
Themi
nimum per
iodf
ort
hecondi
ti
onsof
r
einst
atementspeci
fi
edi
nsub-
art
icl
e(a)of
Ar
t233shal
lappl
yonl
yasl
ongasi
tdoes
notaf
fectt
heper
iodr
egar
dingr
eci
div
ism as
l
aiddowni
nAr
ti
cle67oft
hisCode.

 426

5.
Rei
nst
atement i
n Cases wher
e t
he
Penal
tyi
sti
mebar
red:Ar
ti
cle234
When t
he penal
tyi
s bar
red by l
i
mit
ati
on
r
einst
atementmaynotbe or
der
ed bef
ore
t
he t
imeatt
heear
li
estwhent
hepenal
ty
pr
onouncedwoul
dhav
ecomet
oanendi
fit
had been under
gone on t
he comi
ng i
nto
f
orceoft
hesent
ence.
Except
ion:Whenanot
abl
ypr
aisewor
thyact
per
for
med by t
he,appl
i
canti
nthe ci
vi
l,
mi
l
itar
y or soci
al f
iel
ds so j
ust
if
ies,
r
einst
atementmaybeor
der
edpr
iort
othe
expi
rat
ionoft
henor
mal
per
iodoft
ime.

4.
3.4Ef
fect
sofRei
nst
atement
:Ar
ti
cle235
 427

Si
ncer
einst
atementcancel
sthesent
ence,i
t
shal
lpr
oducet
hef
oll
owi
ngef
fect
s:
(
1)t
heconv
ict
edper
soni
srel
i
eved,f
ort
he
f
utur
e, of any f
orf
eit
ures of r
ight
s or
pr
ivi
l
eges,i
ncapaci
ti
esanddi
squal
i
ficat
ions
and r
ecov
erst
hecapaci
tyt
o exer
cisehi
s
ci
vi
l,
fami
l
yandpr
ofessi
onal
right
s;

(
2)t
hesent
enceshal
lbedel
etedf
rom t
he
j
udgmentr
egi
sterand f
ort
he f
utur
e be
pr
esumedt
obenon-
exi
stent
;

(
3)ar
epr
oachr
efer
ri
ngt
oanol
dconv
ict
ion
madeei
theri
l
l-wi
l
loranyot
herr
easonshal
l
comeundert
hepr
ovi
sionsofcr
imi
nall
aw
r
egar
ding def
amat
ion,and hi
s def
ences
baseduponj
ust
if
icat
ionorpubl
i
cint
erest
shal
lnotbeadmi
ssi
ble.
 428

Di
smi
ssaland Renewaloft
he Request
:
Ar
ti
cle236
I
fthe Cour
t di
smi
sses t
he r
equest f
or
r
einst
atementas unj
ust
if
ied i
tcannotbe
r
enewedbef
oreaper
iodoft
woy
ear
shas
el
apsed.
Rev
ocat
ionoft
heDeci
sion:Ar
ti
cle237
Rei
nst
atementshal
lber
evokedandmayno
l
ongerbe gr
ant
ed subsequent
ly,wi
thi
na
per
iod off
ivey
ear
s,a f
resh sent
ence t
o
capi
tal puni
shment or r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmenthasbeeni
mposedupont
he
r
einst
atedper
sonbyaj
udgmentwhi
chi
s
f
inal
.

Sect
ion.5.Di
sposi
ti
onoft
heCr
imi
nal
 429

5.
1.Sy
stemsofDet
ermi
nat
ionofPenal
ty:

To under
stand t
he moder
n sy
stem of
det
ermi
nat
ionofpenal
ti
esi
tisnecessar
yto
exami
ne t
he t
wo sy
stems whi
ch ar
e
t
heor
eti
cal
l
y opposed as t
o t
he
det
ermi
nat
ionofpenal
ty.
1.Sy
stem ofDi
scr
eti
onar
yPenal
ti
es:
Thi
s sy
stem was appl
i
ed i
n Pr
e-
Rev
olut
ionar
yFr
enchl
aw.Thepenal
tyi
snot
det
ermi
nedbyt
hel
aw;
thej
udgeest
abl
i
shes
i
t t
aki
ng i
nto account t
he par
ti
cul
ar
ci
rcumst
ancesunderwhi
cht
hecr
imewas
commi
tt
ed and t
he per
sonal
i
ty i
fthe
cr
imi
nal
.He may
,fori
nst
ance,t
ake i
nto
accountt
hebackgr
oundoft
hecr
imi
nal
,hi
s
gener
alchar
act
er,t
her
easonsf
orwhi
cht
he
cr
ime was commi
tt
ed,et
c.Thi
s sy
stem
 430

woul
dal
l
ow t
hepenal
tyt
obef
it
tedt
othe
gui
l
toft
hecr
imi
nal
,tot
hepossi
bil
i
tiesof
hi
sref
orm or
,aswewoul
dsayt
odayt
o,t
he
needs of“
soci
alr
ehabi
l
itat
ion”
-i
n br
ief
-t
o
accompl
i
sh “
an i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ion of t
he
penal
ty”
.Ithas,on t
he ot
herhand,t
he
di
sadv
ant
age of t
endi
ng t
owar
ds t
he
ar
bit
rar
y and of weakeni
ng of t
he
i
nti
midat
ionv
alueoft
hepenal
ty.

2.TheSy
stem ofFi
xedPenal
ti
es:
Thi
ssy
stem i
sadopt
edbyt
hel
egi
sl
ator
sof
t
he Fr
ench Rev
olut
ionar
y per
iod whi
ch
consi
stsi
nthel
egi
slat
ivedet
ermi
nat
ionof
t
he penal
tyt
o be appl
i
ed t
othe cr
ime
wi
thoutanypossi
blemodi
fi
cat
iondesi
gned
t
ofi
ttheper
sonal
i
tyoft
hecr
imi
nal
.Thi
s
sy
stem hast
headv
ant
ageofbei
ngst
rongl
y
 431

det
err
entandt
her
efor
eofmai
ntai
ningt
he
f
ulli
nti
midat
ion v
alue of t
he penal
ty.
Howev
er,i
thast
hedi
sadv
ant
ageofbei
ng
unj
ustandev
eni
nef
fect
ualbynotal
l
owi
ng
t
he penal
tyt
o be f
it
ted t
o t
he cr
ime
commi
tt
edbyt
hecr
imi
nalandhi
schances
t
oref
orm.

TheModer
nSy
stem:
Moder
npenall
awhasendeav
oredt
obor
row
f
rom bot
hthesy
stems;
thust
hepenal
tyi
sin
pr
inci
pleest
abl
i
shedbyt
hel
egi
sl
atur
ebut
i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zedsi
gni
fi
cant
lyi
nit
sappl
i
cat
ion
byt
hej
udgeort
heexecut
ive,t
othespeci
fi
c
cr
imi
nal
.Thi
s al
l
ows f
ort
he successi
ve
par
ti
cipat
ionoft
hel
egi
slat
or,t
hej
udgeand
t
headmi
nist
rat
iveaut
hor
it
ies.
 432

TheRol
eoft
heLegi
slat
or:
The l
egi
slat
orenact
sthe basi
c penal
ti
es.
The scheme guar
ant
ees agai
nstar
bit
rar
y
act
ionbyj
udges,atl
easti
nthesenset
hat
t
he j
udges cannotsent
ence bey
ond t
he
maxi
mum penal
typr
ovi
dedbyl
aw.Sucha
scheme al
so al
l
ows f
or det
err
ence by
pr
ovi
ding, when necessar
y,v
ery sev
ere
penal
ti
es. I
n est
abl
i
shi
ng t
he scal
e of
penal
ti
es t
he l
egi
slat
or t
ri
es t
o sett
he
penal
tyaccor
dingt
otheser
iousnessoft
he
cr
ime.

TheRol
eoft
heJudge:
Judgepl
aysakeyr
olei
ntheappl
i
cat
ionof
penal
ti
es.He i
srequi
red t
o exer
cise hi
s
di
scr
eti
on i
n i
dent
if
ying t
he f
oll
owi
ng
i
mpor
tantf
act
ors;
 433

1.Theci
rcumst
ancesofcommi
ssi
onoft
he
cr
ime
2.Theper
sonal
cir
cumst
ancesoft
he
cr
imi
nal
.

He has t
he gui
del
i
nes enl
i
sted i
nthi
s
r
egar
ds undert
he heads ofaggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances,mi
ti
gat
ingci
rcumst
ancesas
wel
lasAr
t86gi
vi
nghi
m ext
radi
scr
eti
onar
y
powert
oident
if
yanyot
heraggr
avat
ingor
mi
ti
gat
ingci
rcumst
ances.Ar
ts86,87and
88gi
ver
easonabl
egui
dancef
ort
hej
udget
o
pl
ayhi
srol
eef
fect
ivel
y.

Rol
eoft
heAdmi
nist
rat
or:
The pr
ison aut
hor
it
ies ar
e suf
fi
ci
ent
ly
empower
edbyt
heCr
imi
nalCodet
omake
r
ulesand r
egul
ati
onst
hatar
erequi
red t
o
 434

maket
heenf
orcementofpuni
shmentmeet
obj
ect
ives ofpuni
shmentas wel
las t
he
endsofj
ust
ice.TheCour
tmakesv
ari
ati
ons
i
nthe sent
ences ei
ther t
o make t
hem
st
ri
cterorl
esshar
shatt
her
ecommendat
ion
of t
he pr
ison management
. The
admi
nist
rat
ive i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ion of
puni
shmenti
sver
yev
identi
nthef
oll
owi
ng
t
hreemeasur
es:

 Par
donandAmnest
y
 Pr
isonAdmi
nist
rat
ion
 Condi
ti
onal
rel
ease

Uni
tSummar
y:
 435

Onceaper
soni
sfoundgui
l
tyoft
hecr
ime
he i
s accused of
,the cour
t wi
l
lpass
sent
ence penal
i
zing hi
m wi
th f
ine or
i
mpr
isonmentorbot
h,whi
ch i
tdeems,i
s
appr
opr
iat
efort
hecr
imecommi
tt
ed.The
def
ini
ti
onofpuni
shmenti
sli
nkedwi
thwhat
i
s consi
der
ed t
o be pur
pose of t
he
puni
shment
.Int
hisr
egar
dpuni
shmentcoul
d
bet
akent
omeant
hemaj
ormechani
sm by
whi
ch t
he pur
poses ofcr
imi
nall
aw ar
e
achi
eved.
I
nthehi
stor
yofcr
imi
nal
lawt
her
ehav
ebeen
manyconcept
ionsast
owhatt
hepur
poseof
puni
shmentshoul
dbe.Butmodem cr
imi
nal
l
awsnow consi
dert
hatcr
imi
nall
aw cannot
hav
easi
ngl
epur
posebutacombi
nat
ionof
pur
poses accor
ding t
o t
he i
ndi
vi
dual
ci
rcumst
ances of each case. Thus,
 436

puni
shmenthast
hepur
poseofdet
err
ingt
he
cr
imi
nalf
rom commi
tt
inganot
hercr
imei
n
t
he f
utur
e, t
he pur
pose of separ
ati
ng
cr
imi
nalf
rom mi
xi
ngwi
tht
hesoci
etyt
hey
hav
e di
stur
bed f
or a cer
tai
n t
ime or
i
ndef
ini
tel
y. Puni
shment al
so has t
he
pur
pose of r
efor
ming or t
eachi
ng t
he
cr
imi
nalsot
hathecanr
ect
if
yhi
scr
imi
nal
behav
iort
oint
egr
atehi
msel
fbackt
othe
soci
ety
.

Our Cr
imi
nal Code pr
ovi
des f
or t
hree
cat
egor
iesofpenal
ti
es.Thesear
epr
imar
y
penal
ti
es, secondar
y penal
ti
es and
measur
es.Pr
imar
ypenal
ti
escanaf
fectt
he
pr
oper
tyoft
hecr
imi
nal(
fi
nes)
,orl
i
ber
tyof
t
hecr
imi
nal(
impr
isonment
),andt
hel
i
feof
t
hecr
imi
nal(
deat
hpenal
ty)
.Ther
eisal
so
 437

onespeci
alcat
egor
yofpenal
ti
esspeci
all
y
desi
gned f
ort
he y
oung of
fender
s.These
hav
ebeendeal
twi
thi
nthef
ir
stpar
toft
his
modul
e.

Secondar
y penal
ti
es ar
e noti
mposed as
puni
shment by t
hemsel
ves. They ar
e
i
mposedi
naddi
ti
ont
oatl
eastonepr
imar
y
penal
ty.The cour
thas t
he di
scr
eti
on t
o
i
mpose or not t
o i
mpose secondar
y
penal
ti
es.Caut
ion,r
epr
imand,admoni
ti
on,
publ
i
capol
ogyanddepr
ivat
ionofr
ight
sar
e
t
he secondar
ypenal
ti
esr
ecogni
zed under
ourCr
imi
nal
Code.

Measur
esar
enotst
ri
ctl
yspeaki
ngpenal
ti
es.
They ar
e or
der
ed f
ort
he r
efor
mat
ion or
pr
otect
ion of t
he of
fender and f
or t
he
 438

pr
otect
ionoft
hesoci
etyf
rom t
heef
fect
sof
cr
imi
nalbehav
ior
s.The Code has t
hree
cat
egor
ies of measur
e namel
y:t
hose
appl
i
cabl
eto adul
t of
fender
sin speci
al
ci
rcumst
ancesi
.e.r
eci
div
ist
sand habi
tual
of
fender
sandi
rr
esponsi
bleof
fender
sand
of
fender
swi
thl
i
mit
edr
esponsi
bil
i
ty;t
hose
appl
i
cabl
etoy
oung per
sons and t
hose
gener
almeasur
est
akenf
ort
hepur
poseof
pr
event
ionandpr
otect
ion.

Ref
erences:
ReaderNot
e:

1.
Art
icl
es82-
89oft
heCr
imi
nalCodeofFDRE,
2005-
Pri
nci
plesr
elat
ingt
odet
ermi
nat
ionof
puni
shment
s
2.
Art
icl
es 90-
156 oft
he Cr
imi
nalCode of
 439

FDRE,2005Or
dinar
ypuni
shment
sappl
i
cabl
e
t
oAdul
ts
3.
Art
icl
es 157-
177 oft
he Cr
imi
nalCode of
FDRE, 2005- Measur
es and penal
ti
es
appl
i
cabl
etoy
oungper
sons
4. Ar
ti
cles746-
764oft
heCr
imi
nalCodeof
FDRE, 2005- Penal
ti
es and measur
es
appl
i
cabl
etoPet
tyof
fences
5.
Fasi
lN,- “
Puni
shment and Soci
ety
:A
Dev
elopment
alAppr
oach”JEL,
vol
.12,
1982
6. Lowenst
ein,S.–“
ThePenalSy
stem Of
Et
hiopi
a”JEL,
vol
.No.2,
1965
7.
Andar
gat
chew Tesf
aye – “
The Cr
ime
Pr
obl
em AndI
tsCor
rect
ion”Vol
.II(
2004)
 440

UNI
T–I
V
SPECI
ALPARTOFPENALCODE

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
Thecr
uci
alpar
toft
heCr
imi
nalCodei
sthe
Speci
alPar
tthatenumer
atest
heconduct
s
t
hatshoul
dbepr
ohi
bit
edf
ort
hepur
poseof
pr
otect
ingv
ari
ousi
nter
est
soft
hesoci
etyi
n
gener
aland t
he i
ndi
vi
duali
nter
est
s ofa
per
son i
n par
ti
cul
ar. The speci
al Par
t
sy
stemat
ical
l
yar
rangest
hecr
imesaf
fect
ing
di
ff
erenti
nter
est
sinal
ogi
calor
der
.The
cr
imesaf
fect
ingt
he‘
i
nter
est
soft
heSt
ate’
t
aket
hef
ir
stpl
acei
ntheor
derast
hesaf
ety
,
 441

secur
it
yandst
abi
l
ityoft
heSt
atear
ecr
uci
al
f
orext
endi
ngpr
otect
iont
oit
ssubj
ect
sand
ot
heri
nhabi
tant
soft
heSt
ate.ASt
atewhi
ch
i
sunst
abl
eandi
sexper
ienci
ngt
hreat
sfr
om
i
nsi
deandout
sidecannotdev
otei
tsel
fto
t
hewel
far
eoft
hepeopl
e.Ther
efor
e,t
hel
aw
t
hatpr
otect
sthei
nter
est
soft
heSt
atei
sof
ut
mostpr
ior
it
yincr
imi
nall
aw.Thecr
imes
t
hataf
fectt
he gener
ali
nter
est
s of t
he
communi
tyoccupyt
he nex
tpl
ace i
nthe
Cr
imi
nalCode.The cr
imes agai
nst t
he
publ
i
cor
der
,mor
ali
ty,publ
i
cheal
thet
car
e
f
ound i
nthe second pl
ace.The cr
imes
af
fect
ingt
hel
i
fe,per
sonall
i
ber
ty,pr
oper
ty,
mar
ri
ageandhonorofani
ndi
vi
dualf
alli
n
t
he subsequentsect
ions oft
he Cr
imi
nal
Code.Fi
nal
l
y,t
heof
fencesofpet
tynat
ure
ar
eincor
por
atedi
nthePet
tyCode.
 442

Oneoft
hepr
obl
emsf
ort
hecr
imi
nall
aw i
s
howt
ogr
adet
heser
iousnessoft
hev
ari
ous
f
orms ofhar
mfulconductbecause t
her
e
maybeconsi
der
abl
evar
iat
ionsofdegr
eei
n
commi
ssi
onoft
heact
sconst
it
uti
ngcr
imes.
Forexampl
e,i
n case ofcr
imes i
nvol
vi
ng
phy
sicalv
iol
ati
on t
he amountofphy
sical
f
orceused can beany
thi
ng f
rom amer
e
pusht
oabr
utalbeat
ingext
endi
ngt
oev
en
causi
ngdeat
hoft
hev
ict
im,si
mil
arl
ysexual
i
nter
fer
encemaybeany
thi
ngf
rom abr
ief
t
ouchi
ngt
oagr
ossf
orm ofsexualv
iol
ati
on.
Ther
efor
e,t
hel
egi
slat
urehast
otakecar
eof
t
hewi
del
yfel
tdi
sti
nct
ionsbet
weenki
ndsof
cr
imes and degr
ees of wr
ongdoi
ng ar
e
r
espect
edbyt
hel
aw,andt
hatt
hecr
imes
ar
e subdi
vi
ded and l
abel
l
ed so as t
o
 443

r
epr
esentf
air
lyt
henat
ureandmagni
tudeof
t
he l
aw br
eaki
ng.Thi
sist
he gi
stoft
he
popul
arpr
inci
pleofcr
imi
nall
aw knownas
‘
the pr
inci
ple off
airl
abel
l
ing’
.One good
r
easonf
orr
espect
ingt
hesedi
sti
nct
ionsi
s
pr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty:oneoft
hebasi
cai
msoft
he
cr
imi
nall
aw i
sto ensur
e a pr
opor
ti
onat
e
r
esponset
olaw-
breaki
ng,t
her
ebyassi
sti
ng
t
hel
aw’
seducat
iveordecl
arat
oryf
unct
ioni
n
sust
aini
ngandr
einf
orci
ngsoci
alst
andar
ds.
Thi
spr
inci
plei
ssuf
fi
cient
lyr
efl
ect
edi
nthe
wi
der
angeofaggr
avat
edandext
enuat
ed
f
ormsofeachspeci
fi
ccr
imei
ntheCr
imi
nal
Code.

The newl
yincor
por
ated cr
imes such as
har
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ices,cy
bercr
imes,
hi
j
acki
ng ofai
rcr
aft
s,moneyl
aunder
ing,
 444

cr
imes r
elat
ed t
o cor
rupt
ion of dr
ugs
i
ndi
cat
e a r
emar
kabl
e pr
ogr
ess i
n t
he
dev
elopmentofcr
imi
nall
awofourcount
ry.
Ther
evi
si
onsbr
oughtaboutbyt
heRev
ised
Cr
imi
nalCodemakesourcr
imi
nall
awmor
e
compr
ehensi
vet
houghnotexhaust
ive.The
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
oser
iousl
yandmet
icul
ousl
y
enf
orcet
hesepr
ovi
sionsl
i
esi
nthehandsof
t
he l
egalpr
ofessi
onal
s.The l
aw st
udent
s
shoul
dser
iousl
yacknowl
edgeandsi
ncer
ely
di
schar
get
hisr
esponsi
bil
i
tysoast
obui
l
da
t
rul
ydemocr
ati
c,saf
eandpeacef
ulsoci
ety
.

Obj
ect
ives:
Byt
heendoft
hischapt
ert
hest
udent
swi
ll
beabl
eto:
Expl
aint
hei
mpor
tanceofunder
standi
ngt
he
r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weendi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
he
 445

Cr
imi
nal
Code
Under
stand t
he sy
stemat
ic and l
ogi
cal
ar
rangementoft
hehar
mfulconduct
sthat
ar
e pr
ohi
bit
ed under t
he decl
arat
ion of
puni
shment
sint
he Speci
alPar
toft
he
Cr
imi
nal
Code
I
dent
if
y t
he i
ncor
por
ati
on of t
he
Const
it
uti
onalmandat
es i
nthe Cr
imi
nal
Code
I
nter
prett
heessent
ialel
ement
sofv
ari
ous
cr
imesandest
abl
i
sht
hecr
imesagai
nstt
he
accusedaccor
dingt
other
equi
rement
sof
t
hegener
alpr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity
I
dent
if
ythei
ssuesi
nagi
vensetoff
act
sof
hy
pot
het
icalcasesandf
indsol
uti
onsf
ort
he
same

Sect
ion.
1.Gener
alConsi
der
ati
ons:
 446

1.
1.The Rel
ati
onshi
p oft
he Gener
aland
Speci
alPar
ts:

The f
ir
stmosti
mpor
tantt
hing t
hatt
he
cr
imi
nall
aw st
udent
sshoul
dunder
standi
s
t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weendi
ff
erentpar
tsof
t
heCr
imi
nalCode.The‘
Gener
alPar
t’oft
he
Cr
imi
nal Code set
s out t
he gener
al
pr
inci
ples of cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity whi
ch ar
e
commont
oal
lcr
imes.Thi
spar
texpl
ainst
he
meani
ngofcr
imi
nal
act
,cr
imi
nal
int
ent
ionor
negl
i
gencei
.e.‘
thegui
l
t’andl
aysdownt
he
pr
inci
plesf
oll
owi
ngwhi
chanaccused’
sact
can be decl
ared puni
shabl
e.Fur
ther
,the
gener
alpar
tpr
escr
ibes and def
ines t
he
ki
ndsofpuni
shment
sandmeasur
est
obe
appl
i
ed i
n each case.The concept
sli
ke
 447

pr
obat
ion,suspensi
onofsent
ences,per
iods
ofl
i
mit
ati
on f
orpr
osecut
ion as wel
las
enf
orcementofpuni
shmentandcondi
ti
ons
r
elat
ingt
opar
donandamnest
yar
ecl
ear
ly
pr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthegener
alpar
t.Al
lthese
pr
ovi
sionsar
ecommonl
yappl
i
cabl
eto al
l
cr
imesandar
eessent
ialf
ort
woi
mpor
tant
pur
posesofacr
imi
nal
trai
l
:

 To est
abl
i
sh t
he ‘
cri
minall
i
abi
l
ity
’by
f
indi
ngt
heconcur
renceoft
he‘
act
’andt
he
‘
gui
l
tymi
nd’
oft
heaccused
 Todet
ermi
net
het
ypeand t
hequant
um
ofpuni
shmentt
obeappl
i
edt
othecr
imi
nal
i
.e.t
heconv
ict
(thegui
l
ty)

The‘
Speci
alPar
t’oft
heCodedescr
ibest
he
v
ari
ousact
swhi
char
econsi
der
edhar
mful
 448

andt
her
eby
,cr
imi
nal
.Thi
spar
toft
heCode
cl
ear
lyi
dent
if
ies t
he conducti
tseeks t
o
pr
ohi
bitanddef
inest
heessent
ialel
ement
s
of each of such cr
imes.Each of t
he
pr
ohi
bit
edconducti
sgi
venaspeci
fi
cname,
f
or exampl
e, homi
cide, t
hef
t,r
obber
y,
adul
ter
yet
c.,and t
he mat
eri
aland mor
al
i
ngr
edi
ent
sessent
ialf
ort
hecommi
ssi
onof
suchcr
imesar
elai
ddowncl
ear
lyi
nthose
ar
ti
clesdef
ini
ngcr
imes.Fur
ther
,thear
ti
cl
es
pr
escr
ibe t
he puni
shment consi
der
ed
appr
opr
iat
eforeachcr
ime.Thet
wopar
tsof
t
heCodedonotoper
atei
ndependent
ly.The
appl
i
cabi
l
ity of t
he Gener
alPar
ttot
he
Speci
alPar
t can be under
stood i
nthe
f
oll
owi
ngway
s:

a.Est
abl
ishi
ng t
he Commi
ssi
on of t
he
 449

Cr
ime:
Fori
nst
ance,suppose‘
A’i
ski
l
ledi
nwhat
appear
sli
keacarcr
ash,andt
hedr
iverof
t
hev
ehi
clehasbeenappr
ehendedi
nrel
ati
on
t
othedeat
hof‘
A’.Toat
tachcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
t
otheaccusedaspert
her
equi
rement
sof
Ar
t23,
thr
eeessent
ialel
ement
soft
hecr
ime
i
.e. t
he l
egal
,the mat
eri
al and mor
al
el
ement
s of t
he cr
ime hav
e t
o be
est
abl
i
shed.To begi
n wi
thi
n est
abl
i
shi
ng
t
hecommi
ssi
onofcr
ime,wehav
etof
ind
outt
he‘
cause’oft
hehar
mfulr
esul
t.The
mat
eri
alel
ementofcr
imei
.
e.whet
hert
he
‘
deat
h’i
nthequest
ionwast
heconsequence
oft
heconductoft
heaccusedorwast
her
e
anyot
heradequat
ereason f
ort
hedeat
h,
suchasdeat
hduet
oner
vousshockbei
ng
i
nvol
vedi
nthecarcr
ashordeat
hduet
o
 450

hear
tat
tackormi
stakenadmi
nist
rat
ionof
medi
cine whi
ch coul
d be at
tri
but
ed t
o
medi
calnegl
i
genceet
c.Theset
hingscanbe
est
abl
i
shedbyconsul
ti
ngt
hepr
ovi
si
onsof
Gener
alPar
ti.
e.Ar
ti
cles23and24.Tof
ind
outwhet
hert
he al
l
eged i
nci
dentwas an
i
ntent
ional ki
l
li
ng of t
he v
ict
im or a
consequenceofr
ashandnegl
i
gentdr
ivi
ng
orwasi
tapur
eacci
dentweneedt
oanal
yze
t
hef
act
sint
hel
i
ghtoft
hepr
inci
plesof
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
itypr
ovi
dedunderAr
ti
cl
es57-
59whi
chdef
ineanacci
dent
,int
ent
ionand
negl
i
gencer
espect
ivel
y.I
fthest
ateofmi
nd
of t
he accused sat
isf
ies t
he essent
ial
condi
ti
ons of ‘
i
ntent
ion’i
.e.Ar
t58,t
he
conduct shal
l be puni
shabl
e as ‘
an
i
ntent
ionalhomi
cide’whi
chi
sdef
inedand
madepuni
shabl
eunderAr
ti
cles538-
541of
 451

t
heSpeci
alPar
t.I
fitcanbeest
abl
i
shedt
hat
t
hedeat
hwast
hedi
rectconsequenceoft
he
carcr
ashwhi
chwast
her
esul
tofhi
srash
andnegl
i
gentdr
ivi
ngt
hespeci
fi
ccr
imei
s
‘
Homi
cidebyNegl
i
gence’madepuni
shabl
e
underAr
t543oft
heSpeci
alPar
t.Thus,t
he
pr
ovi
sionsofGener
alPar
tdi
rectust
othe
exactpr
ovi
si
on oft
heSpeci
alPar
tto be
appl
i
edt
opuni
shacr
imi
nal
.Ther
efor
e,t
o
est
abl
i
sht
hecommi
ssi
onofacr
imei
tis
v
ery i
mpor
tant t
o under
stand t
he
i
nter
rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenbot
hthepar
tsof
t
heCode.

b. To Ful
fi
llt
he Requi
rement
s of t
he
Pr
inci
ple ofI
ndi
vi
dual
izat
ion ofCr
imi
nal
Puni
shment
:
Oncet
hecr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityoft
heaccusedi
s
 452

est
abl
i
shedt
henexti
mpor
tantquest
ioni
sto
det
ermi
nehi
ssent
ence.Thepr
ovi
si
onsof
t
heSpeci
alPar
tnotonl
ydef
inet
hecr
imes
but al
so pr
escr
ibe t
he appr
opr
iat
e
puni
shmentf
ort
hecr
ime.Howev
er,t
hese
ar
ti
cles do not necessar
il
yrequi
re t
he
i
mposi
ti
on of maxi
mum sent
ences
pr
escr
ibed t
her
eunder
.The mi
nimum and
maxi
mum amount
s of puni
shment
s ar
e
pr
ovi
dedf
orandt
hej
udgei
ssupposedt
o
l
ooki
ntot
he ci
rcumst
ances ofeach and
ev
erycaseandassesst
hesent
encewhi
ch
bestsui
tst
heoccasi
onf
ort
hepur
posesof
det
err
ence,pr
event
ion and r
efor
mat
ion of
t
hecr
imi
nal
.Thepr
inci
palgui
dingpr
inci
ples
r
elat
ingt
ohowt
hesent
encesar
ecal
cul
ated
ar
e f
ound i
n t
he f
oll
owi
ng i
mpor
tant
pr
ovi
sions:
 453

1.
Art
icl
e87oft
heCr
imi
nalCode:
Itr
efer
sto
Ar
ti
cle1andsay
sthat“
thepenal
ti
esand
measur
es pr
ovi
ded by t
his Code
puni
shmentmustbeappl
iedi
naccor
dance
wi
tht
hespi
ri
toft
heCodeandsoast
o
achi
evet
hepur
posei
thasi
nvi
ew”
. Thi
s
means t
hatt
he obj
ect
ives ofpr
event
ion,
gener
aldet
err
ence,speci
fi
cdet
err
enceand
r
efor
mat
ionhav
etobekepti
nmi
ndwhi
l
e
det
ermi
ning sent
ence f
or ev
ery speci
fi
c
cr
ime def
ined i
nthe Speci
alPar
toft
he
Cr
imi
nalCodei
rr
espect
iveoft
hef
actt
hat
t
hear
ti
clesdef
ini
ngspeci
fi
ccr
imespr
ovi
de
f
orami
nimum andmaxi
mum sent
encet
o
begi
veni
neachcase.

2.
Art
icl
e 88 oft
he Cr
imi
nalCode:Thi
s
 454

pr
ovi
sion l
ays down v
ery i
mpor
tant
gui
del
i
nes r
elat
ing t
o cal
cul
ati
on of
sent
encesi
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionof
cr
imi
nalj
ust
iceandf
urt
heremphasi
zet
he
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween t
he Gener
al and
Speci
alPar
tsoft
heCr
imi
nal
Code:

TheCour
tshal
ldet
ermi
net
hepenal
ti
es
and measur
es i
n conf
ormi
ty wi
th t
he
pr
ovi
sions of t
he Gener
al par
t of t
he
Cr
imi
nalCode and t
he speci
alpr
ovi
si
ons
def
ini
ngcr
imesandt
hei
r puni
shment
s
(
Art88/
1).
Thepenal
tyshal
lbedet
ermi
nedaccor
ding
ot
t hei
ndi
vi
dualgui
lt
.The i
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
t
canbedet
ermi
nedbyt
aki
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ng
t
hingsi
ntoconsi
der
ati
on:
 455

oThedanger
ousdi
sposi
ti
onoft
hecr
imi
nal
oTheant
ecedent
soft
hecr
imi
nal
oMot
iveandpur
poseoft
hecr
ime
oGr
avi
tyoft
hecr
imeandci
rcumst
ancesof
i
tscommi
ssi
on
oPer
sonalci
rcumst
ances oft
he cr
imi
nal
such as age, economi
c condi
ti
ons,
st
andar
dofeducat
ion,
etc.(
Art88/
2).
Ar
t4secondpar
agr
aphoft
heCr
imi
nal
Codecl
ear
lyi
mpl
i
est
hati
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionof
puni
shmentdoesnotv
iol
atet
hepr
inci
pleof
equal
i
ty.
 TheCour
tshal
lcar
eful
l
yexami
nef
rom
t
hel
i
ght
estt
othemostsev
erepuni
shment
anddet
ermi
neonl
ythepenal
tyappr
opr
iat
e
f
oreachcase,subj
ectt
ott
hepr
ovi
si
onsof
t
heSpeci
alPar
toft
heCode.Ther
efor
e,t
he
Cour
tisundert
heobl
i
gat
iont
ochooset
he
 456

r
ightand pr
opor
ti
onat
e sent
ence i
n each
andev
erycasewi
thi
nther
angeofmi
nimum
andmaxi
mum l
engt
hofsent
ence(
Art88/
3).
I
nor
dert
ogi
vef
ullef
fectt
othepr
inci
ple
ofi
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionofcr
imi
nalj
ust
iceand
uni
for
mit
yofsent
enci
ngt
heCoder
equi
re
t
he Feder
alSupr
eme Cour
ttoi
ssue a
sent
enci
ngmanual
(Ar
t88/
4).

3.
Aggr
avat
ing and Mi
ti
gat
ing
Ci
rcumst
ances:

Ar
ts82-
86enumer
atet
heci
rcumst
ancesi
n
whi
cht
hepuni
shmentt
oacr
imemaybe
i
ncr
eased or decr
eased as t
he
ci
rcumst
anceswar
ranti
neachcaset
hough
t
hepr
ovi
siondef
ini
ngt
hatcr
imesuggest
sa
speci
fi
cpuni
shment
.Thesepr
ovi
si
onst
hus
 457

gi
vef
urt
hergui
dancet
otheappl
i
cat
ionof
t
hepr
inci
pleofi
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionofcr
imi
nal
j
ust
ice.

4.
Speci
alTr
eat
mentf
orYoung Cr
imi
nal
s,
WomenandMent
all
yChal
lenged:
Thepr
ovi
sionsofCr
imi
nalCodet
hatpr
ovi
de
f
ort
hespeci
alt
reat
mentoft
hesespeci
al
gr
oupsal
soemphasi
zet
heneedt
omake
r
efer
encest
otheGener
alPar
toft
heCode
whi
l
edeci
dingt
hecasesi
nvol
vi
ngwomen,
chi
l
drenandt
hef
eebl
emi
nded.

1.
2.Fi
ndi
ngt
heRel
evantLaw:

Thi
sisav
eryi
mpor
tantexer
cise f
ora
 458

cr
imi
nal
lawst
udent
.Onehast
ohav
eacl
ear
i
deaaboutf
indi
ngt
hel
aw r
elev
antt
othe
caseathand.Letusunder
standt
hemet
hod
wi
tht
hehel
pofanexampl
e.Al
emay
uand
Cher
inethadanar
gumentov
erani
ssueand
i
tresul
tedi
nphy
sicalal
ter
cat
ionbet
ween
t
het
woonadar
kni
ght
.Int
hecour
seoft
he
f
ightAl
emay
uai
medabl
owwi
thhi
sst
ickat
t
heheadofCher
inet
.Towar
dof
fthebl
ow
Cher
inet
’swi
fewhohadachi
l
donherar
m
i
nter
venedbet
weent
hem.Thebl
ow mi
ssed
i
tsai
m and f
ellont
hehead oft
hechi
l
d
causi
ng sev
erei
njur
ies,duet
o whi
ch t
he
chi
l
ddi
ed.Al
emay
uhasbeenchar
gedwi
th
homi
cideoft
hechi
l
d.Deci
de.

Nowt
hef
ir
stst
ept
ofi
ndt
her
elev
antl
awi
n
t
hiscasei
stol
ookf
ort
hespeci
fi
ccr
ime
 459

t
hatpr
ohi
bit
s causi
ng t
he deat
h oft
he
humanbei
ngi
ntheSpeci
alPar
toft
heCode.
Wef
indt
hecr
imeofhomi
cideunderBook-
V,
Ti
tl
e-IChapt
er-
IandSect
ion–IandAr
t538.
Butf
rom t
hepr
inci
pler
elat
ingt
ohomi
ci
de
embodi
ed i
n Ar
t538 t
he f
oll
owi
ng t
wo
quest
ionsar
ise:

Wast
heki
l
li
ng‘
i
ntent
ional
’
?Or
Wasi
ta‘
negl
i
gent
’ki
l
li
ng?

To est
abl
i
sh t
he st
ate of mi
nd of t
he
accused t
owar
ds t
he v
ict
im we hav
eto
consul
tei
therAr
t58or59ast
hecasemay
be.Buti
nanycaset
heaccused’
sst
ateof
mi
nd shoul
d be est
abl
i
shed t
owar
ds t
he
har
mthati
scausedandnowi
sinquest
ion.
I
nfactt
he accused’
s actand mi
nd bot
h
 460

wer
edi
rect
edt
owar
dsi
njur
ingCher
inetwi
th
t
hest
ick.Si
ncei
twasdar
kint
heni
ghthe
mi
ssed t
he ai
m and t
he unexpect
ed
i
nter
fer
enceofMr
s.Cher
inetal
socoul
dnot
benot
icedbyhi
m.Sonow,hadt
hebl
ow
r
ight
lyl
anded on Cher
ineti
twoul
d hav
e
causedonl
yacommonwi
l
lfuli
njur
y.Thi
sis
whatcoul
dbeex
pect
edi
nhi
s“f
oresi
ghtof
consequences”
.Ther
efor
e,t
hedeat
hoft
he
chi
l
dmaybeconsi
der
edasanacci
dentand
heshoul
dbeconv
ict
edf
orCommonWi
l
lful
I
njur
y under Ar
t556 whi
ch was i
n hi
s
i
ntent
ionandcoul
dnotbeachi
evedbecause
oft
heci
rcumst
ancesbey
ondhi
scont
rol
.Ar
t
58/
3too l
ays down t
his pr
inci
ple:“No
per
son shal
lbe convi
cted f
or what he
nei
therknew ofori
ntended,norf
orwhat
goesbeyondwhathei
ntendedei
therdi
rect
ly
 461

orasapossi
bil
i
ty,subj
ectt
othepr
ovi
si
ons
gover
ningnegl
i
gence”
.Her
ewecannotev
en
sayt
hathe had been negl
i
gentt
o av
oid
i
njur
ytot
hechi
l
dbecauset
heent
ryofbot
h
mot
herandt
hechi
l
dwasunexpect
edand
coul
dnotev
enbenot
icedduet
odar
kness.
That
’show wel
ocat
ether
elev
antl
aw and
ul
ti
mat
elywemayl
and up i
n apr
ovi
si
on
whi
ch we mi
ghtnothav
e expect
ed.The
i
njur
ywhi
ch hehad i
nfactcont
empl
ated
wasnev
ercausedbuthewi
l
lbehel
dli
abl
e
f
ort
hatandt
hedeat
hoft
hechi
l
dwhi
chhe
nei
theri
ntended norexpect
ed cannotbe
at
tri
but
edt
ohi
m.

1.
3.I
nter
rel
ati
onshi
psofPr
ovi
sions

Under
standi
ng t
he i
nter
rel
ati
onshi
p of
 462

pr
ovi
sionsgi
vesusani
deaaboutt
heor
der
i
n whi
ch di
ff
erentpr
ovi
sions r
elat
ing t
o
cr
imesar
ear
rangedi
nthecodeandt
his
f
urt
hersi
mpl
i
fies ouref
for
tst
ofi
nd t
he
r
elev
antl
aw.I
nev
erysect
ionoft
heSpeci
al
Par
twewi
l
lfi
ndt
hecr
imesbei
ngar
ranged
i
nthef
oll
owi
ngor
der
:
Thepr
inci
pler
elat
ingt
othecr
ime
Aggr
avat
edf
ormsoft
hecr
ime
Or
dinar
yorsi
mpl
efor
m oft
hecr
ime
Ext
enuat
edf
orm oft
hecr
ime
Negl
i
gentcommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime,
inany
.
Thus,
wef
indt
hatt
hecr
imesar
ear
rangedi
n
anor
derst
art
ingf
ormor
eser
iousf
ormst
o
l
essser
iousf
orms.Forexampl
e:
 Book-
V
Ti
tl
e-ICr
imes Agai
nst Li
fe,Per
son and
Heal
th
 463

Chapt
er-
ICr
imesAgai
nstLi
fe
Sect
ion-
IHomi
cideandI
t’
sFor
ms
Ar
t.538-Pr
inci
ple
Ar
t.539-Aggr
avat
edHomi
cide
Ar
t.540-Or
dinar
yHomi
cide
Ar
t.541-Ext
enuat
edHomi
cide
Ar
t.542-I
nst
igat
ing orAi
ding anot
hert
o
Commi
tSui
cide
Ar
t.543-Homi
ci
debyNegl
i
gence
Al
lthr
ought
heSpeci
alPar
toft
heCr
imi
nal
Code we f
ind t
his ki
nd of sy
stemat
ic
or
gani
zat
ionoft
hepr
ovi
sionswhi
chhel
ps
t
heeasyi
dent
if
icat
ionoft
hepr
ovi
si
onwe
needt
oconsul
tinagi
vencase.

1.
4Cr
oss-
Ref
erenceswi
thi
ntheCode

Thi
sisanot
heror
gani
zat
ionalf
eat
ureoft
he
 464

Cr
imi
nalCodeofEt
hiopi
a.I
ntheCodewe
f
ind a cer
tai
n ar
ti
cler
efer
ri
ng t
o ot
her
ar
ti
cles.We f
ind t
his on t
wo di
ff
erent
occasi
ons:

a.
ToFi
ndCompl
etePi
ctur
eofCr
imeora
Concept
:
Thear
ti
clesr
efer
redt
oinacer
tai
nar
ti
cl
e
ar
eimpor
tantt
o under
stand t
hatar
ti
cl
e
ot
her
wise t
he ar
ti
cle may be obscur
e or
somet
imest
hedef
ini
ti
on and meani
ng of
t
he cr
ime may r
emai
nincompl
ete. For
exampl
e:

Conspi
racy
:Togetacompl
etepi
ctur
eof
t
heconceptofcr
imi
nalconspi
racyundert
he
Code we need t
o make sev
eralcr
oss
r
efer
ences.
 465

a.Ar
t.38/
1:Def
inesconspi
racyi
ngener
al
andi
tref
erst
oAr
t.84/
1/df
rom whi
chwe
under
standt
hati
sto beconsi
der
edasa
‘
gener
alaggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ance.

b.
Art
.38/
2:Ref
erst
o speci
fi
c ki
nds of
conspi
raci
eswhi
chhav
ebeendef
inedbyt
he
ar
ti
clesi
tment
ionsatt
heend,namel
y,Ar
ts.
257,
274,
300and478.

Now,when we go t
o Ar
t257 i
tmakes
r
efer
encet
oAr
t238-
242and246-
252and
by r
efer
ri
ng t
o t
hese pr
ovi
si
ons we
under
standt
hatpar
ti
cipat
i nconspi
ngi raci
es
t
o commi
t t
he cr
imes agai
nst t
he
Const
it
uti
on and t
he St
ate speci
fi
cal
l
y
def
ined i
nthose ar
ti
cles ar
e puni
shabl
e
under Ar
t. 257/
b and t
he quant
um of
 466

puni
shmenti
nsuchcasesal
sowef
indat
t
heendoft
hesamear
ti
cle.

Si
mil
arl
y,Ar
t300def
inesaspeci
alki
ndof
conspi
racyi
.e.Conspi
racyt
oRai
seMut
iny
.
Li
kewi
se,
Art478al
soneedst
obeconsul
ted
t
o gett
he compl
etei
dea oft
he cr
imi
nal
conspi
racyasi
thasbeencov
eredbyt
he
Code.Ar
t478 deal
swi
th anot
herspeci
al
t
ypei
.e.conspi
racyt
opr
epar
eorcommi
ta
ser
ious cr
ime agai
nstpubl
i
c secur
it
y or
heal
th,t
heper
sonorpr
oper
tyorper
suade
anot
hert
ojoi
nsuchconspi
racy
.

Thus,cr
ossr
efer
enceswi
thi
ntheCodear
e
v
eryi
mpor
tantandshoul
dbev
erycar
eful
l
y
f
oll
owed; ot
her
wise i
t coul
d l
ead i
nto
i
mpr
operappl
i
cat
ions ofl
aw and t
her
eby
 467

ser
iousmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
icemi
ghtr
esul
tin.

b.Wher
e one pr
ovi
sion ser
ves i
n some
r
espectasagener
alar
ti
clet
oaser
iesof
ar
ti
cles:
A gener
alr
ule appl
i
cabl
eto a ser
ies of
pr
ovi
sionsmaybel
aiddowni
nanar
ti
cl
e
whi
ch makesi
timpor
tantt
o consul
tthat
ar
ti
clewhenev
erwedealwi
thanyofsuch
pr
ovi
sionsi
tref
erst
o.Forexampl
e,Ar
t628
deal
swi
th‘
OtherGr
oundsofAggr
avat
ing
t
he Cr
ime’i
nrel
ati
on t
orape and ot
her
sexualout
rages.Thear
ti
clest
art
swi
tht
he
st
atement“
Inal
lcasesofr
apeorsexual
out
rages(
art620-
627)
,thepuni
shmentshal
l
be….
.”
Ther
efor
e,t
he aggr
avat
ing ci
rcumst
ances
enl
i
sted t
her
eunderhav
eto be r
ead i
nto
 468

ev
eryr
elat
edpr
ovi
sioni
ntheser
ies.Thi
sis
t
he ot
her i
mpor
tant pur
pose of cr
oss-
r
efer
enceswi
thi
ntheCodewhi
chcannotbe
i
gnor
ed.

Wher
eMor
ethanOneSpeci
alPar
tPr
ovi
sions
Appl
iest
oAaPar
ti
cul
arCr
imi
nal
Act
:
Thi
s si
tuat
ion r
elat
es t
he concur
rence of
cr
imes. The pr
ovi
sions r
elat
ing t
o
concur
renceofcr
imemai
nlyAr
t61-
66,85,
184-
187ar
ever
ycompl
exi
nnat
ure.Whi
l
e
deal
i
ngwi
tht
hesepr
ovi
sionst
hef
oll
owi
ng
t
hingshav
etobekepti
nmi
nd:
Thef
actt
hatt
heot
herpr
ovi
sionsappl
i
cabl
e
mi
ghtpr
ovi
def
orahi
gherpuni
shment
,and
Thepur
pose,
scopeormeani
ngoft
hear
ti
cl
e
wear
edeal
i
ngwi
thundert
heSpeci
alpar
ti.
e.
t
hecr
imecommi
tt
edbyt
heaccused.
 469

Fori
nst AandBgoti
ance, ntoaf
i .Ahi
ght tB
byhi
sfstandBf
i ellonar
ockandhi
sskul
l
go f
ract
ur ed.Now A i
edanddi schar
ged
under Ar
t 540 f
or commi
tt
ing Or
dinar
y
Homi
cide.Her
ether
eis a si
mul
taneous
br
each ofpr
ovi
sions r
elat
ing t
o causi
ng
wi
l
lfuli
njur
iesAr
ts555or556ast
hecase
maybeandt
hepr
ovi
sionpuni
shi
ngor
dinar
y
homi
cideAr
t.540.Thequest
ioni
sshoul
dhe
bepuni
shedf
orcausi
ngdeat
hofhi
svi
cti
m
oronl
yforcausi
ngi
njur
y?Her
eint
hiscase
hef
t oresi
ghtoft sdesi
heaccusedandhi re
t
oki
l
lhi
svi
cti
m ar
ehi
ghl
ydoubt
ful
.Her
e
t
her
eisapossi
bil
i
tyoft
hej
udgesj
umpi
ng
i
ntoconcl
usi
ons,ast
heyusual
l
yreactwi
th
st
rongf
eel
i
ngsagai
nstki
l
li
ngsandmaybe
somet
imes ev
en hast
yin puni
shi
ng t
he
 470

cr
imi
nal
swi
thl
ongt
ermsofi
mpr
isonment
.
Thepur
poseoft
hecr
imi
nall
awi
stopuni
sh
onl
yfort
he cont
empl
ated orr
easonabl
y
f
oreseenconsequences.Her
eint
hegi
ven
caseast
hef
oresi
ghtoft
heaccusedmay
r
easonabl
yber
elat
edt
othe“
inj
ury
”rat
her
t
hant
othe“
deat
h”oft
hev
ict
im appl
i
cat
ion
ofAr
t555or556woul
dbej
ust
if
ied.

Ther
efor
e,duecar
ehast
obet
akenwhi
l
e
deci
dingt
hecasesi
nvol
vi
ngappl
i
cat
ionof
mor
ethanoneSpeci
alPar
tpr
ovi
si
ons.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Howar
ethedi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
heCr
imi
nal
Codei
nter
rel
ated?
2.Howdoy
ouf
indt
hepr
ovi
si
onr
elev
antt
o
t
hef
act
soft
hecaseaty
ourhand?
 471

3.Whati
s‘i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionofpuni
shment
’?
How i
siti
ncor
por
atedi
nthepr
ovi
si
onsof
t
heCr
imi
nal
Code?

4.How doy
ougo aboutf
indi
ngt
hemost
sui
tabl
e pr
ovi
sion when mor
ethan one
pr
ovi
sionoft
heSpeci
alPar
tappl
i
est
othe
conducti
nquest
ion?

Sect
ion2.Cr
imesagai
nstt
heSt
ate:

3.
1Tr
easonAndI
tsKi
nds:

TREASON (
Fr.t
rahi
son,Lat
.tr
adi
ti
o),a
gener
alt
ermf
ort
hecr
imeofat
tacki
ngt
he
saf
etyofasov
erei
gnst
ateori
tshead.The
l
aw whi
chpuni
shest
reasoni
sanecessar
y
consequenceoft
hei
deaofast
ate,andi
s
 472

essent
ialt
otheexi
stenceoft
hest
ate.Most
,
i
fnotal
l
,nat
ionshav
eaccor
dingl
y,atan
ear
lyper
iodoft
hei
rhi
stor
y,madepr
ovi
si
on
by l
egi
slat
ion or ot
her
wise f
or i
ts
puni
shment
.
I
nlaw,t
reasoni
sthecr
imeofdi
sl
oyal
tyt
o
one'
snat
ionorst
ate.Aper
son,whobet
ray
s
t
he nat
ion of t
hei
r ci
ti
zenshi
p and/
or
r
enegesonanoat
hofl
oyal
tyandi
nsome
waywi
l
lful
l
ycooper
ateswi
thanenemy
,is
consi
der
edt
obeat
rai
t .Or
or an'
sDi
cti
onar
y
of t
he Law (
1983) def
ines t
reason as:
"
..
.[
a].
..
cit
izen'
s act
ions t
o hel
paf
orei
gn
gov
ernmentov
ert
hrow,
makewaragai
nst
,or
ser
iousl
yinj
uret
he[
par
entnat
ion]
."I
nmany
nat
ions,i
tisal
soof
tenconsi
der
edt
reason
t
o at
temptorconspi
ret
o ov
ert
hrow t
he
gov
ernment
,ev
eni
fno f
orei
gncount
ryi
s
 473

ai
dedori
nvol
vedbysuchanendeav
our
.
Tr
ait
or may al
so mean a per
son who
bet
ray
s(ori
saccusedofbet
ray
ing)hi
sown
pol
i
ticalpar
ty,f
ami
l
y,f
ri
ends,et
hni
cgr
oup,
r
eli
gion,orot
hergr
oup t
o whi
ch he may
bel
ong.Of
tent
imes,suchaccusat
ionsar
e
cont
rov
ersi
aland di
sput
ed,ast
heper
son
maynoti
dent
if
ywi
tht
hegr
oup ofwhi
ch
t
hey ar
e a member
,or may ot
her
wise
di
sagr
eewi
tht
hegr
oupl
eader
smaki
ngt
he
char
ge.See,
forexampl
e,r
acet
rai
tor

Att
imes,t
het
erm"
tr
ait
or"hasbeenl
evel
l
ed
as a pol
i
ticalepi
thet
,regar
dless ofany
v
eri
fi
abl
etr
easonousact
ion.I
naci
vi
lwaror
i
nsur
rect
ion,t
he wi
nner
s may deem t
he
l
oser
sto be t
rai
tor
s.Li
kewi
se t
he t
erm
"
tr
ait
or" i
s used i
n heat
ed pol
i
tical
 474

di
scussi
on – t
ypi
cal
l
y as a sl
uragai
nst
pol
i
ticaldi
ssi
dent
s,oragai
nstof
fi
ci
alsi
n
powerwhoar
eper
cei
vedasf
ail
i
ngt
oacti
n
t
he besti
nter
estoft
hei
rconst
it
uent
s.I
n
cer
tai
n cases, as wi
th t
he Ger
man
Dol
chst
oßl
egende, t
he accusat
ion of
t
reasont
owar
dsal
argegr
oupofpeopl
ecan
beauni
fyi
ngpol
i
tical
message.

Fi
gur
esi
nhi
stor
ythatar
erenownedf
oract
s
oft
reacher
yhav
e subsequent
lyhad t
hei
r
namesbecomesy
nony
mouswi
tht
hewor
d
"
tr
ait
or"
. Some exampl
es ar
e Judas,
Benedi
ctAr
nol
d,Pét
ainandQui
sl
ing.

Mi
spr
isi
onofTr
eason:
Mi
spr
isi
on of t
reason consi
sts i
n t
he
conceal
mentorkeepi
ngsecr
etofanyhi
gh
 475

t
reason. I
tis a cr
ime f
ound i
n many
commonl
awj
uri
sdi
cti
onsar
oundt
hewor
ld,
hav
ingbeeni
nher
it
edf
rom Engl
i
shcommon
l
aw.I
tiscommi
tt
edbysomeonewhoknows
at
reason i
s bei
ng or i
s about t
o be
commi
tt
edbutdoesnotr
epor
titt
oapr
oper
aut
hor
it
y.I
tist
her
efor
eunusual
int
hati
tisa
cr
imi
nalof
fencewhi
chmaybecommi
tt
ed
t
hroughi
nact
ion.

Pet
tyTr
easonorPet
itTr
eason:
Hi
stor
ical
l
y,i
ncommonl
aw count
ri
eshi
gh
t
reason was di
ff
erent
iat
ed f
rom pet
ty
t
reason,
whi
chwast
heactofki
l
li
ngal
awf
ul
super
ior(
suchasaser
vantki
l
li
nghi
smast
er
ormi
str
ess)
.Itwas,i
nef
fect
,consi
der
eda
mor
e ser
ious degr
ee of mur
der
. As
j
uri
sdi
cti
ons ar
ound t
he wor
ld abol
i
shed
 476

pet
tyt
reason,t
heconceptofpet
tyt
reason
gr
adual
l
yfaded,andt
odayt
heuseoft
he
wor
d"t
reason"gener
all
yref
erst
o"hi
gh
t
reason.
"

Pet
tyTr
easonwas,i
nEngl
i
shcommonl
aw,
anybet
ray
alofasuper
iorbyasubor
dinat
e.
I
t di
ff
ered f
rom t
he bet
ter
-known hi
gh
t
reason i
nthathi
gh t
reason can onl
ybe
commi
tt
edagai
nstt
hesov
erei
gn,andt
he
l
egaldef
ence of benef
it of cl
ergy was
av
ail
abl
eforpet
tyt
reasonunt
il1496(
itwas
nev
erav
ail
abl
eforhi
gh t
reason)
.Int
he
Uni
tedKi
ngdom pet
tyt
reasonceasedt
obe
adi
sti
nctof
fencef
rom mur
deri
n1828.I
t
hasal
sobeenabol
i
shedi
not
hercount
ri
es.
Pet
tyt
reasonwasessent
ial
l
yanaggr
avat
ed
f
orm ofmur
der
.Itconsi
stedof
:
 477

1.
awi
feki
l
li
ngherhusband,
2.
aman(
whet
herapr
iestornot
)ki
l
li
nghi
s
pr
elat
e,or
3.
aser
vantki
l
li
nghi
smast
erormi
str
ess.

Theel
ementofbet
ray
ali
sther
easonwhy
t
hiscr
imewasconsi
der
edwor
set
hanan
or
dinar
y mur
der
; medi
eval and post
-
medi
evalsoci
etyr
est
edonaf
ramewor
kin
whi
cheachper
sonhadhi
sorherappoi
nted
pl
ace and such mur
der
s wer
e seen as
t
hreat
eni
ng t
hisf
ramewor
k.Many peopl
e
had somebody subor
dinat
etot
hem and
f
ear
edt
heconsequencesi
fthemur
derof
super
ior
swasnotpuni
shedhar
shl
y.Whi
l
e
t
hepenal
tyf
ormur
derwassi
mpl
yhangi
ng,
a man conv
ict
ed oft
reason washanged,
 478

dr
awnandquar
ter
ed.

Themostcommonf
orm ofpet
tyt
reason
wasawi
femur
der
ingherhusbandand,up
unt
ilt
heabol
i
tionoft
hisf
orm ofpuni
shment
,
husband-
mur
der
ers wer
e bur
ned at t
he
st
ake.Thel
awof
fer
edamodi
cum ofmer
cy
t
owomenwhower
etobeexecut
edi
nthi
s
f
ashi
on:t
heexecut
ionerwasequi
ppedwi
th
acor
dpassedar
oundt
hev
ict
im'
sthr
oatand,
st
andi
ng out
sideoft
hef
ir
e,woul
d pul
lit
t
ight
,st
rangl
i
ngherbef
oret
hef
lamescoul
d
r
eachher
.Inaf
ew i
nst
ances,t
hingswent
wr
ong,wi
tht
hecor
dbur
ningt
hroughand
t
he v
ict
im bur
ning al
i
ve; t
he ensui
ng
scandal
s wer
e par
tofwhatl
ed t
othe
abol
i
tion of t
his puni
shment and i
ts
subst
it
uti
onbyhangi
ngi
n1790.
 479

Apar
tfr
om t
hedi
ff
erencei
npuni
shment
,the
common l
aw def
ence ofpr
ovocat
ion,by
whi
chav
erdi
ctofmur
dercoul
dber
educed
t
o mansl
aught
er, was not av
ail
abl
e i
n
t
reasont
ri
als.

Tr
easonunderCr
imi
nalCodeofEt
hiopi
a
Ar
ti
cles 248-
250 oft
he Cr
imi
nalCode of
Et
hiopi
a def
ine t
hree t
ypes of t
reasons
namel
y,hi
ght
reason,t
reasonandeconomi
c
t
reason.

1.
HighTr
eason:Ar
t248
Hi
ght
reasoni
scr
imi
naldi
sloy
alt
ytoone'
s
count
ry.Par
ti
cipat
ingi
nawaragai
nstone'
s
count
ry, at
tempt
ing t
o ov
ert
hrow i
ts
gov
ernment
, spy
ing on i
ts mi
l
itar
y,i
ts
 480

di
plomat
s,ori
tssecr
etser
vicesf
orahost
il
e
andf
orei
gnpower
,orat
tempt
ingt
oki
l
lit
s
headofst
atear
eper
hapst
hebest
-known
exampl
es ofhi
gh t
reason.Hi
gh t
reason
r
equi
res t
hat t
he al
l
eged t
rai
tor hav
e
obl
i
gat
ions of l
oyal
tyi
nthe st
atet
hey
bet
ray
ed, such as ci
ti
zenshi
p, al
though
pr
esencei
nthest
ateatt
het
imei
ssuf
fi
ci
ent
.
For
eign spi
es,assassi
ns,and sabot
eur
s,
t
hough notsuf
fer
ing f
rom t
he di
shonor
associ
atedwi
thconv
ict
ionf
orhi
ght
reason,
mayst
il
lbet
ri
edandpuni
shedj
udi
ci
all
yfor
act
s of espi
onage, assassi
nat
ion, or
sabot
age,t
hough i
n cont
empor
aryt
imes,
f
orei
gn spi
es and sabot
eur
s ar
e usual
l
y
r
epat
ri
atedf
oll
owi
ngcapt
ure.

Hi
ght
reasonUnderAr
t248oft
heCr
imi
nal
 481

Coder
equi
rest
hef
ulf
il
lmentoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
element
s:
1. Toest
abl
i
sht
hecr
imeoft
reasont
he
accusedshoul
dhav
ebeen…
a.AnEt
hiopi
annat
ional
;or
b.A per
son who has been of
fi
ci
all
y
ent
rust
edwi
tht
hepr
otect
ionofEt
hiopi
an
nat
ional
int
erest
s.
2.And any oft
he f
oll
owi
ng act
ivi
ti
es
mustbeest
abl
i
shedagai
nsthi
m:
A. Taki
ngupar
msorengagi
ngi
nhost
il
e
act
sagai
nstEt
hiopi
a;or
B.Fort
hepur
poseofensur
ingorpr
omot
ing
t
he enemy
’s success i
n any manner
what
soev
er,he has deal
i
ngs wi
th or
keepi
ngasecr
etcor
respondencewi
th:
i
) Apoweratwarwi
thEt
hiopi
a;or
i
i
) A per
sonorbodyact
ingonbehal
fof
 482

suchpower
,or
3.Thathehasdel
i
ver
edt
otheenemywhet
her
di
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly,anobj
ect
, ar
mament
,
pl
an,documentorr
esour
ces ofanyki
nd
usedf
ort
henat
ional
def
ence;
or,
4.Thathehasai
dedt
heenemybyr
ender
ing
ser
vicesordel
i
ver
ingsuppl
i
est
ohi
m.
Thear
ti
cl
edecl
aresal
lki
ndsofdeal
i
ngs,
the
di
rect and i
ndi
rect par
ti
ci
pat
ion i
n t
he
act
ivi
ti
esabov
eandal
sot
heai
dingofsuch
act
ivi
ti
est
obehi
ght
reason.

Puni
shmentf
orHi
ghTr
eason:
1.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
rom 5-
25y
ear
s
i
sthenor
mal
penal
tyf
orhi
ght
reason.

2.
Lif
eimpr
isonmentordeat
hpenal
tymay
be awar
ded i
n cases ofhi
gh t
reason of
 483

except
ional
grav
ity
.
2.
Treason:Ar
t249
Hi
ght
reasoni
sal
socal
l
edasan‘
actofwar
’
ast
heact
sincl
udedundert
hedef
ini
ti
onof
hi
gh t
reason ar
e essent
ial
l
yli
nked wi
th
si
tuat
ionsr
elat
edt
owar
.Not
ethatwhi
l
eour
l
aw andt
hel
awsofcer
tai
not
hercount
ri
es
l
i
keCanadi
anl
aw descr
ibest
wo separ
ate
of
fencesoft
reasonandhi
ght
reason,bot
h
oft
hesei
nfactf
alli
nthehi
stor
icalcat
egor
y
ofhi
ght
reason.
Tr
easonunderAr
t249oft
heCr
imi
nalCode
r
equi
res t
he f
ulf
il
lment of t
he f
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
element
s:

1. Toest
abl
i
sht
hecr
imeoft
reasont
he
accusedshoul
dhav
ebeen…
a.AnEt
hiopi
annat
ional
;or
 484

b. A per
son who has been of
fi
ci
all
y
ent
rust
edwi
tht
hepr
otect
ionofEt
hiopi
an
nat
ional
int
erest
s.
2.Andshoul
dhav
ebeenengagedi
nany
one
oft
hef
oll
owi
ngact
ivi
ti
es:
a.Di
scl
osi
ng,del
i
ver
ing,communi
cat
ing or
maki
ngaccessi
ble,
b.Anysecr
et,anydocument
,negot
iat
ionsor
deci
sion whi
ch t
he i
nter
est
s ofEt
hiopi
a,
demandshal
lnotbedi
vul
ged,
c. To a f
orei
gn st
ate, pol
i
tical par
ty,
or
gani
zat
ion,
oragent
.or
d.Mani
fest
lysacr
if
ici
ngt
hei
nter
est
shei
s
cal
l
ed upont
o def
end t
hoseoft
heot
her
powerwhi
l
eact
ingasar
epr
esent
ati
veof
t
he St
ate or whi
l
e ent
rust
ed wi
th t
he
conductoni
tsbehal
fofnegot
iat
ionswi
tha
f
orei
gnpower
;or
 485

e. Dest
roy
ing, suppr
essi
ng, pur
loi
ning
(
steal
i
ng somet
hing i
n br
each oft
rustof
anot
her
)causi
ngt
odi
sappearorf
alsi
fyi
ng
document
s,paper
s or means of pr
oof
r
elat
ingt
othesecur
it
y,i
ndependenceorv
ital
i
nter
est
soft
heSt
ate.
Fr
om t
heabov
eingr
edi
ent
soft
hecr
imeof
t
reasoni
tbecomescl
eart
hat
,unl
i
kehi
gh
t
reason t
he f
orbi
dden conductneed not
necessar
il
yrel
atet
otheact
sofwar
.

Puni
shmentf
orTr
eason:
Ther
e ar
e t
hree al
ter
nat
ive penal
ti
es
suggest
edf
ort
reasonunderAr
t249hav
ing
r
egar
d t
o t
he ser
iousness of t
he
consequences:
1.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng15
y
ear
sist
henor
malsent
encepr
escr
ibedf
or
 486

t
hecr
ime.

2.
Rigor
ous i
mpr
isonmentf
rom 10 t
o 25
y
ear
s, i
n cases of except
ional gr
avi
ty
di
rect
ly endanger
ing t
he exi
stence or
i
ndependenceoft
heSt
ate.

3.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentf
ornotl
esst
hansi
x
mont
hst
ofi
vey
ear
sri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonment
:
Wher
ethecr
imi
nalhasact
ednegl
i
gent
lya
penal
tynotl
esst
hansi
xmont
hsmaybe
i
mposedf
ort
reason.Thi
smaybei
ncr
eased
upt
ofi
vey
ear
sri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmenti
n
casesofexcept
ional
grav
ity
.

3.
Economi
cTr
eason:Ar
t250
Thi
srat
erst
ospeci
esoft
reasonwhi
chi
s
 487

i
ntendedt
opr
otectt
heeconomi
cst
ruct
ure
oft
he count
ry.Unaut
hor
ized di
scl
osur
es
andcommuni
cat
ionsr
elat
ingt
oeconomi
c
negot
iat
ions oft
he St
ate ar
e pr
ohi
bit
ed
undert
hispr
ovi
sion.
Economi
c Tr
eason underAr
t250 oft
he
Cr
imi
nalCoder
equi
rest
hef
ulf
il
lmentoft
he
f
oll
owi
ngessent
ial
element
s:
1. Toest
abl
i
sht
hecr
imeoft
reasont
he
accusedshoul
dhav
ebeen…
a.AnEt
hiopi
annat
ional
;or
b.A per
son who has been of
fi
ci
all
y
ent
rust
edwi
tht
hepr
otect
ionofEt
hiopi
an
nat
ional
int
erest
s.
2.Andshoul
dhav
ebeenengagedi
nany
oneof
t
hef
oll
owi
ngact
ivi
ti
es:
a.Di
scl
osi
ng,del
i
ver
ing,communi
cat
ingt
o
ot
her
s or maki
ng ot
her
s accessi
blet
o
 488

ot
her
s(unaut
hor
izeddi
scl
osur
es)anyoft
he
publ
i
c orabr
oad economi
c negot
iat
ions,
deci
sions,f
act
s,ordocument
skeptsecr
et
i
nthehi
gheri
nter
est
sofEt
hiopi
aori
nthose
ofnat
ional
def
ence;
or
b.Di
scl
osi
ngordel
i
ver
ingobj
ect
s,meansor
ot
hert
hingsofsuchanat
ureent
rust
edt
o
hi
m;or
c.Par
ti
cipat
ingi
norsubscr
ibi
ngt
oal
oan
f
loat
edbyacount
ryi
nast
ateofwarwi
th
Et
hiopi
a.

Puni
shmentf
orEconomi
cTr
eason:
Ar
ti
cle250pr
ovi
desf
ordi
ff
erentpenal
ti
es
f
ori
ntent
ionalcommi
ssi
onoft
heeconomi
c
t
reason and negl
i
gentcommi
ssi
on oft
he
samei
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
:
1.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng10
 489

y
ear
s,i
nnor
mal
cases.
2.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentext
endi
ngupt
o
20y
ear
s,i
nmor
eser
iouscases.
3.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentofnotl
ess t
han
t
hreemont
hs,
innegl
i
gentcases.

Li
stOfPeopl
eConv
ict
edOfTr
eason:
Somecount
ri
es,suchast
heU.
S.,hav
ea
hi
ghconst
it
uti
onalhur
dlet
oconv
ict
ionf
or
t
reason,whi
l
stmanycount
ri
es,especi
all
y
absol
ute monar
chi
es and di
ctat
orshi
ps,
hav
elessst
ri
ngentdef
ini
ti
ons.
Ar
meni
a:Mer
uzhanAr
tzr
uni
,Lor
dPr
inceof
Vaspur
akan (
?-369)
,forconspi
ri
ng wi
th
Per
sianKi
ngShapuhI
Iagai
nsthi
sli
ege-
lor
d,
Ar
meni
anKi
ngAr
shakI
I,whom hebet
ray
ed
t
oPer
sia.Hewascapt
uredbyAr
shak'
sson
Ki
ngPapandexecut
ed.
 490

Aust
ri
a: Count Laj
os Bat
thy
ány de
Német
újv
ár,f
ori
nvol
vementi
nthe 1848
Hungar
ianRev
olut
ion.

Aust
ri
a-Hungar
y:Nedel
jko Čabr
inov
ić,f
or
assassi
nat
ing Ar
chduke Fr
anz Fer
dinand;
Vaso Čubr
il
ovi
ć, f
or assassi
nat
ing
Ar
chduke Fr
anz Fer
dinand ; Vel
jko
Čubr
il
ovi
ć, f
or assassi
nat
ing Ar
chduke
Fr
anzFer
dinand;Dr
agut
inDi
mit
ri
jev
ić,f
or
assassi
nat
ing Ar
chduke Fr
anz Fer
dinand;
Tr
if
koGr
abež,f
orassassi
nat
ingAr
chduke
Fr
anz Fer
dinand; Dani
lo I
li
ć, f
or
assassi
nat
ing Ar
chduke Fr
anz Fer
dinand;
Cv
jet
ko Popov
ić, f
or assassi
nat
ing
Ar
chdukeFr
anzFer
dinand;Gav
ril
oPr
inci
p,
f
or assassi
nat
ing Ar
chduke Fr
anz
 491

Fer
dinand; Nazar
ioSaur
o,f
orf
ight
ingf
or
I
tal
yint
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.
Canada: Loui
s Ri
el, Mét
is l
eader who
opposedCanada'
sexpansi
oni
ntot
hewest
;
Andr
ew West
brook,f
or f
ight
ing f
or t
he
Uni
tedSt
atesdur
ingt
heWarof1812.

Chi
na:ZhouFohaiandChenGongbo
Republ
icofCongo:Pascal
Lissouba,
for
mer
Pr
esi
dentoft
heRepubl
i
cofCongo

Czechosl
ovaki
a:Kar
elČur
da

EastGer
many
:Wer
nerTeske

Engl
and:(
Fort
hoseaf
ter1707,seeGr
eat
Br
it
ain and Uni
ted Ki
ngdom) Ant
hony
Babi
ngt
on,f
orl
eadi
ngt
heBabi
ngt
onPl
ott
o
ov
ert
hrow QueenEl
i
zabet
hI;AnneBol
eyn,
 492

wi
feofKi
ngHenr
yVI
II
;Henr
yBr
ooke,11t
h
Bar
onCobham,whowasi
mpl
i
cat
edi
nthe
Mai
nPl
otagai
nstt
her
uleofJamesIof
Engl
and; Char
lesI
,whowasexecut
edby
Par
li
amentf
ort
reason,ont
hegr
oundst
hat
hehadwagedwaragai
nstt
hepeopl
e.When
hi
ssonChar
lesI
Iregai
nedt
het
hrone,he
hadmostoft
hepeopl
eresponsi
blef
orhi
s
f
ather
's execut
ion pr
osecut
ed f
ort
reason
t
hemsel
ves,aski
l
li
ngt
heKi
ngi
str
eason;
Rober
tDev
ereux,2ndEar
lofEssex,whol
ed
af
ail
edcoupd'
étatagai
nstQueenEl
i
zabet
h
I
;Guy Fawkes,f
or i
nvol
vement i
n t
he
GunpowderPl
ot; Daf
yddapGr
uff
ydd,f
or
r
evol
ti
ngagai
nstKi
ngEdwar
dI;Cat
her
ine
Howar
d,wi
feofKi
ngHenr
yVI
II;Rober
tKet
t,
f
orl
eadi
ng t
heNor
fol
kRebel
l
ion i
n1549;
ThomasMor
e,Lor
dChancel
l
or,f
orr
efusi
ng
 493

t
oacceptHenr
yVI
IIasSupr
emeGov
ernorof
t
heChur
chofEngl
and;Si
rWal
terRal
eigh;
Lor
d Russel
l
; Wi
l
li
am St
anl
ey; Wi
l
li
am
Thomas,member of Edwar
d VI
'
s pr
ivy
counci
l
,impl
i
cat
ed i
n Wy
att
'
s r
ebel
l
ion;
Chi
diockTi
chbor
ne,f
ori
nvol
vementi
nthe
Babi
ngt
onPl
ot;Wi
l
li
am Wal
l
ace,f
orl
eadi
ng
t
he Scot
ti
sh i
ndependence mov
ement
agai
nstKi
ngEdwar
dI;Per
kinWar
beck,f
or
pr
etendi
ngandl
eadi
ngar
ebel
l
ionagai
nst
Ki
ngHenr
yVI
I.

Fi
ji
: Geor
ge Spei
ght
,forpl
ott
ing t
he Fi
j
i
coupof2000.

Fr
ance: Rober
tBr
asi
l
lach;Mar
celBucar
d;
Loui
s-Fer
dinandCél
i
ne;JosephDar
nand,
for
l
eadi
ng t
he Vi
chy Fr
ench Mi
l
ice; Émi
l
e
 494

Dewoi
ti
ne (
Plane i
ndust
ri
ali
st; 20 y
ear
s
f
orcedl
aboursent
encef
ori
ntel
l
igencewi
th
t
he enemyand at
tack on st
ate secur
it
y);
Pi
err
e Lav
al,f
orbei
ng Pr
ime Mi
nist
erof
Vi
chyFr
ance; Mi
chelNey
; Henr
iPhi
l
ippe
Pét
ain;Mar
ieAnt
oinet
te;Loui
sXVI
.

Gr
eatBr
it
ain:(
Fort
hosebef
ore1707,see
Engl
andandScot
land.Fort
hoseaf
ter

Ger
many
:Adol
fHi
tl
er,
forhi
srol
eint
heBeer
Hal
lPut
schi
n1923.
1800,see Uni
ted Ki
ngdom)
; Ar
chi
bal
d
Camer
onofLochei
l
,forhi
spar
tint
he1745
Jacobi
ter
isi
ng;Wi
l
li
am Maxwel
l
,5t
hEar
lof
Ni
thsdal
e, f
or suppor
ti
ng t
he Jacobi
te
[
1]
Rebel
l
ion of1715; Thomas Pai
ne, f
or
publ
i
shi
ng ant
i-
Bri
ti
sh r
evol
uti
onar
y
 495

l
i
ter
atur
e;Char
lesRadcl
yff
e,f
orsuppor
ti
ng
t
heJacobi
teRebel
l
ionof1715.

Gr
eece:Geor
giosHat
zanest
is.

Hungar
y: I
mre Nagy
,Pr
ime Mi
nist
erof
Hungar
y,f
orl
eadi
ng t
he 1956 Hungar
ian
Rev
olut
ion;CountFi
delPal
ff
y;Lászl
óRaj
k;
Andr
asSzal
ai;Ti
borSzony
i

I
srael
: Mor
dechai Vanunu,f
or r
eveal
i
ng
det
ail
sofI
srael
'
snucl
earweaponspr
ogr
am
t
otheBr
it
ishpr
essi
n1986.

Japan:Kot
okuShusui
,Japaneseanar
chi
st;
Ozaki
Hot
sumi
,j
our
nal
i
standSov
ietagent

Keny
a:Hezeki
ah Ochuka,Keny
a ai
rf
orce
sol
dier
,for conspi
ri
ng t
o ov
ert
hrow t
he
 496

gov
ernmentofDani
elMoi
in1982

Kuwai
t:Al
aaHussei
n Al
i
,forheadi
ng t
he
I
raqipuppetgov
ernmentdur
ing t
he Gul
f
War
.Net
her
lands:
Ant
onMusser
t,f
orl
eadi
ng
t
he Dut
ch puppet r
egi
me under Nazi
occupat
ion.

New Zeal
and:Hami
ora Per
e,f
orf
ight
ing
agai
nstt
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmenti
nTeKoot
i'
s
War
.

Nor
way
:Vi
dkunQui
sli
ng,f
orbei
ngMi
nist
er
Pr
esi
dentofNazi
-occupi
edNor
waydur
ing
Wor
ldWarI
I.Thewor
d'qui
sl
ing'
nowmeans
'
tr
ait
or'
.;KnutHamsun Nor
wegi
an Nobel
Pr
ize wi
nni
ng wr
it
er,f
or suppor
ti
ng t
he
Nazi
s;Ar
ne Tr
ehol
tNor
wegi
an di
plomat
,
 497

t
urnedbyt
heKGB.

Russi
a:Ol
egKal
ugi
n;Mi
khai
lShei
n

Scot
land:(
Fort
hoseaf
ter1707,seeGr
eat
Br
it
ainandUni
tedKi
ngdom)
;Rober
tBai
l
li
e,
f
ori
nvol
vementi
nthe Ry
e House Pl
ot;
Al
exanderGor
don,f
orbar
ri
ngQueenMar
yI
f
rom ent
eri
ngI
nver
ness,ont
heor
der
sof
Geor
geGor
don,4t
hEar
lofHunt
ly; Wi
l
li
am
Rut
hven,1stEar
lofGowr
ie,f
orl
eadi
ngt
he
Rai
d ofRut
hven on Ki
ng James VI
;
Mur
doch St
ewar
t,2nd Duke of Al
bany
;
Pat
ri
ckSt
ewar
t,Ear
lofOr
kney
,forusur
ping
Ki
ngJamesVIont
heOr
kneyI
slands.

Sov
ietUni
on: Ser
geiBokhanGRUr
ecr
uit
ed
byCI
A; Vi
ktorGundar
evKGB,def
ect
edt
o
USA,1986;KGB Li
eut
enantCol
onelVal
ery
 498

Mar
tynov,r
esour
cei
npl
acef
orUSA;KGB
Maj
orSer
geiMot
ori
nrecr
uit
edbyFBI;Ol
eg
Penkov
sky
;Leoni
dPol
eschukKGB,wor
ked
f
or CI
A; Gener
al Dmi
tr
y Pol
yakov sol
d
secr
etst
otheUSA;Py
otrPopov
;Gennady
Smet
ani
n KGB;Adol
f Tol
kachev
,wor
ked
wi
thCI
A,execut
ed1986;
GennadyVar
eni
k
KGB,wor
kedf
orCI
A;Andr
eyVl
asovGenr
ikh
Yagoda.

Spai
n:Cami
l
oTor
resTenor
io,
forl
eadi
ngt
he
i
ndependence mov
ement i
n Ecuador
;
Fr
anci
scoXav
ierMi
na,f
orf
ight
ingagai
nst
t
heSpani
shgov
ernmenti
ntheMexi
canWar
ofI
ndependence.

Sweden:JohannPat
kul
,pr
otest
edt
hel
and-
r
ecov
erypr
ojectofChar
lesXIofSweden
and, when unsuccessf
ul, si
ded wi
th
 499

August
us t
he St
rong and t
ri
ed t
o wr
est
Swedi
shLi
voni
afr
om Sweden.

Swi
tzer
land: Jean-
Loui
s Jeanmai
re,
sent
encedt
o18y
ear
sofpr
ison(
rel
eased
af
ter12 f
orgood behav
ior
)forl
eaki
ng
i
nfor
mat
iont
otheSov
ietKGB.
Uni
tedKi
ngdom:JohnAmer
y,f
ort
ryi
ngt
o
r
ecr
uitsol
dier
sandbr
oadcastpr
opaganda
f
orNaziGer
many
; Mi
chaelBet
taney
,for
passi
ng MI
5 secr
etst
othe Sov
ietUni
on;
Roger Casement
,for negot
iat
ing wi
th
Ger
many t
o pr
ovi
de ar
ms t
o I
ri
sh
r
evol
uti
onar
iesdur
ingt
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
f
orusei
ntheI
ri
shEast
eri
n1916r
isi
ng;
hangedi
nAugusti
n1916;
Par
ti
ci
pant
sint
he
1916East
erRi
singi
nIr
eland.Pat
ri
ckPear
se,
Thomas J.Cl
arke,Thomas MacDonagh,
JosephMar
yPl
unket
t,Edwar
d(Ned)Dal
y,
 500

Wi
l
li
am Pear
se,Mi
chaelO'
Hanr
ahan,John
MacBr
ide,ÉamonnCeannt
,Mi
chaelMal
l
in,
Cor
nel
i
usCol
ber
t,SeánHeust
on,SeánMac
Di
armada,James Connol
l
y,and Thomas
Kentwer
eshotbyf
ir
ingsquadi
nMay1916;
Wi
l
li
am Joy
ce,al
i
as '
Lor
d Haw-
Haw'
,for
br
oadcast
ingNazipr
opagandat
otheUni
ted
Ki
ngdom dur
ing Wor
ld War I
I; Ar
thur
Thi
stl
ewood,JohnBr
unt
,Wi
l
li
am Dav
idson,
JamesI
ngsandRi
char
dTi
dd,
par
ti
ci
pant
sof
t
he1820Cat
oSt
reetConspi
racy
; Duncan
Scot
t-
For
d,f
orgi
vi
ng i
nfor
mat
ion t
othe
Nazi
s.

Uni
tedSt
ates:Rober
tHenr
yBest
,conv
ict
ed
oft
reasononApr
il16,
1948andser
vedal
i
fe
sent
ence;JohnBr
own,
conv
ict
edoft
reason
agai
nstt
heCommonweal
thofVi
rgi
nia;I
va
 501

Togur
iD'
Aqui
no,whoi
sfr
equent
lyi
dent
if
ied
wi
th"
Toky
oRose.
"Subsequent
lypar
doned
byPr
esi
dentFor
d;Gov
ernorThomasDor
r
1844,conv
ict
edoft
reasonagai
nstt
hest
ate
ofRhodeI
sland;seeDor
rRebel
l
ion;Mi
l
dred
Gi
l
lar
s,"
Axi
sSal
l
y,"conv
ict
edoft
reasonon
Mar
ch8,1949,ser
ved12y
ear
sofa10-t
o
30-
yearpr
isonsent
ence;HansMaxHaupt
,
conv
ict
edoft
reasonandsent
encedt
oli
fei
n
pr
isonf
orai
dinghi
ssonwhowasaspyf
or
Ger
many dur
ing t
he Second Wor
ld War
;
Tomoy
aKawaki
ta,sent
encedt
odeat
hfor
t
reason,
butev
ent
ual
l
yrel
easedbyPr
esi
dent
Kennedyt
obedepor
tedt
oJapan; Mar
ti
n
James Mont
i,USAAF pi
l
ot,conv
ict
ed of
t
reasonf
ordef
ect
ingt
otheWaf
fenSSi
n
1944.

Zi
mbabwe: Ndabani
ngi Si
thol
e, f
or
 502

conspi
ri
ngt
oki
l
lRober
tMugabe.

Rev
isi
onQuest
ions:
1.Def
i t
ne‘r
eason’
and‘
tr
ait
or’
.
2.Di
sti
ngui
sh bet
ween di
ff
erent ki
nds of
t
reasonenumer
atedbyt
heCr
imi
nalCodeof
Et
hiopi
a.
3.Wr
it
eshor
tnot
eson:
a.Mi
spr
isi
onoft
reason
b.Pet
tyt
reason.
c.Economi
cTr
eason

Espi
onage:
Espi
onage-
Meani
ngandDef
ini
ti
on:

Espi
onage i
sthe pr
act
ice of obt
aini
ng
i
nfor
mat
ion about an or
gani
zat
ion or a
 503

soci
ety t
hat i
s consi
der
ed secr
et or
conf
ident
ial(
spy
ing)wi
thoutt
heper
missi
on
of t
he hol
der of t
he i
nfor
mat
ion.What
di
ff
erent
iat
esespi
onagef
rom ot
herf
orms
of i
ntel
l
igence wor
k i
s t
hat espi
onage
i
nvol
ves obt
aini
ng t
he i
nfor
mat
ion by
accessi
ngt
hepl
acewher
ethei
nfor
mat
ion
i
sst
oredoraccessi
ngt
hepeopl
ewhoknow
t
he i
nfor
mat
ion and di
vul
ging i
tthr
ough
someki
ndofsubt
erf
uge.

Espi
onagei
susual
l
ythoughtofaspar
tofan
i
nst
it
uti
onalef
for
t(i
.e.
,gov
ernment
alor
cor
por
ateespi
onage)
.Thet
erm espi
onage
i
smostr
eadi
l
yassoci
atedwi
thst
atespy
ing
onpot
ent
ialoract
ualenemi
es,pr
imar
il
yfor
mi
l
itar
y pur
poses, but t
his has been
ext
endedt
o spy
ingi
nvol
vi
ngcor
por
ati
ons,
 504

knownspeci
fi
cal
l
yasi
ndust
ri
alespi
onage.
Manynat
ions r
out
inel
yspyon bot
hthei
r
enemi
esandal
l
ies,
alt
hought
heymai
ntai
na
pol
i
cy ofnotmaki
ng commenton t
his.
Bl
ack'
s Law Di
cti
onar
y (
1990) def
ines
espi
onageas:"
..
.gat
her
ing,t
ransmi
tt
ing,or
l
osi
ng.
..
inf
ormat
ion r
elat
ed t
othenat
ional
def
ense.
"

spy’i
A‘ sanagentempl
oyedt
oobt
ainsuch
secr
ets.Thet
ermi
ntel
l
igenceof
fi
ceri
sal
so
usedt
odescr
ibeamemberoft
hear
med
f
orces,pol
i
ceof
fi
cerorci
vi
li
ani
ntel
l
igence
agency who speci
ali
zes i
nthe gat
her
ing,
f
usi
on and anal
ysi
s of i
nfor
mat
ion and
i
ntel
l
igencei
nor
dert
opr
ovi
deadv
icet
ohi
s
gov
ernment or anot
her or
gani
zat
ion.
Spy
mast
eri
sat
erm of
tenusedi
nli
ter
atur
e
 505

f
ort
hesuper
iorofaspyr
ing.

Espi
onageandSpi
es:
Espi
onageoccur
sinsoci
eti
esatpeaceand
atwar
.Nat
ionsatpeaceusespi
est
ogat
her
i
nfor
mat
ion on a count
ry'
s mi
l
itar
y
pr
epar
ati
onsandpl
ansf
orwar
.Dur
ingwar
espi
onage i
s used t
o gat
heri
nfor
mat
ion
about opposi
ng ar
mies and t
o mi
sl
ead
opponent
s t
hrough count
eri
ntel
l
igence.
Thoseengagedi
nspy
ingr
iski
mpr
isonment
anddeat
hifconv
ict
edoft
reason.

Espi
onage Undert
he Cr
imi
nalCode:Ar
t.
252
Thecr
imeofespi
onageundert
heEt
hiopi
an
Cr
imi
nalCode r
equi
res t
he f
ulf
il
lmentof
 506

t
hef
oll
owi
ngt
woessent
ial
element
s:
1. Toest
abl
i
sht
hecr
imeofespi
onaget
he
accusedshoul
dhav
ebeen…
a.Act
ingonbehal
fofaf
orei
gnst
ate,
pol
i
tical
par
tyoror
gani
zat
ion,
and
b.Tot
hedet
ri
mentofEt
hiopi
aorofi
ts
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
organi
zat
ionornat
ional
s
2.Andshoul
dhav
ebeenengagedi
nany
one
oft
hef
oll
owi
ngact
ivi
ti
es:
a.Or
gani
zi
ng,engagi
ngi
norencour
agi
nga
pol
i
tical
,di
plomat
ic,mi
l
itar
y oreconomi
c
i
ntel
l
igenceser
vice,
or
b.Recr
uit
ingorempl
oyi
nganot
herper
sonf
or
suchser
vice;
or
c. Col
l
ect
ing, t
ransmi
tt
ing, del
i
ver
ing or
maki
ngav
ail
abl
einf
ormat
ionoft
heabov
e
sai
dnat
urewhi
chi
ssecr
etori
snotamat
ter
ofpubl
i
cknowl
edge,t
oanof
fi
ci
alser
viceor
 507

t
oapr
ivat
eser
viceort
oit
sagent
s.

Puni
shmentf
orEspi
onage:
Oncet
hecr
imeofespi
onagei
sest
abl
i
shed,
Ar
t252oft
heCr
imi
nalCodepr
oposesf
ive
di
ff
erentt
ypesofsent
encesdependi
ngon
t
heser
iousnat
ureofconsequences.
5.Deat
hPenal
ty,wher
ethev
itali
nter
est
sof
Et
hiopi
aar
eatst
ake.
6.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
if
e,i
ncasesof
except
ionalgr
avi
ty,and especi
all
yint
he
case of
,pol
i
tical
, di
plomat
icormi
l
itar
y
espi
onagecar
ri
edouti
nthet
imeofwaror
dangerofwar
.
7.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng 20
y
ear
s,wher
ethe i
nfor
mat
ion di
vul
ged,i
s
cal
cul
ateddi
rect
lyt
oendangert
hei
nter
nal
orext
ernal
secur
it
yoft
heSt
ate.
 508

8.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng 10
y
ear
s,wher
etheespi
onagei
shar
mfult
othe
St
ateort
othepubl
i
cint
erest
.
9.Ri
gor
ous i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng 5
y
ear
s,Wher
etheespi
onagei
shar
mfult
o
pr
ivat
eper
sonsorunder
taki
ngs.

Rev
isi
onQuest
ions:
1.Whati
s‘espi
onage’
?How doesi
tdi
ff
er
f
rom ‘
tr
eason’
?
sa‘
2.Whoi spy’
?Ar
etheset
heoneswho
canbet
ri
edf
orespi
onage?

3.Li
stt
hedi
ff
erentsent
encesdesi
gnedbyt
he
Cr
imi
nal
Codef
ort
hecr
imeofespi
onage.

Sect
ion.3.Cr
imesAgai
nstl
if
e:
 509

3.
1.Ri
ghtt
oLi
feUndert
heConst
it
uti
onand
t
heConst
it
uti
onal
it
yoft
he‘
Deat
hPenal
ty’
:

Not
e:Ref
ert
oUni
tII
ISect
ion.2.
1.3.
3.

Ri
ghtt
oLi
fe:
Ri
ghtt
oli
fei
saphr
aset
hatdescr
ibest
he
bel
i
eft
hatahumanbei
nghasanessent
ial
r
ightt
oli
ve,par
ti
cul
arl
ythatahumanbei
ng
hast
he r
ightnott
o beki
l
led byanot
her
humanbei
ng.Theconceptofar
ightt
oli
fei
s
cent
ralt
odebat
esont ssuesofcapi
hei tal
puni
shment
, eut
hanasi
a, sel
f def
ense,
abor
ti
on and war
.The r
ight t
o l
i
fei
s
enshr
inedi
nAr
ti
cle3oft
heUni
tedNat
ions'
Uni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
sand
i
nAr
ti
cle6oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enanton
Ci
vi
landPol
i
ticalRi
ght
s,maki
ngi
tal
egal
l
y
 510

enf
orceabl
eri
ghti
n ev
eryUni
ted Nat
ions
memberst
ate:

“ Ev
ery human bei
ng has t
he i
nher
ent
r
ightt
oli
fe.Thi
sri
ghtshal
lbepr
otect
ed
by l
aw.No one shal
lbe ar
bit
rar
il
y
depr
ivedofhi
sli
fe.
”

—Ar
ti
cle6.
1oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enanton
Ci
vi
landPol
i
tical
Right
s

Ev
eryhumanbei
nghast
hei
nher
entr
ightt
o
l
i
feandt
hisr
ightmustbepr
otect
edbyl
aw.
Howev
er,t
hisr
ighti
snotassacr
osanctand
i
nvi
olabl
easi
tsounds.Themai
npr
inci
plei
n
human r
ight
slaw i
sthatno-
oneshal
lbe
ar
bit
rar
il
y depr
ived of l
i
fe meani
ng t
hat
st
atescant
akehumanl
i
fepr
ovi
dingl
aws
andpr
ocedur
esar
efol
l
owed.Ther
ear
ea
numberofsi
tuat
ions wher
e a st
ate may
 511

depr
ive per
sons of t
hei
rli
ves wi
thout
br
eachi
ngi
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
slaw.I
n
somecases,t
heseexcept
ionsar
ebasedon
t
he pr
emi
se t
hatv
iol
ence used i
n sel
f-
def
ence i
s j
ust
if
ied. Exampl
es i
ncl
ude,
i
mposi
ti
onoft
hedeat
hpenal
ty;…pr
ovi
ding
i
tisar
esul
tofaj
udi
cialpr
ocessanddoes
notcont
rav
enecer
tai
nmi
nimum saf
eguar
ds
i
mposed by human r
ight
s l
aw; deat
hs
r
esul
ti
ngf
rom l
awf
ulwar
far
ei.
e.warwhi
ch
meet
s t
he st
andar
ds of i
nter
nat
ional
humani
tar
ianl
aw andt
hatdoesnott
arget
pr
otect
ed per
sons e.
g. ci
vi
li
ans and
pr
isoner
s of war
; some human r
ight
s
document
s(t
he Eur
opean Conv
ent
ion on
Human Ri
ght
s,f
or exampl
e) gi
ve ot
her
si
tuat
ionswher
edepr
ivat
ionofl
i
fedoesnot
cont
rav
ene t
he conv
ent
ion.Depr
ivat
ion of
 512

l
i
fer
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
heuseoff
orcewhi
chi
s
nomor
ethanabsol
utel
ynecessar
y;i
ncl
udes:
a.I
ndef
enceofanyper
sonf
rom unl
awf
ul
v
iol
ence;
b.I
nor
dert
oef
fectal
awf
ular
restort
o
pr
eventt
he escape ofa per
son l
awf
ull
y
det
ained;
c.I
nact
ionl
awf
ull
ytakenf
ort
hepur
poseof
quel
l
ingar
iotori
nsur
rect
ion.
Human r
ight
s l
aw i
s si
l
ent on ot
her
cont
rov
ersi
alar
easconcer
ningt
her
ightt
o
l
i
fe,namel
yabor
ti
on and t
her
ightoft
he
unbor
nchi
l
dandeut
hanasi
a.
 513

Homi
cide-
Meani
ngoft
heTer
m:
Homi
cidei
saneut
ralt
erm.I
tdescr
ibesan
actwi
thnomor
alj
udgment
.Mur
deri
sthe
t
ermt
hati
snon-
neut
ral
.Itdescr
ibesanact
wi
thmor
alj
udgment
.Thel
aw ofhomi
ci
de
has t
he mostcompl
ex degr
ee (
gradi
ng)
sy
stem ofanyar
eai
nCr
imi
nalLaw.Thi
s
gr
adi
ng sy
stem i
srepr
oduced bel
ow.The
f
ir
stt
wo(
2)f
alli
nacat
egor
ycal
l
ed"
per
fect
"
def
enses.Thel
astf
our(
4)f
alli
nacat
egor
y
cal
l
ed "
imper
fect
" def
enses. Per
fect
def
ensesal
way
sinv
olv
ejust
if
icat
ionsand
excuses.

1.Just
if
iabl
eHomi
cides:
These ar
e "
no f
aul
t" homi
ci
des. They
or
dinar
il
yinv
olv
ethe deat
h ofsomeone
underci
rcumst
ancesofnecessi
tyordut
y
 514

(
commanded or aut
hor
ized by l
aw)
.
Exampl
es woul
d be sel
f-
def
ense,capi
tal
puni
shment
,andpol
i
ceshoot
ings.

2.Excusabl
eHomi
cides:
Thesear
emi
sadv
ent
ures,acci
dent
s,oract
s
ofi
nsani
ty.Theyor
dinar
il
yinv
olv
eact
sof
ci
vi
lfaul
t,er
ror
,oromi
ssi
on.Thi
sis not
enough f
aul
tto be cr
imi
nalnegl
i
gence.
Ther
e'sal
egal
def
enset
othi
sact
.

3.Cr
imi
nalorCul
pabl
eHomi
cides:
a.Fi
rstDegr
eeCr
imi
nalHomi
cide(
Mur
der
):
These ar
e act
sinv
olv
ing t
he deat
h of
someonei
n"col
d-bl
ood"orby"
lyi
ngi
nwai
t"
.
Theyar
edi
sti
ngui
shabl
eament
alst
ateof
"
pur
posel
y" whi
ch i
s hav
ing t
hree (
3)
el
ement
s:(
a)pr
emedi
tat
ed-
-meani
ngf
ixed
 515

orobsessed;
(b)del
i
ber
ate-
-meani
ng"
cool
";
and(
c)mal
i
cious-
-meani
ngschemi
ngor
cl
ever
.Al
so,t
he cr
ime off
elony mur
der
(
someone di
es dur
ing commi
ssi
on ofa
f
elony
) i
s aut
omat
ical
l
y f
ir
st degr
ee
homi
cide.

b. Second Degr
ee Cr
imi
nal Homi
cide
(
Mur
der
):
These ar
e act
sinv
olv
ing t
he deat
h of
someone i
nthe "
heat of passi
on"
.It
's
basi
cal
l
yacat
chal
lcat
egor
ytodayf
oract
s
suchasshoot
ingbul
l
etsupi
ntheai
r,but
hi
stor
ical
l
y,anumberofol
dert
ermswer
e
associ
atedwi
tht
hisgr
ade;t
ermssuchas
t
he"
yearandaday
"rul
e(f
orwhent
hedeat
h
had t
o occur
) and t
he i
dea of "
mal
i
ce
 516

af
oret
hought
"(whi
ch meantwi
cked,ev
il
,
depr
aved,spi
tef
ul,orwi
thdepr
avedhear
t).
Oft
heset
erms,onl
ythephr
ase"
depr
aved
hear
tmur
der
"isst
il
lbei
ngused.Heatof
passi
onmur
derdoesn'
trequi
repr
ovocat
ion,
buti
tst
il
lrequi
respr
oofofi
ntent
.

c.Vol
unt
aryMansl
aught
er:
Mansl
aught
er,i
n gener
al,i
nvol
ves act
s
i
nvol
vi
ng t
he deat
h ofsomeone wi
thout
t
hinki
ng. I
tinv
olv
es "
sudden passi
on"
.
Ther
e's no pr
emedi
tat
ed del
i
ber
ati
on.The
r
equi
rementi
s"adequat
epr
ovocat
ion"and
t
her
ear
ethr
ee(
3)t
est
s:(
a)t
heper
sonl
oses
t
heabi
l
ityt
oref
lectcool
l
y;(
b)t
her
e'sno
suf
fi
cient t
ime t
o coolof
f;or (
c) t
he
pr
ovocat
ion must hav
e caused act
ion.
Vol
unt
arymansl
aught
eri
sof
ten whatt
he
 517

j
ury wi
l
lret
urn as a v
erdi
ctwhen i
tis
deadl
ocked on t
he homi
ci
de char
ges.
Hi
stor
ical
l
y,t
her
e ar
e some i
nter
est
ing
concept
sassoci
atedwi
tht
hisgr
ade,such
hei
ast nfl
agr
ant
eorpar
amourr
ule(
whi
ch
i
stheonl
yexcept
iont
othemer
ewor
dsr
ule,
whi
chr
ulesoutwor
dsaspr
ovocat
ion,i
fthe
spouset
aunt
s).

d.I
nvol
unt
aryMansl
aught
er:
Thi
sist
he cr
ime ofCr
imi
nalNegl
i
gence,
somet
imes cal
l
ed mi
sdemeanor
mansl
aught
er.I
t'
sthel
eastser
iousof
fense
i
nthel
aw ofhomi
cide.I
tty
pical
l
yinv
olv
es
act
srel
ated t
o publ
i
c saf
ety
,such as
oper
ati
ngamot
orv
ehi
cle,r
ail
road,orbus.
Speci
fi
cal
l
y,i
tinv
olv
est
hecar
elessuseof
f
ir
ear
ms, expl
osi
ves, ani
mal
s, medi
ci
ne,
 518

t
rai
ns, pl
anes, shi
ps, and aut
omobi
l
es.
 
Manyst
ates hav
e sor
ted outa separ
ate
cat
egor
ycal
l
edVehi
cul
arMansl
aught
erf
or
cases i
nvol
vi
ng aut
omobi
l
es. I
t'
s al
so
i
nter
est
ingt
oknow t
hat
,byt
radi
ti
on,most
pr
osecut
orswi
l
ldr
aw t
hel
i
neatt
hispoi
nt
(
meani
ng i
t'
sal
lthey
'l
lpr
osecut
efor
)for
casesofcor
por
atecr
ime.

3.
2.Homi
cideandi
tsFor
msUnderThe
Cr
imi
nalCodeofEt
hiopi
a:Ar
ts-
538-
544

Pr
inci
ple:Ar
t538
Thegener
alpr
inci
pler
elat
ingt
othecr
ime
ofhomi
cidei
sincor
por
atedi
nAr
t538oft
he
Cr
imi
nal
Code.Accor
dingt
othi
spr
ovi
si
on
Homi
‘ cide’
is:
1.
Causi
ngdeat
hofahumanbei
ngby
 519

weaponsormeanswhat
soev
er
2.
Suchdeat
hshoul
dhav
ebeencausedwi
th
i
ntent
ionorbynegl
i
gence
Thus,
ther
ear
etwomai
nty
pesofhomi
ci
des,
namel
y,i
ntent
ional
homi
cideandnegl
i
gent
homi
cide.

I
ntent
ionalHomi
cide:
Undert
he Cr
imi
nalCode t
her
e ar
ethr
ee
ki
ndsofhomi
cidest
hatr
equi
ret
hepr
oofof
‘
i
ntent
ion’as t
he mor
ali
ngr
edi
entoft
he
cr
ime,namel
y Aggr
avat
ed Homi
ci
de (
Art
539)
,Ext
enuat
ed Homi
cide (
Art541)and
Or
dinar
yHomi
cide(
Art540)
.Thet
ypeof
homi
cidet
hati
sdef
inedunderAr
t543i
sthe
onl
yonewhi
chmakesaper
sonpuni
shabl
e
f
orcausi
ngdeat
hnegl
i
gent
ly.Thegener
al
pr
inci
plel
aiddowni
nAr
t538/
2requi
rest
hat
 520

t
o be puni
shabl
e a homi
ci
de shoul
d be
br
oughtunderanyoft
hesepr
ovi
si
ons.I
t’
s
v
eryi
mpor
tantt
hatt
heessent
ial
sofeachof
t
hesef
ormsofhomi
cidesmustbepr
eci
sel
y
andmet
icul
ousl
ydi
sti
ngui
shed,ot
her
wisei
t
mayl
eadt
ogr
eatmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
iceas
t
hepuni
shmentt
othi
smostser
iouscr
ime
agai
nstt
hesanct
it
yofl
i
fei
tsel
fcoul
donce
agai
nrai
set
hequest
ionofl
i
feanddeat
h.
Ther
efor
e, i
t’
s of v
ital i
mpor
tance t
o
exami
neeachoneoft
hem i
ndet
ail
.

Aggr
avat
edHomi
cide:Ar
t.
539

Thi
sty
peofhomi
cidei
sal
soknownast
he
homi
cidei
nthef
ir
stdegr
ee.Thef
oll
owi
ng
ar
etheessent
ial
element
soft
hiscr
ime:
1.
Causi
ngt
hedeat
hofahumanbei
ng
 521

2.
Accompani
edbyanyoft
heaggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancest
hati
ndi
cat
eorsuggestt
hat
t
he cr
imi
nal i
s except
ional
l
y cr
uel
,
abomi
nabl
eordanger
ousper
son,
suchas,
a.
Premedi
tat
ion,mot
ive,weaponormeans,
or
b.
Any ot
her gener
al aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
anceenl
i
stedunderAr
t84,
or
c.
Anyot
heraggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ancest
hat
ar
e not expr
essl
y pr
ovi
ded but dul
y
est
abl
i
shedunderAr
t86bycl
ear
lyst
ati
ng
t
her
easonswar
rant
ingsuchaggr
avat
ion
(
Art539/
1),
or
d.Homi
cidebei
ngcommi
tt
edbyamember
ofa band or
gani
zed (
a gang f
ormed
especi
all
y wi
th a cr
imi
nalpur
pose) f
or
car
ryi
ngouthomi
cideorar
medr
obber
y;or
e.I
fthehomi
cidei
scommi
tt
edt
ofaci
l
itat
e
 522

anot
hercr
imeort
oconcealacr
imeal
ready
commi
tt
ed.
The mer
e pr
esence ofanyoft
he abov
e
l
i
sted aggr
avat
ing ci
rcumst
ances i
s not
suf
fi
cientf
ort
heappl
i
cat
ionofAr
t.539.But
anysuchci
rcumst
anceshoul
dindi
cat
eor
suggestt
hatt
he cr
imi
nali
s except
ional
l
y
cr
uel
,abomi
nabl
e or danger
ous per
son.
Ot
her
wise,i
f such el
ement i
s any l
ess
ser
ioust
hanwhati
sdescr
ibedundert
his
ar
ti
cle,t
hecasei
sli
kel
ytof
allundert
he
scopeofor
dinar
yhomi
cideunderAr
t.
540.

 Pr
emedi
tat
ion:
 
Thi
sist
he i
dea of pl
anned act
ion i
n
adv
ance,cool
ness.The phr
ase gener
all
y
r
efer
s t
o any
thi
ng "
col
d-bl
ooded"
.It
's
def
inedas"
acar
efult
houghtandwei
ghi
ng
 523

of consequences,a j
udgment or pl
an,
car
ri
edoutcool
l
yandst
eadi
l
y,accor
dingt
o
apr
econcei
vedpl
an"
. "
Planni
ng"i
nthel
ong
-
ter s notr
m i equi
red.A f
ew secondswi
l
l
suf
fi
ceatl
aw,asl
ongast
her
e'ssuf
fi
ci
ent
mat
uri
ty and ment
alheal
th.Ther
e's al
so
somet
hing cal
l
ed t
he deadl
y weapon
doct
ri
newhi
chal
l
owst
hei
nfer
enceofi
ntent
i
fadeadl
yweaponi
sused.
Thequal
it
yofpr
emedi
tat
iont
hati
srequi
red
undert
heAr
t.539i
sthati
tshoul
dbeof
suchameannat
uret
hati
tsuggest
sthat
t
he cr
imi
nal i
s except
ional
ly cr
uel
,
abomi
nabl
e or danger
ous per
son.
Ther
efor
e, ever
y case of pr
emedi
tat
ed
ki
ll
ingmaynotnecessar
il
yfal
lundert
his
ar
ti
cle.Apr
emedi
tat
ionofl
esserdepr
avi
ty
mayt
aket
hecaset
obet
reat
edunderAr
t.
 524

540asanor
dinar
yhomi
cide.

Mot
ive:
Mot
ive i
sthepr
ompt
ing f
orcebehi
nd t
he
i
ntent
ioni
.e.i
tist
hel
ongi
ngf
ort
heobj
ect
desi
redwhi
chset
sthev
oli
ti
oni
nmot
ion.
Theexpect
ati
on t
hatt
hedesi
red mot
ions
wi
l
llead t
o cer
tai
n consequences i
sthe
i
ntent
ion.Thus,t
hei
ntent
ioni
snotadesi
re
whi
l
stmot
ivei
s.Thet
erms i
ntent
ion and
mot
ivemustbepr
eci
sel
ydi
sti
ngui
shed.We
mayt
ryt
ounder
standbyt
hisani
l
lust
rat
ion.
Fori
nst
ance,
inbeat
inghi
svi
cti
mtheper
son
i
nhi
sactofst
ri
ki
ngi
ntendst
ocausehi
m
pai
n. Causi
ngpai
nmaybet
osat
isf
yhi
s
r
evengeorcr
ippl
ehi
m agai
nstcombat
ing
wi
tht
he accused i
nar
ace ormer
elyt
o
i
ndi
cat
ehi
ssuper
iorst
rengt
h.Eachoft
hese
 525

i
nter
est
si edmot
scal
l ive.I
tisbecauseof
t
hisr
easonhedoest .I
heact nt
ent
ioni
sthe
f
oreknowl
edgeoft
heact
,coupl
edwi
tht
he
desi
reofi
t,suchf
oreknowl
edgeanddesi
re
bei
ngt
hecauseoft
heact
,inasmuchas
t
hey f
ulf
il
l t
hemsel
ves t
hrough t
he
oper
ati
onsoft
hewi
l
l si
.Anacti nt
ent
ionali
f,
and as f
aras,i
texi
stsi
nfact
,the i
dea
r
eal
i
zing i
tsel
fint
hef
actbecauseoft
he
desi
rebywhi
chi
tisaccompani
ed.

Mot
ive gener
all
y ser
ves as a cl
ue t
o
est
abl
i
sh t
he i
ntent
ions oft
he accused.
Mot
ive t
hough not di
rect
lyr
elev
ant t
o
est
abl
i
sht
hecr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
,becomesan
i
mpor
tant consi
der
ati
on f
or f
ixi
ng t
he
quant
um ofpuni
shment
.Forexampl
ewher
e
a per
son ki
l
ls anot
her under ser
ious
 526

pr
ovocat
ion,t
he pr
ovocat
ion i
fadequat
e
becomesami
ti
gat
ingci
rcumst
ance,whi
l
e
t
heot
herwhoki
l
lsf
ort
hesakeofmoney
,
t
hemot
iv ng maki
ebei ngmoneybyki
l
li
ng
peopl
e i
s a ser
ious aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ance and he shoul
d be puni
shed
mor
e sev
erel
yforhi
s soci
all
y danger
ous
mot
ive.

WeaponorMeans:
Aspert
he gener
alpr
inci
plef
ound i
n Ar
t
538/
1,oncet
hedeat
hofahumanbei
ngi
s
caused ‘
no mat
terwhatt
he weapon or
means used’t
he cr
ime of homi
ci
de i
s
compl
ete.Howev
er,
thedeadl
ynat
ureoft
he
 527

weaponandt
hecr
uelmeansusedt
ocause
t
hedeat
har
erel
evantt
obr
inghi
m underAr
t
539andmakehi
mli
abl
etot
heaggr
avat
ed
puni
shment
.Forexampl
e,wher
eacr
imi
nal
usesaswor
dandcausest
hedeat
hofhi
s
v
ict
im bycausi
ng sev
eralwoundson t
he
bodyandcut
shi
sbodyi
ntosev
eralpi
eces
t
ofaci
l
itat
ethepacki
ngoft
hedeadbodyf
or
easy di
sposal
, he sur
elyf
it
s i
nto t
he
descr
ipt
ion of except
ional
l
y cr
uel
,
abomi
nabl
e and danger
ous per
son and
shoul
d be puni
shabl
e f
or aggr
avat
ed
homi
cide.

 Puni
shmentf
orAggr
avat
edHomi
cide:
The Cr
imi
nal Code pr
escr
ibes di
ff
erent
sent
encesf
oraggr
avat
edhomi
ci
de.These
ar
e:
 528

1.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
if
eordeat
h,
assuggest
edbyAr
t539/
1.Thi
spr
ovi
si
on
gi
ves di
scr
eti
on f
ort
he j
udge t
o choose
bet
weenl
i
feanddeat
hoft
hecr
imi
nal
.Thi
s
i
sav
eryhi
ghr
esponsi
bil
i
tyont
hej
udget
hat
i
sto beexer
cised wi
th a gr
eatcar
eand
caut
ion. Thi
s means t
hat ev
en af
ter
est
abl
i
shi
ng t
hecaset
o becl
ear
lyf
all
i
ng
under t
he aggr
avat
ed homi
ci
de t
he
puni
shment may v
ary f
rom l
i
fe
i
mpr
isonmentt
odeat
h.Thi
shast
odowi
th
t
hef
undament
alr
ight
soft
heconv
ict
.The
one who get
sthe sent
ence ofr
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentf
orl
i
feappar
ent
lyl
ooseshi
s
l
i
ber
tyf
ort
her
estofhi
sli
febuthest
il
lhas
l
i
fe…andt
her
emaybeahopef
orv
ari
ati
onof
hi
ssent
ence,
acondi
ti
onalr
eleasebywayof
pr
obat
ion,
soonandsof
ort
h.Buti
ncaseof
 529

t
heconv
ictwhoi
ssent
encedt
odeat
h…i
tis
af
inalandi
rr
evocabl
e.Ther
efor
e,t
hej
udge
has t
o be ext
remel
y car
eful and gi
ve
suf
fi
cientr
easoni
ng f
orawar
ding a deat
h
sent
enceundert
hispr
ovi
sion.

2.A mandat
orydeat
hsent
ence,underAr
t
539/
2.Wher
ethecr
imi
nal
,whi
l
eser
vinga
sent
enceofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
i
fe,
hascommi
tt
edanaggr
avat
edhomi
ci
de,t
he
onl
ysent
ence pr
escr
ibed byt
he Code i
s
‘
deat
h’.Theonl
yrequi
rementundert
hissub-
ar
ti
clei
sthatt
hehomi
cidemustbepr
oved
i
nter
ms ofAr
t539/
1.The f
actt
hatt
he
sent
enceofi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
i
fehadno
ef
fecton hi
s behav
iourand i
sther
efor
e
bey
ond r
efor
mat
ion seems t
o be t
he
j
ust
if
icat
ion f
or t
his mandat
ory deat
h
 530

sent
ence.

3.
2.2. Ext
enuat
edHomi
cide:Ar
t541

Thesecondt
ypeofi
ntent
ionalhomi
ci
dei
s
‘
ext
enuat
edhomi
cide’
.Wi
thi
nthemeani
ng
of Ar
t541 t
he f
oll
owi
ng ci
rcumst
ances
maket
hehomi
cideanext
enuat
edone:
Causi hi
ngdeat nt
ent
ional
l
ybyexceedi
ng
t
hel
i
mit
sofnecessi
ty(
Art75)
,or
Causi hi
ngdeat nt
ent
ional
l
ybyexceedi
ng
t
hel
i
mit
sofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ence(
Art78)
,or
Causi h i
ng deat ntent
ional
l
y f
oll
owi
ng
gr
osspr
ovocat
ion,
or
Causi h i
ng deat ntent
ional
l
y under t
he
shockofsur
pri
se,
or
3. Causi h i
ng deat ntent
ional
l
y under t
he
i
nfl
uence of v
iol
ent emot
ion or i
ntense
 531

passi
ont
hati
s:
a.
madeunder
standabl
eand
b.
in some degr
ee excusabl
e by t
he
ci
rcumst
ances

1.
Homi
cide i
n Excess ofnNcessi
ty:Ar
t
541/
1
Necessi
tyi
sasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chaper
soni
s
f
acedwi
thachoi
cebet
weent
wounpl
easant
al
ter
nat
ives,onei
nvol
vi
nghi
scommi
tt
inga
br
eachoft
hel
ett
eroft
hecr
imi
nall
aw and
t
heot
hersomeev
ilt
ohi
msel
forot
her
s.
Essent
ialCondi
ti
ons f
ort
he Def
ence of
Necessi
ty:
A l
egalr
ightoft
heper
sonper
for
mingt
he
actora t
hir
d par
tyshoul
d hav
e been i
n
danger
,
The actshoul
d hav
e been per
for
med t
o
 532

pr
otectsuchr
ight
,
Thesai
ddangershoul
dhav
ebeen‘
i
mmi
nent
andser
ious’
,
Thedangercoul
dnothav
ebeenot
her
wise
av
ert
ed.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
I
nagr
eatf
ie,A,pul
r l
sdownhousesi
nor
der
t
o pr
eventt
hef
ir
efr
om spr
eadi
ng t
othe
ot
herhousesi
nthev
ici
nit
y.Hedoest
his
wi
tht
hei
ntent
ioni
ngoodf
ait
hofsav
ing
humanl
i
feorpr
oper
ty.Her
e,i
fitbef
ound
t
hatt
hehar
mtobepr
event
edwasofsucha
nat
ureandsoi
mmi
nentast
ojust
iyA’
f sact
,
Ai
snotgui
l
tyofanycr
ime.

oExcept
ion:
 533

Ar
t 75 second par
agr
aph say
sthat no
def
enceshal
lbegi
vent
o per
sonshav
ing
speci
alpr
ofessi
onaldut
ytopr
otectl
i
feor
heal
th,i
fthey per
for
m act
sin si
mil
ar
condi
ti
onst
hatr
esul
tini
njur
ies.I
tappear
s
t
hatast
heyar
esupposedt
opossesspeci
al
ski
l
lst
osav
epeopl
efr
om suchdanger
ous
si
tuat
ionst
hei
ract
sshoul
dnotbr
ingabout
i
njur
ies!Thear
ti
clepr
ovi
desf
orr
educt
ionof
puni
shment wi
thout r
est
ri
cti
on,i
n such
cases.Howev
er,t
heexcept
ionseemst
obe
asor
tofr
edundancyi
nthel
i
ghtofAr
t69
whi
ch deal
s wi
th t
he act
s done by
pr
ofessi
onal
s.
Necessi
tyexcusest
hedoi
ngofanev
ilso
t
hatgoodmayr
esul
t.I
tper
mit
sthei
nfl
i
cti
on
ofal
esserev
ili
nor
dert
opr
eventagr
eat
er
ev
il
.Iti
sint
endedt
ogi
vel
egi
sl
ati
vesanct
ion
 534

t
othepr
inci
plet
hatwher
eonasuddenand
ext
remeemer
gency
,oneorot
heroft
het
wo
ev
il
sisi
nev
itabl
eiti
slawf
ulso t
o di
rect
ev
ent
sthatt
hesmal
l
eroneshal
loccur
.Thi
s
i
sknownast
hedoct
rneofchoi
i ceofevi
l
sin
Engl
i
shl
aw.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:A,
thecapt
ainofast
eam v
essel
,
suddenl
yandwi
thoutanyf
aul
tornegl
i
gence
onhi
spar
t,f
indshi
msel
finaposi
ti
ont
hat
,
bef
ore he can st
op hi
svessel
,he must
i
nev
itabl
yr ,B,wi
undownaboat th20or30
passenger
sonboar
dunl
esshechangest
he
cour
seofhi
svessel
,andt
hat
,bychangi
ng
hi
scour
se he musti
ncurr
iskofr
unni
ng
downaboatC wi
thonl
y2passenger
son
boar
d,whi
chhemaypossi
blycl
ear
.Her
e,i
f
A al
ter
shi
scour
sewi
thoutanyi
ntent
iont
o
 535

r heboatCandi
undownt ngoodf
ait
hfort
he
pur
pose av
oidi
ng t
he danger t
o t
he
passenger
si heboatB,hei
nt snotgui
l
tyof
acr
ime,
thoughhemayr heboatC
undownt
bydoi
nganactwhi
chheknewwasl
i
kel
yto
causet
hatef
fect
,ifi
tbef
oundasamat
ter
off
actt
hatt
hedangerwhi
chhei
ntendedt
o
av
oidwassuchast
oexcusehi
mini
ncur
ri
ng
t
her
iskofr
unni heboatC.
ngdownt

ExcessofNecessi
ty:
Excessofnecessi
tyexi
stsi
nthr
eecasesas
pr
ovi
ded underar
ti
cle 76 oft
he Cr
imi
nal
Code,
Thesear
e:

Fi
rst
,excessofnecessi
tyexi
stswhena
def
endantwhoi
srequi
redt
oabandonhi
s
r
ighti
nfl
i
ctshar
m onanot
herper
son.I
nthi
s
 536

case, t
he doi
ng of har
m becomes
unnecessar
y.Whet
heraper
sonshoul
dhav
e
abandoned hi
s r
ight or not i
s t
o be
det
ermi
ned by t
aki
ng i
nto account t
he
ci
rcumst
ances of t
he case. The
abandonmentoft
hel
egalr
ighti
srequi
red
whent
het
hreat
enedhar
mtot
her
ightoft
he
per
soni
ndangeri
slesst
hant
hehar
mthat
maybecausedbyt
hepr
otect
iveact
.

Secondl
y,excessofnecessi
tyexi
stswhen
t
heaccusedexceedswhati
snecessar
yto
av
oidaser
iousandi
mmi
nentdanger
.Int
his
case,t
heaccuseduseshar
mfulmeanst
o
pr
otect l
egal r
ight
sthat he coul
d not
r
easonabl
yber
equi
redt
oabandon.Thus,i
f
af
ir
est
art
sonFar
ah’
scar
,hei
snotj
ust
if
ied
i
nki
l
li
ngGul
edwhor
efusedt
ogi
veFar
ah
 537

f
ir
eext
ingui
sherbecausear
easonabl
eman
coul
dbeexpect
edt
olethi
scarbur
nrat
her
t
hant
oki
l
lsomeonei
nanef
for
ttosav
eit
.

Fi
nal
l
y,excessofnecessi
tyexi
stswher
e
t
hedoer
,byhi
sownf
aul
t,f
indshi
msel
fina
si
tuat
ion wher
e he cannotgetoutofi
t
ot
her
wiset
hanbycommi
tt
ingacr
ime.For
exampl
e,Adenset
sfi
ret
ohi
sownhouset
o
def
raudi
nsur
ancecompany
.Adenhasno
def
ense of necessi
tyi
f he br
eaks i
nto
Far
ah’
s house i
n sear
chi
ng f
or f
ir
e
ext
ingui
sheri
nor
dert
o sav
eachi
l
dwho
unexpect
edl
yent
ered t
he house f
rom t
he
back door
. Whi
l
e gr
abbi
ng t
he f
ir
e
ext
ingui
sherAdenpushesof
fFar
ahandhe
f
all
sonar
ockanddi
es.Adencannott
ake
adv
ant
age ofhi
s own f
aul
tby pl
eadi
ng
 538

necessi
ty her
e. Howev
er, excess of
necessi
tydoesnotexi
stwhent
heper
son
f
orwhosebenef
itt
hedoeract
sisatf
aul
t,as
f
arast
hedoerhi
msel
fisnotatf
aul
t.I
nthe
abov
eexampl
eifAden’
sson,Gul
ed,br
eaks
i
ntoAden’
shouset
osav
ethel
i
feofachi
l
d
whom hesaw ent
eri
ngt
hehousef
rom t
he
backdooroft
hehouse,hepushesof
fhi
s
dadwhot
ri
est
ost
ophi
mfr
om ent
eri
ngt
he
bur
ninghouseandcauseshi
mtof
allona
r
ocknear
byandwhi
chcauseshi
sdeat
hby
headi
njur
y;Gul
edwi
l
lbej
ust
if
iedf
orhi
s
act
iont
akent
osav
ethechi
l
dandshal
lnot
bepuni
shedf
ort
hedeat
hofhi
sfat
heri
nas
muchashedi
dnotcr
eat
ethecal
ami
tyby
f
ir
enordi
dhei
ntendt
oki
l
lhi
sfat
her
.

Wher
evernecessi
tyf
orcesamant
odoan
 539

i
l
legalact
,hewi
l
lbej
ust
if
iedbecauseno
mancanbegui
l
tyofacr
imewi
thoutt
hewi
l
l
and i
ntent
ion oft
he mi
nd.Thus t
he l
aw
necessi
tydi
spenseswi
tht
het
hingswhi
ch
ot
her
wisear
enotl
awf
ult
obedone.Buti
tis
adef
encepr
ovi
dedt
hatt
hehar
m wasnot
ot
her
wiseav
oidabl
e.
St
ephenhasci
tedt
hecaseoft
wodr
owni
ng
men st
ruggl
i
ng f
ora pl
ank whi
ch coul
d
suppor
tonl
yone.I
fonepushest
heot
her
whoi
sthenki
l
ledbydr
owni
ng,
hewoul
dnot
begui
l
tybecausehel
efthi
m achanceof
pi
cki
nganot
herpl
ankandhedi
dsobecause
ofcompul
sionbynecessi
ty.Thi
scasehas
been di
scussed by many and di
ver
se
answer
sar
efound.Theaut
hor
it
iesappear
t
oconf
uset
hreesi
tuat
ions.
 540

Theyar
e:
Theact
orpushesof
faper
sonwhoi
s
al
readyont
hepl
ank;
or
Theact
ori
sont
hepl
ankandher
epul
ses
onewhoseekst
opushhi
m of
f,
Bot
hper
sonsr
eacht
hepl
ankatt
hesame
t
imeandonet
hrustt
heot
herasi
desot
hat
hemaysecur
ethepl
ankf
orhi
msel
f.
WhatSt
ephensuggest
edmaycov
eronl
ythe
l
att
ert
wosi
tuat
ionsandnott
hef
ir
stone.

Excessnecessi
tyi
snotadef
ense.Howev
er,
t
hef
actt
hataper
sonhascommi
tt
edcr
ime
i
nexcessnecessi
tyi
srel
evant
.Ithel
pst
he
accusedi
nmi
ti
gat
ionoft
hepenal
ty.Thus,
excessofnecessi
tyser
vesonl
yasapar
ti
al
def
enset
ocr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.Incaseswher
e
t
heexcessofnecessi
tyr
esul
tsi
ncausi
ngof
 541

deat
h,t
hecasef
all
sunderAr
t541(
a)f
or
ext
enuat
edhomi
cide.
2. Homi
cide I
n Excess of Legi
ti
mat
e
Def
ence:Ar
t541/
1
Ar
ti
cle78oft
heCr
imi
nalCodel
aysdown
cer
tai
nessent
ialcondi
ti
onst
obesat
isf
ied
bef
ore t
he accused cl
aims l
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ense.
Theaggr
essormustact
ual
l
yat
tackorabout
t
o at
tackt
heper
son who’
sconducti
sin
quest
ionoranyanot
herper
son,
Theat
tackmustbeunl
awf
ul,
Theat
tackcoul
dnothav
ebeenot
her
wise
av
ert
ed,
Thedef
ensei
slawf
ulonl
ywhent
hef
orce
usedt
orepelt
hehar
mispr
opor
ti
onat
eto
t
hehar
m expect
ed.
Anactdonei
nrepel
l
inganunl
awf
ulat
tack
 542

by pr
opor
ti
onat
e means i
s l
awf
ul and
t
her
efor
e, per
sons who act
ed under
l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ensear
enotl
i
abl
etocr
imi
nal
puni
shment
.Howev
er,when t
hei
ract
sdo
notf
allundert
heessent
ialcondi
ti
onsf
or
t
he exer
cise of t
he r
ight of l
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ence t
hey ar
e not j
ust
if
ied and ar
e
puni
shabl
e.Butt
hey ar
e ent
it
led t
o get
mi
ti
gat
ionofpuni
shment
.

ExcessofLegi
ti
mat
eDef
ence:Ar
t79
Ther
eisexcessi
nlegi
ti
mat
edef
ensewhen
t
hedef
enderexceedst
hel
i
mit
sofl
egi
ti
mat
e
def
ensei
nrepel
l
inganunl
awf
ulat
tackby
usi
ngdi
spr
opor
ti
onat
emeansorbydoi
ng
mor
ethan shoul
dreasonabl
ybe done t
o
av
ertt
hedanger
.
 543

A per
son i
s sai
d t
o hav
e used
di
spr
opor
ti
onat
e means when he causes
mor
ehar
mthanwhi
chher
easonabl
yshoul
d
hav
ecaused.Thus,anactofdef
ensei
snot
l
awf
ul when t
he def
ense i
s mani
fest
ly
excessi
ve.Fori
nst
ance,i
f Aden shoot
s
Bi
sharsoast
opr
eventhi
mfr
om abst
ract
ing
somepr
oper
tyofmi
norv
alue,saywat
ch,
t
hedef
ensei
smani
fest
lydi
spr
opor
ti
onat
e
because ev
en t
hough he i
s ent
it
led t
o
def
end hi
spr
oper
ty,he i
snotent
it
led t
o
def
endi
tbyt
aki
ngsuchext
rememeasur
e.

Aper
soni
sconsi
der
edt
ohav
egonebey
ond
whati
s necessar
ytor
epelt
he unl
awf
ul
at
tackwhenhecont
inuest
odohar
m ev
en
t
hough t
hisi
s notnecessar
y si
nce t
he
assaul
thas al
ready been r
epel
l
ed i
n an
 544

adequat
emanner
.Int
hiscase,
thedef
ensi
ve
f
orce cont
inues whi
l
ein ef
fectt
her
eis
not
hing t
o def
end or t
he at
tack i
s
suf
fi
cient
lyav
ert
ed.Forexampl
e,i
fAden
st
ri
kes Bushr
a af
ter r
epel
l
ing Bushr
a’s
at
tack by knocki
ng hi
m out
,the f
urt
her
beat
ing i
s unl
awf
ul because t
his goes
bey
ond whati
s necessar
ytor
epelt
he
unl
awf
ulat
tack.
I
fdeat
hiscausedbyexceedi
ngt
hel
i
mitof
l
egi
ti
mat
edef
ense,aper
sonwhocoul
dthe
deat
hisl
i
abl
eto puni
shmentunderAr
t
541(
a)f
orext
enuat
edhomi
cide.

3.
Homi
cide Fol
l
owi
ng Pr
ovocat
ion: Ar
t
541/
2
Undert
heCr
imi
nalCode,pr
ovocat
ioni
san
ext
enuat
ing ci
rcumst
ance al
l
egi
ng a t
otal
 545

l
ossofcont
rolasar
esponset
oanot
her
's
pr
ovocat
ive conductsuf
fi
ci
entt
o conv
ert
what woul
d ot
her
wise hav
e been an
aggr
avat
ed homi
cide i
nto ext
enuat
ing
homi
cide.

Pr
ovocat
ioni
ssomeact
,orser
iesofact
s,
donebyt
hedeadmant
otheaccused,
whi
ch
woul
dcausei
nanyr
easonabl
eper
son,and
act
ual
l
ycausesi
ntheaccused,asudden
andt
empor
aryl
ossofsel
f-
cont
rol
,render
ing
t
heaccused so subj
ectt
o passi
on ast
o
makehi
m orherf
ort
hemomentnotmast
er
ofhi
smi
nd.
Gener
all
y,t
he def
ence i
s cont
rov
ersi
al
becausei
tappear
stoenabl
edef
endant
sto
r
ecei
vemor
eleni
entt
reat
mentbecauset
hey
al
l
owedt
hemsel
vest
obepr
ovoked.Judgi
ng
 546

whet
her an i
ndi
vi
dual shoul
d be hel
d
r
esponsi
blef
orhi
sact
ionsdependsonan
assessmentofhi
scul
pabi
l
ity
.Thi
sisusual
l
y
t
est
edbyr
efer
encet
oar
easonabl
eper
son:
t
hati
s,auni
ver
salst
andar
dto det
ermi
ne
whet
heranor
dinar
yper
sonwoul
dhav
ebeen
pr
ovokedand,i
fso,woul
dhav
edoneast
he
def
endantdi
d.Thus,i
fthemaj
ori
tyv
iew of
soci
al behav
ior woul
d be t
hat
, when
pr
ovoked,
itwoul
dbeaccept
abl
etor
espond
v
erbal
l
yand,
ift
hepr
ovocat
ionper
sist
s,t
hen
t
owal
kaway
,thatwoul
dsett
het
hreshol
d
f
ort
hedef
ense.
But
,inAust
ral
i
a,Canadaand t
heUK,t
he
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween t
he def
ences of
pr
ovocat
ionand sel
f-
def
ensehasbecome
par
ti
cul
arl
ycont
ent
iousi
ncaseswher
eone
par
tnerorf
ormerpar
tnerki
l
lst
heot
her
.On
 547

t
heav
ail
abl
eev
idencef
rom cour
trecor
ds,
cr
it
icsoft
hecur
rentl
awshav
eident
if
ieda
genderbi
as so t
hatmen who ki
l
lthei
r
f
ormerwi
vesorgi
rl
fr
iendsf
orbr
eaki
ngof
f
t
her
elat
ionshi
phav
efoundi
teasyt
ocl
aim
pr
ovocat
ionwhencompar
edt
o womeni
n
abusi
ver
elat
ionshi
pswhoki
l
lthei
rabuser
andt
henf
indi
tdi
ff
icul
ttouset
hei
rhi
stor
y
of abuse as sel
f-
def
ence (
see bat
ter
ed
womansy
ndr
ome)
.

Phi
lCl
ear
y has been t
he mostpubl
i
cly
v
isi
blecampai
gneront
hisi
ssuei
nAust
ral
i
a.
Mr
.Cl
ear
y'
s si
ster was mur
der
ed by a
f
ormer par
tner who t
hen cl
aimed
pr
ovocat
ion,ser
vingl
esst
hanf
oury
ear
sin
j
ail(
Stev 1994)Hat
eTomsen( red,Mur
der&
Mal
e Honour
:Gay Homoci
des and t
he
 548

HomosexualPani
c Def
ence, Cr
imi
nol
ogy
Aust
ral
i
a, Nov
ember 1994)
. Anot
her
cont
rov
ersi
al f
act
or of t
his def
ence,
especi
all
yinUK l
aw,i
sthatt
hepr
ovoked
musthav
ecar
ri
edoutt
hei
racti
mmedi
atel
y
af
tert
he pr
ovocat
ion occur
red;ot
her
wise
knowasa"
suddenl
ossofsel
fcont
rol
".The
cont
rov
ersycomeswheni
tisasked"
whati
s
i
mmedi
ate"
.Thi
sar
gumentont
hegr
ounds
oft
imest
il
loccur
sandhascausedmany
def
endant
s,par
ti
cul
arl
ywomen,
tol
oset
hei
r
casesont
hisgr
ound,ast
heywi
l
lof
tenwai
t
(
inwi
fe-
bat
ter
ingcases)t
il
lthehusbandi
s
asl
eep, nRvAhl
Showni uwal
i
a1992.

Pr
ovocat
ionunderAr
t541/
b:
Pr
ovocat
ionasanext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ance
f
ort
hecr
imeofhomi
cideundert
hecl
ause
 549

(
b) of Ar
t 541 r
equi
res t
he f
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
condi
ti
ons:
1.
That t
her
e shoul
d hav
e been gr
oss
pr
ovocat
ion f
rom t
he deceased t
o t
he
accused,
2.
Suchpr
ovocat
ionshoul
dbesubj
ect
edt
he
accusedt
oanyoft
hesecondi
ti
ons:
a.
Shockorsur
pri
se,
or
b.
Viol
entemot
ion,
or
c.
Int
ensepassi
onmade
under
standabl
eandi
nsomedegr
ee
excusabl
ebyt
heci
rcumst
ances.

Pr
ovocat
ionshoul
dbe‘
Gross’
:
Ar
ti
cle 541/
b r
4equi
res no or
dinar
y
pr
ovocat
ionbuti
tshoul
dbeofsuchahi
gh
degr
ee as t
o be qual
i
fies as ‘
gross’
pr
ovocat
ion i
.
e.i
t must be capabl
e of
 550

subj
ect
ingi
tsv
ict
imt
oshockorsur
pri
seor
v
iol
entemot
ionori
ntensepassi
on.Al
lthese
expr
essi
ons can be under
stood by t
he
f
oll
owi
ngexpl
anat
ions.
Heatofpassi
on:
Heatofpassi
on r
efer
stor
age,t
err
or,or
f
uri
oushat
red suddenl
yar
oused bysome
i
mmedi
ate pr
ovocat
ion, usual
l
y anot
her
per
son’
s wor
ds or act
ions. The t
erms
‘
sudden heatofpassi
on’
,‘sudden heat
’,
‘
sudden passi
on’
,‘hot bl Lat
ood’( .fur
or
br
evi
s)al
soar
eusedt
oindi
cat
ethi
sst
ateof
mi
nd.AtCommonl
aw,t
heheatofpassi
on
coul
dser
veasami
ti
gat
ingci
rcumst
ancei
n
amur
dercaset
hatwoul
dreducet
hechar
ge
t
omansl
aught
er.

Toconst
“ it
utet
heheatofpassi
oni
nthi
s
 551

r
equi
rementi
tis notnecessar
yfort
he
passi
ont
o beso ext
remet
hatt
hesl
ayer
doesnotknowwhathei
sdoi
ngatt
het
ime;
buti
tmustbe so ext
reme t
hatf
ort
he
momenthi
s act
ion i
s bei
ng di
rect
ed by
passi
on r
athert
han byr
eason.
”(
Rol
l
in M.
Per
kins&Ronal
dN.Boy
ce,
Cri
minalLaw,
99,
3rded.1982)
.

CoolBl
ood:
Ki
l
li
ng i
n‘Coolst
ate ofbl
ood’or‘
col
d
bl
ooded mur
der
’ i
mpl
i
es t
hat t
he
def
endant
’s emot
ion was noti
n such an
exci
tedst
atet
hati
tint
erf
eredwi
thhi
sorher
f
acul
ti
esandr
eason.

Cool
ingTi
me:
I
tist
het
imet
orecov
ercoolbl
ood af
ter
 552

gr
eatexci
tement
,st
ress,
orpr
ovocat
ions,
so
t
hatonei
sconsi
der
edabl
etocont
empl
ate,
compr
ehend,andactwi
thr
efer
encet
othe
consequencest
hatar
eli
kel
ytof
oll One
ow.“
who cont
rol
s hi
stempert
ime af
tert
ime,
f
oll
owi
ngr
epeat
edact
sofpr
ovocat
ion,may
havehi
semot
ionsobot
tl
ed-
upt
hatt
hef
inal
r
esul
tisanemot
ionalexpl
osi
on…I
nsucha
case‘
thecool
i
ng t
ime’begi
nst
orunnot
f
rom t
he ear
li
eract
s,butf
rom t
he ‘
l
ast
st
raw’
.…Aswast
heposi
ti
oni
nregar
dtot
he
adequacy of pr
ovocat
ion,so t
he ear
ly
hol
dingwast
hecool
i
ngt
imewasamat
ter
ofl
aw f
ort
hecour
t.
”(
Rol
l
in M.Per
kins&
Ronal
dN.Boy
ce,Cr
i nalLaw 100,3rd ed.
mi
1982)
I
ll
ust
rat
iveCase:K.M.Nanav
athiv
s.St
ate
ofMahar
asht
ra,
A.I
.R.1952S.
C.605
 553

I
nthi
s Case Mr
.Nanav
athiwas a nav
al
of
fi
cerandt
hus,usedt
ogoont
heseaf
or
mont
hsonhi
sdut
y.I
nhi
sabsencehi
swi
fe
Sy
lvi
adev
elopedani
l
li
citi
nti
macywi
thone
oft
hei
rfami
l
yfr
iendsMr
.Pr
em Ahuj
a.Af
ter
aper
iodoft
imesheconf
essedt
hemat
tert
o
herhusband.Herconf
essi
on t
o Nanv
athi
wasmadeatabout2p.
m.i
ntheaf
ter
noon
t
hatshehadt
hisr
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
heot
her
man.Nanav
athil
i
stenedt
othewhol
est
ory
si
l
ent
ly. Ther
eaf
ter
, he t
ook hi
s t
hree
chi
l
drenanddr
oppedt
hem ataCi
nemaHal
l
andwentt
ohi
sof
fi
ceandbor
rowedsome
car
tri
dgesonsomef
alsepr
etext
,loadedhi
s
pi
stoland wentt
othe f
latofhi
s wi
fe’
s
par
amouratabout4.30 p.
m.He went
st
rai
ghti
ntot
hebedr
oom ofPr
em Ahuj
aand
shothi
m deadaf
teranar
gument
.
 554

On hi
str
ialNanav
athipl
eaded gr
ave and
suddenpr
ovocat
ioni
nhi
sdef
ence.Hecoul
d
notsucceedi
nhi
spl
eabecauset
heCour
ts
sai
dthat
,ther
ewassuf
fi
cientt
imet
ocool
downbet
weent
hepr
ovocat
iongi
venbyhi
s
wi
fe’
sconf
essi
onandt
heactofshoot
ing
t
he v
ict
im.The way he wentaboutby
pl
anni
ngt
odr
ophi
schi
l
drenatt
heCi
nema
andwentt
ofet
chhi
sgunet
c.showst
hathe
was oper
ati
ng wi
th suf
fi
cientdegr
ee of
cal
cul
ati
on.

TheCour
tlai
ddownt
hef
oll
owi
nggui
del
i
nes
f
or det
ermi
ning t
he pr
esence v
ali
d
pr
ovocat
ion:
 Thet
estofgr
aveandsuddenpr
ovocat
ion
i
s,whet
herar
easonabl
eman,bel
ongi
ngt
o
 555

t
hesamecl
assofsoci
etyast
heaccused,
pl
acedi
nthesi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cht
heaccused
waspl
acedwoul
dbesopr
ovokedast
olose
hi
ssel
f-
cont
rol
.
 I
n cer
tai
n ci
rcumst
ances wor
ds and
gest
uresmayal
socausegr
aveandsudden
pr
ovocat
ion.
 The ment
albackgr
ound cr
eat
ed byt
he
pr
evi
ousactoft
hev
ict
im maybet
akeni
nto
consi
der
ati
on i
n ascer
tai
ning whet
hert
he
subsequentactcausedgr
aveandsudden
pr
ovocat
ion,
forcommi
tt
ingt
heof
fence.
 Thef
atalbl
owshoul
dbecl
ear
lyt
racedt
o
t
hei
nfl
uenceofpassi
onar
isi
ngf
rom t
hat
pr
ovocat
ionandnotaf
tert
hepassi
onhad
cool
eddownbyl
apseoft
imeorot
her
wise
bygi
vi
ngr
oom andscopef
orpr
emedi
tat
ion
andcal
cul
ati
on.
 556

Cool
ing Down/
Boi
li
ng Up-
Bat
ter
ed
Women'
sSy
ndr
ome:
Ani
ssuewhi
chhasr
ecei
vedmuchat
tent
ion
i
nthe r
eal
m ofdomest
icv
iol
ence -
-and
par
ti
cul
arl
yinsi
tuat
ionswher
ewomenki
l
l
t
hei
r abuser
s -
-is bat
ter
ed women'
s
syndr
ome(
BWS)
,whi
chi
sasubcat
egor
yof
post
-t
raumat
ic st
ress di
sor
der (
PTSD)
.
Accor
dingt
oDr
.Lenor
eE.
A.Wal
ker
,Ed.
D.,
bat
ter
edwomen'
ssy
ndr
omei
s:
"
Agr
oupofusual
l
ytr
ansi
entpsy
chol
ogi
cal
sy
mpt
omst
hatar
efr
equent
lyobser
vedi
na
par
ti
cul
arr
ecogni
zabl
e pat
ter
nin women
whor
epor
thav
ingbeenphy
sical
l
y,sexual
l
y,
and/
orser
iousl
ypsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
yabusedby
t
hei
rmal
edomest
icpar
tner
s."

Dev
elopment of Bat
ter
ed Women'
s
 557

Sy
ndr
ome:
BWS dev
elops as a bat
ter
ing r
elat
ionshi
p
unf
olds. Thi
sist
ypi
cal
l
ya t
hree-
stage
pr
ocesst
hati
ncl
udes:
1.Smal
linci
dent
s of v
erbaland mi
nor
phy
sicalabuset
hatbegi
ninf
requent
lybut
i
ncr
easei
nfr
equency
;
2.Act
ualacut
ebat
ter
ingt
hatof
tencauses
ser
iousi
njur
yneedi
ngmedi
cal
att
ent
ion;
and
3.Acy
clewher
etheabuseri
scont
ri
tedt
o
t
he abused and ul
ti
mat
elyt
eaches t
he
abused t
o be submi
ssi
ve and passi
ve
t
owar
dfur
therabuse.

Recogni
zingBat
ter
edWomen'
sSy
ndr
ome:
Awomandi
spl
ayi
ngsy
mpt
omsofBWSmay
beapat
het
ict
owar
dsubj
ect
soract
ivi
ti
esf
or
whi
chsheusedt
obeent
husi
ast
ic,shemay
 558

becomei
nvol
vedi
ndr
ugoral
coholabuse,
and she mayal
so exper
ience compl
etel
y
di
ff
erentat
ti
tudesandemot
ionst
owar
dher
spouset
hanshedi
dbef
oret
heabusebegan.
Thei
mpor
tancei
nknowi
ngaboutBWSl
i
es
i
n r
ecogni
zi
ng pr
edi
ctabl
e,psy
chol
ogi
cal
ef
fect
scausedbydomest
icv
iol
ence

.
Bat
ter
edWomen'
sSy
ndr
omeandt
heLaw:
BWS i
s now r
ecogni
zed i
nlegi
sl
ati
on by
many st
ates and i
s consi
der
ed when
def
endi
ng bat
ter
ed wi
ves who ki
l
lthei
r
spouses.BWSi
snotusedasadef
ensebut
mor
e asan i
ndi
cat
ion oft
he def
endant
'
s
st
ate of mi
nd or as a mi
ti
gat
ing
ci
rcumst
ance. A r
easonabl
e f
ear of
 559

i
mmi
nentdanger(
especi
all
yused i
n sel
f-
def
ense)canbepr
ovenusi
ngBWS.

Thei
ssueofpr
ovocat
ioni
sapur
equest
ion
off
actandhast
obepr
ovedbysubj
ect
ive
t
est
,i.
e.t
heev
idencemustshow t
hatt
he
def
endantact
ual
l
ylosthi
ssel
f-
cont
rol
.InR
vDuf
fy(
1949)1AER932,
Dev
li
nJ.sai
dthat

Pr
ovocat
ioni
ssomeact
,orser
iesofact
s,
donebyt
hedeadmant
otheaccused,
whi
ch
woul
dcausei
nanyr
easonabl
eper
son,and
act
ual
l
ycausesi
ntheaccused,asudden
andt
empor
aryl
ossofsel
f-
cont
rol
,render
ing
t
heaccused so subj
ectt
o passi
on ast
o
makehi
m orherf
ort
hemomentnotmast
er
ofhi
smi
nd.
 560

Undernor
malci
rcumst
ances,t
her
esponse
t
othepr
ovocat
ionwi
l
lbeal
mosti
mmedi
ate
r
etal
i
ati
on.I
fther
eisa"
cool
i
ng-
off
"per
iod,
t
hecour
twi
l
lfi
ndt
hatt
heaccusedshoul
d
hav
e r
egai
ned cont
rol
, maki
ng al
l
subsequent act
ions i
ntent
ional and
t
her
efor
emur
der
.InRvI
brams&Gr
egor
y
(
1981)74Cr
.App.R.154t
hedef
endant
s
had been t
err
ori
zed and bul
l
ied by t
he
deceasedov
eraper
iodoft
imesodev
iseda
pl
ant
oat
tackhi
m.Ther
ewasnoev
idence
ofa sudden and t
empor
aryl
oss ofsel
f-
cont
rolasr
equi
redbyDuf
fy.Event
heper
iod
of t
ime t
ofet
ch a weapon shoul
d be
suf
fi
cientt
ocoolof
f nRvThor
.I nton(
1992)
1 AER 306 a woman suf
fer
ing f
rom
"
bat
ter
ed woman sy
ndr
ome"wentt
othe
ki
tchen,t
ookandshar
penedacar
vingkni
fe,
 561

and r
etur
ned t
o st
ab herhusband.The
appealr
efer
redt
os3whi
chr
equi
rest
hej
ury
t
ohav
eregar
dto"
ever
ythi
ngbot
hsai
dand
doneaccor
dingt
otheef
fectwhi
chi
nthei
r
opi
nioni
twoul
dhav
eonar
easonabl
eman"
.
The appel
l
ant ar
gued t
hat i
nst
ead of
consi
der
ing t
hef
inalpr
ovocat
ion,t
hej
ury
shoul
dhav
econsi
der
edt
heev
ent
sov
ert
he
y
ear
sleadi
ngupt
otheki
l
li
ng.Bel
dam LJ.
r
eject
edt
his,
say
ing:
I
nev
erysuchcaset
hequest
ionf
ort
hej
ury
i
swhet
heratt
hemomentt
hef
atalbl
owwas
st
ruckedt
heaccusedhadbeendepr
ivedf
or
t
hat moment of t
he sel
f-
cont
rol whi
ch
pr
evi
ousl
y he orshe had been abl
eto
exer
cise.

n R vThor
Buti nton(
No2)(
1996)2AER
 562

1023 af
ter consi
der
ing new medi
cal
ev
idence,a r
etr
ialwas or
der
ed and t
he
def
endantwasconv
ict
edofmansl
aught
er
ont
hegr
oundofdi
mini
shedr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.
Si
mil
arl
y n R vAhl
,i uwal
iah (
1992)4AER
889 ar
etr
ialwasor
der
ed.Thedef
endant
hadpour
edpet
rolov
erherhusbandandset
i
tal
i
ght
,causi
ngbur
nsf
rom whi
chhedi
ed.
When t
he def
ence of di
mini
shed
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty on t
he gr
ound of"
bat
ter
ed
woman sy
ndr
ome" was put
, she was
conv
ict
ed of mansl
aught
er n R v
. I
Humphr
eys (
1995) 4 AER 1008, t
he
def
endantf
inal
l
ylostsel
f-
cont
rolaf
tery
ear
s
ofabuse and st
abbed herpar
tner
.She
pl
eadedt
hatt
hef
inalwor
dshadbeent
he
st
raw t
hatbr
oke t
he camel
'
s back.The
conv
ict
ion f
or mur
der was hel
d unsaf
e
 563

becauset
heaccused'
spsy
chi
atr
iccondi
ti
on
st
emmi
ngf
rom t
heabuseshoul
dhav
ebeen
at
tri
but
ed t
other
easonabl
eper
son when
t
hej
uryconsi
der
edt
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
he
obj
ect
ivet
est
.

RvAhl
uwal
iahbecameal
andmar
kcasei
n
whi
cht
heexpr
essi
onpr
ovocat
ionwasgi
ven
anot
herdi
mensi
on by i
nter
pret
ati
on.The
exper
tsopi
nedt
hat
,pr
ovocat
ion,att
imes,
i
nst
eadofcool
i
ngdownwi
tht
hepassageof
t
imemaymaket
hev
ict
im boi
lupandf
inal
l
y
l
oosehi
s/hersel
fcont
rol
.Medi
calexper
ts
obser
ved t
hatt
hisi
s possi
ble especi
all
y
when a per
son has been a v
ict
im of
pr
olongedphy
sical
andment
alabuse.

Adequat
ePr
ovocat
ion:
 564

 
Thi
s i
s t
he i
dea of ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances. Onl
y cer
tai
n ki
nds of
ci
rcumst
ances wi
l
lreduce t
he cr
ime i
n
t
erms ofdegr
ee.The r
easonabl
e per
son
st
andar
disusedt
odet
ermi
nei
fther
e'sa
r
easonabl
e bel
i
efi
n bei
ng ofdangerof
l
osi
ng one'
sli
fe orsuf
fer
ing gr
eatbodi
l
y
har
m.Thel
awont
hispoi
ntal
sor
ecogni
zes
t
hef
rai
l
tyofhumannat
ure(
react
ingwi
thout
t
hinki
ng)
.The f
oll
owi
ng t
abl
e mi
ght be
i
nst
ruct
ivebygi
vi
ngexampl
esofadequat
e
pr
ovocat
ion:
Adequat
e: I
nadequat
e:
ser
iousf
ight
s scuf
fl
es
sudden passi
on wi
th
sl
appi
ngorshov
ing
noti
metocool of
f
pist
olwhi
ppi
ng,fi
stsin
insul
ti
nggest
ures
face,st
agger
ing body
 565

bl
ows
wai
vi
ngagunar
ound abusi
vewor
ds
Thel
astexampl
eofwai
vi
ngagunar
ound
mi
ghtbe i
nadequat
e al
so.I
tdepends on
si
tuat
ion.

Puni
shmentf
orExt
enuat
edHomi
cide:
Thepenal
tyundert
hispr
ovi
si
oni
ssi
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ngf
ivey
ear
s.

3.
2.3. Or
dinar
yHomi
cide:Ar
t.540

Or
dinar
y homi
cide i
sthe t
hir
dty
pe of
i
ntent
ionalhomi
cide under t
he Cr
imi
nal
Code ofFDRE 2004.Ar
ti
cl
e 540 doesn’
t
def
ine‘
ordi
nar
yhomi
cide’
,butsi
mpl
ysay
s
t
hati
tref
erst
othosecasest
hatf
allnei
ther
undert
hecat
egor
yofaggr
avat
inghomi
ci
de
 566

wi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t539norundert
he
cat
egor
yofex
tenuat
inghomi
ci
deaspert
he
pr
ovi
sionsofAr
t541 cr
imi
nal
sar
eto be
puni
shedascasesofor
dinar
yhomi
ci
de.

TheCour
thast
over
ycar
eful
l
yfol
l
ow t
he
r
uleofexcl
udi
ngt
hecasef
rom t
heambi
tof
Ar
ti
cles539and541i
nor
dert
obr
ingt
he
caseunderor
dinar
yhomi
cide.
Thef
oll
owi
ngi
mpor
tantgui
del
i
nescanbe
hel
pful
.

Excl
udi
ngt
hecasef
rom t
hescopeofAr
t.
539:Thepr
esenceofany
oneormor
eoft
he
aggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ancesl
i
stedunderAr
t.
539 i
tsel
fis notsuf
fi
cientt
o qual
i
fyt
he
ki
l
li
ngasaggr
avat
edhomi
cide.Butanysuch
ci
rcumst sshoul
ance/ dindi
cat
eorsuggest
 567

t
hatt
he cr
imi
nali
s except
ional
ly cr
uel
,
abomi
nabl
e or danger
ous per
son.
Ot
her
wisei
.e.i
fsuchel
ementi
sanyl
ess
ser
ioust
hanwhati
sdescr
ibedundert
his
ar
ti
cle,t
hecasei
sli
kel
ytof
allundert
he
scopeofor
dinar
yhomi
cideunderAr
t.
540.

 Excl
udi
ngt
hecasef
rom t
hescopeofAr
t.
541:Thi
smayar
isef
rom asi
tuat
ionwher
e
pr
ovocat
ion i
spl
eaded asan ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancebutt
hesamei
snoti
nface
pr
oved t
othe qual
i
tyr
equi
red byt
he Ar
t
541/
b.Thi
smeanst
hati
fthepr
ovocat
ion
cl
aimed i
s not ser
ious enough t
o be
descr
ibed as‘
gross’t
hedef
endanti
snot
ent
it
led t
o t
he benef
it of ext
enuat
ed
homi
cide.Such a case f
all
s under t
he
pur
viewofAr
t.
540.
 568

 Puni
shmentf
orOr
dinar
yHomi
cide:
Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
rom 5y
ear
s20
y
ear
s.

3.
2.4. Negl
igentHomi
cide:
Art
.543

Negl
igenthomi
cide i
s a char
ge br
ought
agai
nstpeopl
e,whobyi
nact
ional
l
owot
her
s
undert
hei
rcar
eorpr
esencei
ntent
ional
l
yto
di
e.Thi
sof
fensemost
lyconcer
nsi
tsel
fwi
th
t
hedeat
hofsmal
linf
ant
sorchi
l
dren,t
he
handi
capped,ort
heel
der
ly.Anexampl
eof
suchacasei
swhenanel
der
lyper
soni
s
al
l
owedt
oaccumul
atebedsor
es,
ast
heyar
e
nothel
ped outofa couch orbed f
ora
pr
olongedper
iodoft
imeanddi
easar
esul
t
 569

ofnecr
oti
cti
ssue.I
famor
eabl
eper
son,
of
tenasonordaught
er,wer
epr
esentor
expect
edt
obepr
esentdur
ingt
het
imewhen
t
he el
der
ly per
son was accumul
ati
ng
bedsor
es,t
hey may be f
ound l
i
abl
e of
negl
i
genthomi
cide,as t
hei
rinact
ion and
bl
atantdi
sregar
dforhumanl
i
fer
esul
tedi
n
t
hedeat
hofsomeoneundert
hei
rcar
e.

Negl
i
genthomi
cidegener
all
yonl
yappl
i
esi
f
apat
ter
nofnegl
i
gencer
esul
tedi
nthedeat
h
oft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Tur
ningone'
sbackona
chi
l
d whi
l
ehe/
shef
all
sint
o awel
l
,whi
l
e
t
ragi
c and a r
esul
t of a moment of
negl
i
gence,woul
dbeconsi
der
edahor
ri
ble
acci
dentandahar
dlesson,notnegl
i
gent
homi
cide.Thi
sof
fensei
sconsi
der
edl
ess
ser
ioust
hant
hatoft
hef
ir
stand second
 570

degr
eemur
der
,int
hesenset
hatsomeone
gui
l
tyoft
hisof
fense can expecta mor
e
l
eni
entsent
ence,of
tenwi
thi
mpr
isonment
t
imecompar
abl
etomansl
aught
er.

Wi
thi
nthe meani
ng ofAr
t543/
1 oft
he
Cr
imi
nalCode,a negl
i
gent homi
ci
de i
s
commi
tt
edwher
eaper
son:
1. Causest
hedeat
hofanot
her
,
2. Wi
thnegl
i
gence,i
.e.a st
ateofmi
ndt
hat
hasbeendef
inedunderAr
t59

Adver
tentnegl
i
gencei
sact
ingwi
thoutt
he
consci
ousnesst
hati
l
legalandmi
schi
evous
ef
fectwi
l
lfol
l
owbutwi
tht
hehopet
hatt
hey
wi
l
lnotandof
tenwi
tht
hebel
i
eft
hatt
he
act
orhas t
aken suf
fi
cientpr
ecaut
ions t
o
pr
event t
hei ng. I
r happeni nadver
tent
 571

negl
i
gence i
s act
ing wi
thout t
he
consci
ousness t
hat t
he i
l
legal and
mi
schi
evous ef
fect wi
l
lfol
l
ow, but i
n
ci
rcumst
anceswhi
ch show t
hatt
heact
or
hasnotexer
cisedt
hecaut
ionr
equi
redof
hi
m,and t
hati
fhe had woul
d hav
ethe
consci
ousnesst
hati
mput
abi
l
ityar
isesf
rom
t
he negl
ect of t
he ci
vi
c dut
y of
ci
rcumspect
ion.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Wher
e a chemi
st gi
ves expi
red dat
e
medi
cinet
oapat
ientandt
hepat
ientdi
es,
t
he chemi
stwoul
d be l
i
abl
eforcausi
ng
deat
hbynegl
i
gencebecausehehasf
ail
ed
t
o exer
cise due caut
ion t
o ascer
tai
n
whet
hert
he medi
cine t
hathe was gi
vi
ng
wasexpi
redornot
.
 572

RashDr
ivi
ng:
Sub-
art
icl
e (
2) i
mposes an enhanced
puni
shmenti
ncaseofnegl
i
genthomi
ci
de
commi
tt
edbypr
ofessi
onal
sli
kedoct
orsand
dr
iver
sorot
her
shav
ingapr
ofessi
onal
dut
y.
I
ncasesr
elat
ingt
orashdr
ivi
ngi
tist
hedut
y
oft
hedr
ivert
odr
ivehi
svehi
cl
eataspeed
whi
chwi
l
lnoti
mper
ilt
hesaf
etyofot
her
s
usi
ngt
hesamer
oad. I
nor
dert
ohol
da
dr
ivercr
imi
nal
l
yli
abl
eitmustbepr
ovedt
hat
acol
l
isi
onwasent
ir
elyoratl
eastmai
nlydue
t
orashnessornegl
i
genceont
hepar
toft
he
dr
iver
.Itwoul
dnotbesuf
fi
ci
enti
fitwas
onl
yfound t
hatt
he accused was dr
ivi
ng
v
ehi
cle ata v
ery hi
gh speed.A per
son
dr
ivi
ngacarhasadut
ytocont
rolt
hecar
,he
spr
i imaf
aci
egui
l
ty ofnegl
i
gencei
fthe
 573

v
ehi
clel
eav
est
her
oadanddashesi
ntoa
t
reeandi
tisf
ort
hedr
ivert
oexpl
aint
he
ci
rcumst
ancesunderwhi
cht
hecarhadl
eft
t
he r
oad. Those ci
rcumst
ances may be
bey
ondhi
scont
rol
,andmayexcul
pat
ehi
m,
buti
ntheabsenceofsuchci
rcumst
ances,
t
hef
actt
hatt
hecarl
eftt
her
oadi
sev
idence
ofnegl
i
genceont
hepar
toft
hedr
iver
.

Wher
eduet
ocol
l
isi
onofav
ehi
cl
einj
uryor
deat
his caused,i
tcannotbe t
aken f
or
gr
ant
ed t
hat t
he dr
iver of t
he v
ehi
cl
e
i
nvol
vedi
ntheacci
dentwasgui
l
tyoft
he
cr
ime.Ther
e may be except
ionalcases
wher
ether
uler
esi
psal
oqui
ter(
thet
hing
speaksf
ori
tsel
f)appl
i
es.Or
dinar
il
yiti
sfor
t
hepr
osecut
iont
oest
abl
i
sht
hegui
l
toft
he
accused bey
ond r
easonabl
e doubt
.Speed
 574

al
one i
s not t
he cr
it
eri
on f
or deci
ding
r
ashnessornegl
i
genceont
hepar
toft
he
dr
iver
.

 Puni
shmentf
orNegl
igentHomi
cide:
1.
Innor
mal
cases:Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentf
or
6mont
hsorf
inef
rom 2,
000Bi
rrt
o4,
000
Bi
rr
,when t
he case f
all
s undert
he sub-
ar
ti
cle(
1).Acaset
hatdoesnoti
nvol
vet
he
pr
ofessi
onal
sandwher
ethev
ict
imsar
enot
mor
ethanonei
tfal
l
sundert
hissub-ar
ti
cl
e.

I
n cases of Pr
ofessi
onal
s: Si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentf
or1y
eart
o5y
ear
sandf
ine
f
rom 3,
000 t
o 6,000 Bi
rr
, wher
ethe
negl
i
gent homi
cide i
s commi
tt
ed by a
per
sonsuchasadoct
orordr
iver
,whohasa
pr
ofessi
onalot
herdut
ytopr
otectt
hel
i
fe,
 575

heal
thorsaf
etyofanot
her
.

2.
In cases i
nvol
vi
ng sev
eral v
ict
ims:
Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
rom 5y
ear
sto15
y
ear
sandf
inef
rom 10,
000Bi
rrt
o15,000
Bi
rr
,int
hef
oll
owi
ngcases:

Wher
ethenegl
i
gentactoft
hecr
imi
nal
causest
hedeat
hift
woormor
eper
sons,
or

Wher
e t
he cr
imi
nal has del
i
ber
atel
y
i
nfr
inged expr
ess r
ules and r
egul
ati
ons
di
sregar
dingt
hatsuchconsequencesmay
f
oll
ow,
or
Wher
ethecr
imi
nalhasputhi
msel
fina
st
ateofi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tybyt
aki
ngdr
ugsor
al
cohol
.
 576

Deat
hCausedWi
thoutI
ntent
ionor
Knowl
edge:
The cr
ime ofhomi
cide pr
esupposes an
i
ntent
ionorknowl
edgeofl
i
kel
i
hoodofdeat
h.
I
n t
he absence of such i
ntent
ion or
knowl
edge t
he cr
ime commi
tt
ed may be
ei
ther‘
common wi
l
lfuli
njur
y’(
Art556)or
‘
grav
ewi
l
lfuli
njur
y’(
Art555)ast
hecase
maybe.Thesear
ethecasesofunexpect
ed
consequencesdur
ingt
hecommi
ssi
onofan
unl
awf
ulact
.Suchi
nst
ancesmaybeast
he
f
oll
owi
ng:

1.Wher
ethedeat
hisat
tri
but
edt
oani
njur
y
whi
ch t
he cr
imi
naldi
d notknow woul
d
endangerl
if
eorwoul
dbel
ikel
ytocause
deat
h,andwhi
chi
nnor
malcour
seoft
hings
woul
dnotpr
oducesuchconsequences.
 577

I
ll
ust
rat
ionone:
‘
A’al
and l
ord empl
oyed al er‘
abor B’t
o
wor
kinhi
sland.‘
B’wasnotwor
kingact
ivel
y
t
othesat
isf
act
ionof‘
A’.Di
ssat
isf
iedand
i
rr
it
atedbyt
hel
azymanneri ch‘
nwhi B’was
wor
king‘
A’wentupt
ohi
m andgav
ehi
ma
f ows.‘
ew bl B’compl
ainedofsev
erepai
nin
hi
sst
omachandt
othesur
prseof‘
i A’he
di
edev
ent
ual
l
y o‘
.Notknownt A’
,‘
B’wasi
n
f
actsuf
fer
ingf
rom di
seasedspl
een.I
nsuch
pat
ient
s ev
en smal
linj
uri
es can pr
oduce
ext
ensi
vebl
eedi
ngt
hatcanev
enki
l
lthem.
Thesmal
lbl
owsgi
venbyt
heaccusedonhi
s
v
ict
im caused r
upt
ure of t
he di
seased
spl
eenandt
hatr
esul
tedi
nthedeat
hoft
he
v
ict
i e,‘
m.Her A’cannotbehel
dli
abl
efor
ei
ther i
ntent
ional homi
cide or negl
i
gent
 578

homi
cide si
nce hi
s f
oresi
ght of
consequenceswasi
nnowaydi
rect
edt
othe
causi
ngofdeat
h.Ther
efor
e,heshoul
dbe
r
easonabl
y hel
d l
i
abl
e t
o what
ever he
i
ntendedt
odoi
.e.causi
ngcommonwi
l
lful
i
njur
y.

I
ll
ust
rat
iont
wo:
Al
ex pi
cked up an ar
gument wi
th a
shopkeeperKadi
rov
ert
he qual
i
ty ofan
ar
ti
cle he pur
chased f
rom hi
m. The
ar
gumentgotser
iousandAl
expi
ckedupa
st
ickl
yi
ng t
her
eand gav
eabl
ow ont
he
headofKadi
r.Thebl
owcausedani
njur
yon
hi
sscal
pwhi
chr
esul
tedi
npr
ofusebl
eedi
ng
t
hat became uncont
rol
l
abl
e. Kadi
r was
qui
ckl
ytaken t
o hospi
talbyAl
exhi
msel
f
wher
ehedi
ed.Thedoct
orsf
oundt
hatKadi
r
 579

wasahemophi
l
iac(
whosebl
ooddoesnot
cl
oteasi
l
ythatr
esul
tsi
nex
cessi
vel
ossof
bl
ood)andt
hat
’swhyhi
sbl
eedi
ngcoul
dnot
becont
rol
l
ed.Her
eint
hiscaseAl
excanbe
hel
dli
abl
eforcausi
nggr
avewi
l
lfuli
njur
ybut
cer
tai
nlynotf
oranyt
ypeofhomi
ci
desi
nce
abl
owont
heheadwoul
dnoti
nthenor
mal
cour
se oft
hings cause deat
h and Al
ex
nei
theri
ntendednorknewt
hathi
sactwoul
d
cause kadi
r’
s deat
h. Fr
om t
he
ci
rcumst
ances of t
he case we can
r
easonabl
yinf
ert
hathewant
edt
ogi
vekadi
r
abl
owwi
tht
hest
ickwhi
chcoul
datbestbe
expect
edt
ocauseagr
avewi
l
lfuli
njur
yto
t
hev
ict
im.

2.
Wher
eanuni
ntended consequencehad
been pr
oduced acci
dent
all
y dur
ing t
he
 580

commi
ssi
onofanot
herunl
awf
ulact
.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Al
emay
ehu and Cher
inetwer
e nei
ghbour
s
andwer
equar
ell
i
ngov
erani
ssueonadar
k
ni
ght
.When t
he ar
gumentgr
ew i
ntense
Al
emay
ehut
ookast
ickandai
medabl
owat
Cher
inet
.Suddenl
y,Cher
inet
’swi
fecamei
n
bet
weent
osav
eherhusbandf
rom t
hebl
ow.
Shewascar
ryi
ngat
womont
hol
dchi
l
din
herhands.Unf
ort
unat
elyandt
othesur
pri
se
ofAl
emay
ehut
hebl
owl
andedont
hechi
l
d’s
headcausi
ngi
tsdeat
himmedi
atel
y.Her
e,
Al
emay
ehucannotpossi
blybehel
dli
abl
efor
any t
ype ofhomi
cide ei
thernegl
i
gentor
i
ntent
ionalbecause had t
he bl
ow f
ellon
Cher
ineti
tcoul
dhav
ecausedonl
yani
njur
y
butnotdeat
h.Ther
efor
e,heshoul
dbehel
d
 581

l
i
abl
eforcausi
ngcommon/
orgr
avewi
l
lful
i
njur
yast
hiswaswhatwasi
nthei
ntent
ions
oft
he accused.I
tis di
ff
icul
tto at
tri
but
e
ev
en negl
i
gence t
o Al
emay
ehu si
nce t
he
i
nter
fer
ence ofCher
ini
t’
s wi
fe was t
otal
l
y
unexpect
edandi
twasadar
kni
ghtwhi
ch
madei
tdi
ff
icul
ttoseet
hingspr
oper
ly.

Homi
cide a Causi
ng Deat
h ofa Per
son
ot
hert
hant
hePer
sonWhoseDeat
hWas
I
ntended:
Wher
eanacti
sini
tsel
fcr
imi
nal
,thedoi
ng
oft
he acti
s a cr
ime i
rr
espect
ive oft
he
i
ndi
vi
dual
i
ty oft
he per
son har
med.I
tis
commonknowl
edget
hataman,
whohasan
unl
awf
ul and mal
i
cious i
ntent agai
nst
anot
herand,i
nat
tempt
ingt
ocar
ryi
tout
,
i
njur
esat
hir
dper
son,i
sgui
l
tyofwhatt
he
 582

l
awdeemsmal
i
ceagai
nstt
heper
soni
njur
ed
becauset
hecr
imi
nali
sdoi
nganunl
awf
ul
act
,andt
hatwhi
cht
hej
udgescal
l‘gener
al
mal
i
ce’
andt
hati
senough.

TheEngl
i
shdoct
ri
neof‘
tr
ansf
erofmal
i
ce’
ort
he‘
tr
ansmi
grat
ionofmot
ive’
ist
hebasi
s
oft
hispr
inci
ple.Her
eif‘
A’i
ntendst l‘
oki
l B’
butki
l
ls‘
C’whosedeat
hhenei
theri
ntended
norknowst
obel
i
kel
ytocause,
thei
ntent
ion
t
oki
l
l‘C’
isbyl
awat
tri
but
edt
ohi
m.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
f‘
I A’ai sshotat‘
mshi B’buti sses‘
tmi B’
ei
therbecause‘
B’movesoutoft
her
angeof
t
heshotorbecauset
heshotmi
ssest
he
mar
kandhi
ts‘
C’,
whet
herwi
thi
nsi
ghtorout
oft ght‘
hesi A’i
sdeemedt
ohav t‘
ehi C’wi
th
 583

t
hei
ntent
iont
oki
l
lhi
m.

Tr
ansf
err
edi
ntent
ionoccur
swhenani
njur
y
i
ntended f
or one f
all
s on anot
her
.The
doct
ri
ne or subj
ect t
o t
he f
oll
owi
ng
qual
i
ficat
ions:

1.Thehar
mthatf
oll
owsi
stobeoft
hesame
ki
nd.Ther
easoni
sthatot
her
wiset
oogr
eat
v
iol
encewoul
dbedonet
othedoct
ri
neof
mensr
eaandt
othewor
dingoft
hest
atut
e
underwhi
cht
hechar
gemade.Onecannot
becondemnedi smensr
fhi ear
elat
esone
cr
ime and act
us r
eus t
o di
ff
erentcr
ime
because t
hatwoul
d be t
o di
sregar
dthe
r
equi
rementofappr
opr
i emensr
at ea.
2.Si
ncet
hel
awoft
ransf
err
edmal
i
cedoesnot
di
spensewi
tht
heneedofpr
oofoft
heusual
 584

mensr
eai
tfol
l
owst
hatdef
encesi
nef
fect
t
ransf
err
edwi
tht
hemal
i
ce.Thus,
ther
eisno
gui
l
tifi
ntended f
orce l
awf
ul,unl
ess t
he
accusedwascr
imi
nal
l
yreckl
essornegl
i
gent
i
nrespectoft
heact
ual
vict
im.

3.
2.5. I
nfant
ici
de:

The t
ragedyofmat
ernalf
il
ici
de,orchi
l
d
mur
der by mot
her
s, has occur
red
t
hroughouthi
stor
yandt
hroughoutt
hewor
ld.
Mat
ernalf
il
ici
dei
sdef
inedaschi
l
dmur
der
byt
hemot .I
her nf
ant
ici
dei
schi
l
dmur
deri
n
t
hef
ir
sty
earofl
i
fe.Thet
erm neonat
ici
de
wascoi
nedbyResni
ckt
odescr
ibemur
der
ofani
nfantwi
thi
nthef
ir
st24hour
sofl
i
fe.
Al
mostal
lneonat
ici
desar
ecommi
tt
edby
mot
her
s.Neonat
ici
dalmot
her
s ar
e of
ten
 585

y
oung,unmar
ri
ed women wi
th unwant
ed
pr
egnanci
eswhor
ecei
venopr
enat
alcar
e.

Psy
chi
atr
yandI
nfant
ici
de:
Accor
ding t
o psy
chi
atr
ic f
indi
ngs, t
he
f
il
ici
dalmot
her
shadf
requent
lyexper
ienced
psy
chosi
s,depr
essi
on,sui
ci
dalt
endenci
es,
and pr
iorment
alheal
th car
e.Thei
rmean
age was i
nthei
rlat
e 20s.Some wer
e
di
agnosed wi
th per
sonal
i
ty di
sor
der
s and
somehadl
ow i
ntel
l
igence.Si
gni
fi
cantl
i
fe
st
resseswer
eof
tennot
ed.A r
ecentst
udy
show t
hat mot
her
sfound notgui
l
ty by
r
easonofi
nsani
tyi
ntwoU.
S.st
ates,
butt
he
per
pet
rat
ors wer
e of
ten depr
essed and
f
requent
ly exper
ienced audi
tor
y
hal
l
uci
nat
ions,someofa command t
ype.
Ov
eronet
hir
doft
hehomi
ci
desoccur
red
 586

dur
ing pr
egnancyort
hepost
par
tum y
ear
.
Al
mostal
lthe mot s had al
her tr
uist
ic or
acut
ely psychot
ic mot
ives.A smal
lNew
Zeal
andst
udyt
hati
nter
viewedt
hemot
her
s
af
tert
hei
rfi
l
ici
des f
ound t
hatpsy
chot
ic
mot
her
swhohadcommi
tt
edf
il
ici
deof
ten
ki
l
led suddenl
y wi
thout much pl
anni
ng,
wher
eas depr
essed mot
her
s had
cont
empl
ated ki
l
li
ng oft
hei
rchi
l
dren f
or
day
stoweekspr
iort
othei
rcr
imes.

Soci
o-economi
cReasonsf
orI
nfant
ici
de:

Mot
her
swho wer
epoor
,soci
all
yisol
ated,
f
ull
-t
imecar
egi
ver
s,whoandwer
evi
cti
msof
domest
icv
iol
enceorhadot
herr
elat
ionshi
p
pr
obl
ems, wer
e f
ound among t
he
per
pet
rat
ors ofi
nfant
ici
de.Di
sadv
ant
aged
 587

soci
oeconomi
c backgr
ounds and pr
imar
y
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hechi
l
drenwer
ecommon
r
easonsf
ori
nfant
ici
de.Per
sist
entcr
yingof
chi
l
dfact
orswer
esomet
imespr
eci
pit
ant
s
f
ort
hef
il
ici
de.Somemot
her
shadpr
evi
ousl
y
abusedt
hechi
l
d,whi
l
eot
her
swer
ement
all
y
i
l
landdev
otedt
othei
rchi
l
d.Negl
ect
fulor
abusi
ve mot
her
s wer
e of
ten subst
ance
abuser
s.Many of t
he per
pet
rat
ors had
psy
chosi
s,depr
essi
on,orsui
ci
dalt
endency
.
Some oft
he abusi
ve mot
her
s wer
erape
v
ict
ims.

I
nfant
ici
deLaws:
I
nfant
ici
del
awsof
tenr
educet
hepenal
tyf
or
mot
her
swho ki
l
lthei
rchi
l
drenup t
o one
y
earofage,basedont
hepr
inci
plet
hata
woman who commi
tsi
nfant
ici
dedoesso
 588

because "
the bal
ance of her mi
nd i
s
di
stur
bedbyr
easonofhernothavi
ngf
ull
y
r
ecover
edf
rom t
heef
fectofgi
vi
ngbi
rt
hto
t
he chi
l
d".The Br
it
ish I
nfant
ici
de Actof
1922(
amendedi
n1938)al
l
owsmot
her
sto
bechar
gedwi
thmansl
aught
err
athert
han
mur
deri
ftheyar
esuf
fer
ingf
rom ament
al
di
stur
bance.Thel
aw wasor
igi
nal
l
ybased
on t
he out
dat
ed concept of l
act
ati
onal
i
nsani
ty,butt
hepubl
i
c'sdesi
ret
oexcuse
sy
mpat
het
icwomen caused r
eluct
ance t
o
al
tert
hel
aw af
terl
act
ati
onali
nsani
tywas
di
scr
edi
ted.Womenconv
ict
edofi
nfant
ici
de
of
ten r
ecei
ve pr
obat
ion and r
efer
ralt
o
ment
al heal
th t
reat
ment r
ather t
han
i
ncar
cer
ati
on.

Appr
oxi
mat
elyt
wodozencount
ri
escur
rent
ly
 589

hav
einf
ant
ici
de l
aws (
Aust
ral
i
a,Aust
ri
a,
Br
azi
l
,Canada,Col
ombi
a,Fi
nland,Ger
many
,
Gr
eece,
HongKong,
Indi
a,I
tal
y,Japan,
Kor
ea,
New Zeal
and,Nor
way
,Phi
l
ippi
nes,Sweden,
Swi
tzer
land,
Tur
keyandt
heUni
tedKi
ngdom.
The maj
ori
ty of t
he nat
ions t
hat hav
e
i
nfant
ici
de l
aws hav
efol
l
owed t
he Br
it
ish
pr
ecedentand decr
ease t
he penal
tyf
or
mot
her
ski
l
li
ngchi
l
drenunderoney
earol
d.
Howev
er,t
hel
egaldef
ini
ti
onofi
nfant
ici
de
v
ari
es among count
ri
es.The mur
der of
chi
l
drenupt
oaget
eni
sincl
udedi
nNew
Zeal
and.

TheEt
hiopi
anLawonI
nfant
ici
de:
Undert
heAr
t544/
1oft
heCr
imi
nalCode,
to
const
it
ute a cr
ime of i
nfant
ici
de t
he
f
oll
owi
ng essent
ial el
ement
s must be
 590

f
ulf
il
led:
1.
Ther
eshoul
dbeani
ntent
ionalki
l
li
ngofan
i
nfant
2.
By i
ts mot
herunderei
theroft
he t
wo
condi
ti
ons:
A. whi
l
eshei
sinl
abour
,or
B.
whi
l
e st
il
lsuf
fer
ing f
rom t
he di
rect
ef
fect
sofl
abour
The second sub-
art
icl
e oft
his pr
ovi
si
on
excl
udesi
ntent
ionalornegl
i
gentki
l
li
ngsby
mot
her
s f
or any r
easons ot
her t
han
speci
fi
edi
nthef
ir
stsub-
art
icl
ei.
e.ki
l
li
ngs
notconnect
ed wi
th pr
obl
ems t
hatcoul
d
ar
isedur
ingorsubsequentt
olabour
.These
mot
her
s ar
etr
iabl
e under t
he or
dinar
y
pr
ovi
sionsr
elat
ing t
o homi
ci
de(
Art
s538-
543)
.
 591

Sub-
art
icl
e(3) of t
his pr
ovi
si
on speaks
aboutt
he par
ti
cipant
sint
he i
nfant
ici
de
ot
hert
he mot
her
s.These par
ti
ci
pant
sin
whi
chev
er capaci
ty t
hey mi
ght hav
e
par
ti
cipat
ed i
nthi
s cr
ime.Pr
inci
pal
s or
i
nst
igat
ors oraccompl
i
ces,t
hey shal
lbe
gov
ernedbyt
hegener
alpr
ovi
si
onsr
elat
ing
t
o homi
cide.Theyar
enotent
it
led t
othe
benef
it
sofext
enuat
ionundert
hispr
ovi
si
on.

 Puni
shmentf
orI
nfant
ici
de:
1.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentf
ort
hecompl
eted
cr
ime, hav
ingr
egar
dtot
heci
rcumst
ances
oft
hecase.
2.Mi
ti
gat
edpuni
shmentunderAr
t180,f
or
anat
tempt
edi
nfant
ici
de,i
fthei
nfanthas
suf
fer
ed no i
njur
yaf
tert
heat
tackbyt
he
mot
her
.
 592

3.
3.Exami
nat
ionoft
heEt
hiopi
anLaw of
Homi
cide:

3.
3.1.At
oAbay
nehGebr
esel
assi
eV.The
At
tor
neyGener
al,
Supr
emeI
mper
ialCour
t,
(
1963G.
C.)

Tahsas27,1956E.
C.(
Dec.25,1963G.
C.)
;
Just
ices;
Mr.G.Debbas,
AtoHai
l
eAmanand
At
oTessemmaNegede:_
_Thi
sisanappeal
agai
nstt
heconv
ict
ionandsent
enceoft
he
Hi
gh Cour
t(Fi
rstCr
imi
nalDi
vi
si
on)dat
ed
24th Ter
,1950,i
nCr
imi
nalCaseNo.661/
49,
wher
ebyt
heappel
l
antwasf
oundgui
l
tyof
mur
der
……
 593

.
As st
ated by t
he ey
e-wi
tnesses, t
he
deceasedwashear
dcr
yingandscr
eami
ng
i
n herhouse;t
hen she r
an outf
rom t
he
houseandf
ledt
othenei
ghbor
’shouset
o
whi
ch appel
l
antpur
sued herand dr
agged
heroutt
othedoorandst
abbedheratt
he
door
steps.The post
mor
tem exami
nat
ion
r
eveal
edt
hatt
her
ewer
escar
sofbeat
ing
and hi
tt
ing on t
he dead body ……… The
appel
l
ant st
art
ed i
ndeed, af
ter he had
st
abbed hi
s wi
fe, t
o cr
y and weep
r
egr
ett
ingl
y…….
.Thehusbandbeathi
swi
fe
f
ir
st,sher
anawayt
othenei
ghbor
s,andhe
pur
suedher
,dr
aggedheroutandst
abbed
heratt
hedoor
stepsoft
henei
ghbor
s,and
t
hen st
art
ed cr
ying l
i
keachi
l
d,af
terhe
r
eal
i
zedwhathehaddone…….
.
 594

3.
3.2.At
oLeggesseTumt
uandAgr
aw
Mamet
chaV.At
tor
neyGener
al,
Supr
eme
I
mper
ialCour
t(1964G.
C.)

Thi
sisanappealagai
nstt
heconv
ict
ionand
sent
enceoft
heHi
ghCour
t(Fi
rstCr
imi
nal
Di
vi
si ed 23rd Megabi
on) dat t, 1955, i
n
Cr
imi
nalCase No.461/
53,wher
eby bot
h
appel
l
ant
s wer
e conv
ict
ed of mur
der
cont
rar
ytoAr
ti
cle522oft
heP.
C.E.of1957,
andsent
encedt
odeat
h.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oemphasi
zeev
ersi
ncet
he
begi
nni
ngt
hatt
her
eisnotmucht
odi
scuss
i
nthi
s appealr
egar
ding t
he quest
ion of
conv
ict
ion.Bot
happel
l
ant
swer
econv
ict
ed
ont
hest
rengt
hoft
hei
rownconf
essi
ont
o
 595

t
hepol
i
ce.Themur
derwasconsi
der
edas
aggr
avat
edi
nthatt
hebeat
ingwasr
epeat
ed
andt
hedeceasedhadbeenwoundedi
nsi
x
di
ff
erentpl
aces,andf
inal
l
ydi
edasar
esul
t
ofi
ntr
acr
ani
alhemor
rhage caused byt
he
i
nfl
i
ctedwounds.TheCour
tconsi
der
edt
his
beat
ing as br
utal and passed deat
h
sent
enceonbot
happel
l
ant
s.
………
Conv
ict
ionconf
ir
med.
Gr
oupPr
oject
:
Af
tercar
eful
l
yreadi
ngAr
ts538-
541,543of
t
heCr
imi
nalCode,t
ryt
opl
aceAt
oAbay
neh
wi
thi
n t
he pr
oper pr
ovi
sion gov
erni
ng
homi
cide.Woul
dithel
pto know t
hatt
he
samecour
tthatdeci
dedAt
oAbay
nehcase
l
aterhel
dint
he case ofAt
o Leggesse
Tumt
uandAt
oAr
gawMamet
chav
.At
tor
ney
 596

Gener
al,
Supr
emeI
mper
ialCour
t,Cr
ime.
App.
No.643/
55(
1964G.
C.)
;

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng:
WhydoesAr
t.540notment
ionAr
t.543?

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Doy
ouf
indanypar
ti
cul
aror
deramong
Ar
ts.538-
541,
and543?
2.Ar
eal
lint
ent
ionalhomi
cidespuni
shabl
e?
(
See e.
g.,Ar
t.64 P.
C.E.
) May a deat
h
sent
ence be execut
ed upon cour
tor
der
 597

al
one?
3.Whatdegr
ee ofnegl
i
gence const
it
utes
“
cri
minal
negl
i
gence”t
obr
ingt
hecaseunder
Ar
t.543?

CasePr
obl
em 1:
‘
P’and‘
Q’wer
enei
ghbor
ingowner
sofl
and.
Ther
ewasanal
ter
cat
ionbet
weent
hem due
t
o‘P’
sser
vant
sthr
owi
ngagr
icul
tur
ewast
es
i
nto‘
Q’sl
ands.‘
Q’andhi
ssonsgoti
rr
it
ated
andpi
ckedupar
gument
swi
th‘
P’sser
vant
s
‘
Q’t
ri
edt
oper
suade‘
P’andhi
sser
vant
snot
t
othr
ow wast
esi
ntot
hei
rfi
eldandt
ohav
e
t
he mat
ter set
tl
ed ami
cabl
y t
hrough
negot
iat
ions.Yet‘
P’wasannoy
edwi
tht
he
conductof ‘
Q’s sons and pi
cked up a
phy
sicalf
ight
.As‘
P’andhi
sser
vant
swer
e
 598

atwor
ktheyhad st
icksand spadeswi
th
t
hem.‘
P’i
nfl
i
ctedt
wobl
owsont
heheadof
‘
Q’sel
destwi
thaspadeandhef
elldown.
Ther
eaf
ter‘
P’gav
etwomor
ebl
owst
ohi
m
andhedi
ed.
1.How doy
oudeci
det
he‘
Kil
l
ing’occur
red
becauseofasuddenf
ight
,wher
ether
ewas
no pr
evi
ous enmi
tybet
ween t
he of
fender
andt
hedeceased?
2.I
sther
e anydef
ense f
or‘
P’and t
hei
r
ser
vant
sint
heabov
ecase?Expl
ain.

CasePr
obl
em 2:
‘
H’and‘
W’wer
emar
ri
edf
or5Year
s.They
usedt
ohav
equar
rel
sver
yof
tenduet
othe
naggi
ngnat
ureof‘
H’t
hehusband.Fi
nal
l
y‘W’
t
hewi
fegott
ir
edofherhusbandst
reat
ment
andwentt
oli
vewi
thherbr
other‘
B’sf
ami
l
y
 599

l
eav
ing her husband. ‘
H’ wai
ted f
or
somet
imeundert
hebel
i
eft
hat‘
W’woul
d
r
etur
nbackt
ohi
m onherown.Butshedi
dn’
t.
‘
H’t
hendeci
dedt
ogoandpur
suehert
o
comebackandl
i
vewi
thhi
m.Ont
hef
atef
ul
dayhewentt
o hi
sbr
other
-i
n-l
aw’
shouse
and st
art
ed pl
eadi
ng wi
th hi
swi
fe‘
W’t
o
comebackt
ohi
m andot
her
wisehecannot
l
i
vewi
thouther
.Howev
er,‘
W’per
sist
edt
hat
shedi
dnotl
i
ket
orej
oinhi
m.Ther
eupont
he
husbanddr
aggedt
hewi
fewi
thav
iew t
o
t
akeherev
enagai
nstherwi
l
l.‘
W’sbr
other
‘
B’wassi
tt
ingi
nthesamer
oom andwas
cut
ti
ngappl
est
ogi
vet
ohi
schi
l
dren.When
he saw hi
s si
sterbei
ng dr
agged by her
husbandhegav
eabl
ow wi
thkni
fet
o‘H’
,
whi
chr
esul
tedi
nhi
sdeat
h.
1.Doest
heconductof‘
H’agai
nsthi
swi
fe
 600

amountt
oanycr
ime?I
fso,
howi
sitdef
ined
i
nthePenalCode?Ment
iont
heessent
ial
sof
suchcr
imer
efer
ri
ngt
other
elev
antar
ti
cl
es.
2.Di
dthebr
other‘
B’hav
eanyr
ightt
oreact
i
nsuchawayt
othesi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chhi
s
si
sterwas?I
fso,whatar
ethepr
inci
ples
gov
erni
ng such a r
ight
? Ref
er t
o t
he
appr
opr
iat
epr
ovi
sionsofl
aw.
CasePr
obl
em 3:
Sel
i
na and herboy
fri
end Sam wer
eli
vi
ng
t
oget
her f
or sev
eraly
ear
s bef
ore Sam
mov
edoutaf
teraser
iesofv
iol
entr
ows.On
t
hedayoft
heoccur
renceSel
inawentt
oa
par
ty.She was f
eel
i
ng upsetdue t
o her
separ
ati
onf
rom herl
ongt
imeboyf
ri
end.I
n
t
hepar
tyshehadsev
eraldr
inkswhenSam
ar
ri
vedt
her
ewi
thanot
hergi
rl
.Sel
inasaw
t
hem l
aughi
ngandcamet
otheconcl
usi
on
 601

t
hatt
heywer
elaughi
ngather
.Shepi
cked
upaheav
ybeermugandhi
tSam ov
ert
he
headsev
eralt
imes.Sam waski
l
ledbyher
v
iol
entat
tack.
1.Whatwoul
dthepr
osecut
ionber
equi
red
t
opr
ovei
nor
dert
oest
abl
i
sht
hatSel
inawas
gui
l
tyofhomi
cideofSam?
2.Expl
aint
hei
ssuest
hatcoul
dber
aisedi
n
Sel
i
na’
sdef
encet
othechar
geofhomi
ci
de
and st
ate whet
hery
ou t
hink t
he def
ence
woul
d succeed. Li
st out t
he pr
inci
ples
gov
erni
ngsuchadef
ense.
CasePr
obl
em 4:
Whi
l
ewal
ki
ngdownar
uralr
oad,Abeland
Baker come upon Vi
ctor
, obv
iousl
y
i
ntoxi
cat
ed,l
yi
ngonr
ail
roadt
racksr
unni
ng
par
all
elt
other
oad.Abelsai
sd"
Lethi
mli
e.
Don'
ttouchhi
m,"butBakerdr
aggedt
heman
 602

of
fthet
racksont
otheshoul
deroft
her
oad.
Abeland Bakerwenton t
hei
rway
.15
mi
nut
espassed;at
rai
ncameby
;Vi
ctori
s
nothar
med,t
hough he woul
d hav
e been
ki
l
ledi
fBakerhadnotmov
edhi
m.30mor
e
mi
nut
es passed;Vi
ctorcr
awl
s ont
othe
r
oadway i
nfr
ontofan oncomi
ng t
ruck;
Vi
ctorwasst
ruckandki
l
led becauset
he
dr
iver was speedi
ng and not pay
ing
at
tent
ion.Di
scusst
hel
i
abi
l
ityofAbeland
Bakerf
orVi
ctor
'sdeat
h.
CanAbelandBakerbepr
osecut
edf
ort
he
deat
hofVi
ctor
?Ify
es,onwhatchar
ges?
Di
scussi
ndet
ail
.
I
fno,
why
?Expl
aincl
ear
ly.

Concur
renceof‘
Act
’andt
he‘
I
ntent
’-Case
 603

Anal
ysi
s:

THABOMELIv
.REGI
NA
Judi
cialCommi
tt
ee,
Pri
vyCounci
l,
1Al
lEng.
Rep.373(
1954)

The j
udgment of t
hei
r Lor
dshi
ps was
del
i
ver
edbyLor
dRei
d.Thef
ourappel
l
ant
s
i
nthi
scasewer
econv
ict
edofmur
deraf
tera
t
ri
albef
oreHar
ragi
n,J.
,int
heHi
ghCour
tof
Basut
oland,
inMar
ch,
1953.

I
tisest
abl
i
shed byev
idence,whi
ch was
bel
i
eved and whi
chi
sappar
ent
lycr
edi
ble,
t
hatt
her
ewasapr
econcei
vedpl
otont
he
par
t of t
he f
our accused t
o br
ing t
he
deceasedmant
oahutandt
her
etoki
l
lhi
m;
andt
hent
ofakeanacci
dent
,sot
hatt
he
 604

accusedshoul
descapet
hepenal
tyf
ort
hei
r
act
.Thedeceasedmanwasbr
oughtt
othe
hut
.Hewast
henst
ruckov
ert
heheadi
n
accor
dancewi
tht
hepl
anoft
heaccused.

Ther
eisnoev
idencet
hatt
heaccusedt
hen
bel
i
eved t
hat he was dead, but t
hei
r
Lor
dshi
ps wer
e pr
epar
ed t
o assume t
hat
t
heydi
d;andi
tisonl
yont
hatassumpt
ion
t
hatanysat
iabl
ecasecanbemadef
ort
his
appeal
.The accused t
ook outt
he body
,
r
oll
edi
tov
era cl
i
ff,anddr
essedupt
he
scene t
o make i
tlook l
i
ke an acci
dent
.
Obv
iousl
y,t
heybel
i
evedatt
hatt
imet
hatt
he
man was dead,buti
tappear
sfr
om t
he
medi
calev
idencet
hatt
hei
njur
ieswhi
chhe
r
ecei
vedi
nthehutwer
enotsuf
fi
ci
entt
o
causet
hedeat
handt
hatt
hef
inalcauseof
 605

hi
sdeat
hwasexposur
ewher
ehewasl
eftat
t
hef
ootoft
hecl
i
ff.

Thepoi
ntofl
aw whi
chwasr
aisedi
nthi
s
casecanbesi
mpl
yst
ated.I
tissai
dthatt
wo
act
swer
enecessar
yand wer
esepar
abl
e:
f
ir
st,t
heat
tacki
nthehut
;and,secondar
y,
t
hepl
aci
ngoft
hebodyout
sideaf
ter
war
ds.
I
tis sai
dthat
,whi
l
ethe f
ir
stactwas
edbymensr
accompani ea,i
twasnott
he
cause ofdeat
h;butt
hatt
he second act
,
whi
l
eitwast
hecauseofdeat
h,wasnot
ed by mens r
accompani ea;and on t
hat
gr
oundi
tissai
dthatt
heaccusedar
enot
gui
l
tyofanycr
imeexceptper
hapscul
pabl
e
homi
cide.

I
tappear
stot
hei
rLor
dshi
psi
mpossi
blet
o
 606

di
vi
deupwhatwasr
eal
l
yonet
ransact
ioni
n
t
hisway
.Thei
risnotdoubtt
hatt
heaccused
setoutt
o do al
lthese act
sin or
dert
o
achi
evet
hei
rpl
anandaspar
tsoft
hei
rpl
an;
and i
tis much t
oo r
efi
ned a gr
ound of
j
udgmentt
o sayt
hat
,because t
heywer
e
underami
sappr
ehensi
onatonest
ageand
t
houghtt
hatt
hei
rgui
l
typur
posehadbeen
achi
eved bef
orei
nfacti
twas achi
eved,
t
her
efor
etheyar
etoescapet
hepenal
ti
esof
t
hel
aw.Thei
rLor
dshi
psdonott
hinkt
hat
t
hisi
s a mat
terwhi
ch i
s suscept
ibl
e of
el
abor
ati
on.Ther
eappear
stobenocase
ei
theri
nSout
hAf
ri
caorEngl
and,orf
ort
hat
mat
ter el
sewher
e,whi
ch r
esembl
es t
he
pr
esent
.

Thei
r Lor
dshi
ps can f
ind no di
ff
erence
 607

r
elev
antt
othepr
esentcasebet
weent
hel
aw
ofsout
hAf
ri
caandt
hel
awofEngl
and,and
t
heyar
eofopi
niont
hatbybot
hlawst
her
e
coul
d be no separ
ati
on such as t
hatf
or
whi
cht
heaccusedcont
end,
ast
oreducet
he
cr
imef
rom mur
dert
oal
essercr
ime,mer
ely
because t
he accused wer
e undersome
mi
sappr
ehensi
on f
or a t
ime dur
ing t
he
compl
eti
onoft
hei
rcr
imi
nal
plot
.

Thei
r Lor
dshi
ps must
,ther
efor
e,humbl
y
adv
iseHerMaj
est
ythatt
hisappealshoul
d
bedi
smi
ssed.

PALANIGOUNDANv
.EMPEROR
1920Madr
as862,
Indi
a
……Theaccusedst
ruckhi
swi
feabl
ow on
herheadwi
thapl
oughshar
e,whi
ch,t
hough
 608

notknownt
obeabl
owl
i
kel
ytocausedeat
h,
di
d,i
nfact
,renderherunconsci
ous and
bel
i
evi
nghert
obedead,i
nor
dert
olayt
he
f
oundat
ionofaf
alsedef
enceofsui
ci
deby
hangi
ng,
theaccusedhangedheronabeam
byar
opeandt
her
ebycausedherdeat
h by
st
rangul
ati
on,and i
twashel
d byt
heFul
l
Bencht
hatt
heaccusedwasnotgui
l
tyof
ei
thermur
deror cul
pabl
e homi
ci
de not
amount
ing t
o mur
der as t
he or
igi
nal
i
ntent
ionwasnott
ocausedeat
hbutonl
yto
causei
njur
yandt
hesecondi
ntent
ionwas
onl
ytodi
sposeofasupposedl
ydeadbody
i
nawayconv
eni
entf
ort
hedef
encewhi
ch
t
heaccusedwasaboutt
osetup………

Quest
ions:

1. Ar
etheThaboMel
iandPal
aniGoundan
 609

casesdi
sti
ngui
shabl
e?Whati
sthedef
ense
t
heor
ybei
ngar
guedi
nbot
hcases?Whi
ch
j
udgmentdoy
ouagr
eewi
th?DoesAr
t.60(
1)
P.
C.E.hel
ps i
n cl
ari
fyi
ng t
he conf
li
cti
ng
hol
dingsi
nthesecases?

2. Does t
he wor
ding wi
thi
n Ar
ts.57-
61
P.
C.E.i
mpl
ythenecessi
tyofconcur
rence
bet
ween“
act
”and“
int
ent
”or“
negl
i
gence”i
n
or
der t
o const
it
ute cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity i
n
Et
hiopi
a?

I
mpor
tant
: “
Concur
rent of
fenses” as
consi
der
edi
nAr
ts.60-
63i
saf
undament
all
y
di
ff
erentconceptf
rom concur
rencebet
ween
“
act
”and“
int
ent
”.

CasePr
obl
em:
 610

Addi
su and Ber
eketmeteach ot
heri
na
dr
unkenst
ateandt
heyst
art
edt
oquar
rel
,
dur
ingwhi
cht
heyabusedeachot
her
.Al
lthi
s
l
ast
edf
orhal
fanhourwhenBer
eketr
ant
o
hi
shousewhi
chwasl
ocat
ednearbyand
camebackwi
thaheav
yir
onr
odandst
ruck
av
iol
entbl
ow ont
hel
eftt
empl
ecausi
ng
i
nst
antdeat
h.
1.Maket
hecaseagai
nstBer
eket
.
2.DoesBer
ekethav
eanydef
ence?
Suppor
tyourcasewi
thr
elev
antpr
ovi
si
ons
ofl
awandsuf
fi
cientr
easoni
ng.

Sect
ion.
4.Cr
imesagai
nstPer
sons

The pr
inci
ples r
elat
ing t
o cr
imes agai
nst
 611

per
sonandheal
thar
elai
ddowni
nAr
ti
cl
e
553. I
ntent
ionalornegl
i
gentcausi
ng of
bodi
l
yinj
uryori
mpai
ri
ngofanot
her
’sheal
th
nomat
terwhat
evermeansormannerused
i
spuni
shabl
eundert
hispar
toft
heCode.
Causi
ng of any manner of what
soev
er
i
ncl
udi
ng bodi
l
y assaul
ts,bl
ows,wounds,
mai
ming,i
njur
iesorhar
m andal
ldamaget
o
t
he phy
sical and ment
al heal
th of an
i
ndi
vi
duali
s pr
ohi
bit
ed.Ther
efor
e,i
njur
y
undert
heCodemeansbot
h‘phy
sical
’and
‘
ment
ali
njur
y’.

Ment
alorNon-
phy
sical
inj
ury
:
Non-
phy
sicalorpsy
chi
atr
ici
njur
y can be
consi
der
edcausi
ngofwi
l
lfuli
njur
y,al
though
t
her
emustbemedi
calev
idenceoft
hei
njur
y
(
Art554)
.Thi
sisaconf
ir
medpr
inci
pleof
 612

manyl
egalsy
stems.Thef
oll
owi
ngt
woI
ri
sh
casesar
eil
l
ust
rat
ive.I
nthef
ir
stcase,t
he
accused,dur
ingat
hreemont
hper
iod,who
hadasubst
ant
ial
recor
dofmaki
ngof
fensi
ve
t
elephonecal
l
stowomen,har
assedt
hree
womenbymaki
ngr
epeat
edsi
l
entorheav
y
br
eat
hingt
elephonecal
l
stot
hem atni
ght
.
Thi
scausedhi
svi
cti
mst
osuf
ferpsy
chi
atr
ic
i
l
lness.Si
mil
arl
y,i
nthe second case,t
he
accusedcoul
dnotacceptt
hedeci
si
onofa
womant
oter
minat
ear
elat
ionshi
p,so he
har
assedherov
eranei
ghtmont
hper
iodby
maki
ngsi
l
entandabusi
vet
elephonecal
l
s,
di
str
ibut
ed of
fensi
ve car
ds i
nthe st
reet
wher
eshel
i
ved,appear
edunnecessar
il
yat
her home and pl
ace of wor
k, t
ook
sur
rept
it
iousphot
ogr
aphsoft
hev
ict
im and
herf
ami
l
y,andsentheramenaci
ngl
ett
er.
 613

Thev
ict
im wasf
ear
fulofper
sonalv
iol
ence
wasdi
agnosedassuf
fer
ingf
rom asev
ere
depr
essi
ve i
l
lness. The best medi
cal
pr
act
icet
odayaccept
sal
i
nkbet
weent
he
bodyand psy
chi
atr
ici
njur
y,so t
hewor
ds
‘
causi
ng bodi
l
yinj
ury
’cov
er r
ecogni
zed
psy
chi
atr
ici
l
lnesses,
suchasananxi
etyora
depr
essi
vedi
sor
der
,whi
chaf
fectt
hecent
ral
ner
voussy
stem oft
hebody
.Howev
er,t
o
qual
i
fy,t
hoseneur
osesmustbemor
ethan
si
mpl
est
atesoff
ear
,orpr
obl
emsi
ncopi
ng
wi
thev
ery
dayl
i
fe,whi
chdonotamountt
o
psy
chi
atr
ici
l
lnesses.

4.
1.Gr
aveWi
ll
fulI
njur
y:Ar
t.555

The expr
essi
on ‘
grav
e or ser
ious i
njur
y’
cov
erst
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ypesofi
njur
ieswi
thi
n
 614

t
hemeani
ngofcl
auses(
a)t
o(c)
:
Woundst
hatendangerl
i
fe
I
njur
iest
hatj
eopar
dizephy
sicalorment
al
heal
th
Mai
mingofbodyoroneoft
heessent
ial
l
i
mbsofbody
Di
sabl
i
ngbodyorl
i
mbs
Gr
aveorconspi
cuousdi
sfi
gur
ati
onofa
per
son
I
nfl
i
cti
onofanyot
heri
njur
yordi
seaseofa
ser
iousnat
ure
Puni
shment
:Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnot
l
esst
han1y
eart
ori
gor
ousi
mpr
isonment
notexceedi
ng15y
ear
s.

4.
2.CommonWi
ll
fulI
njur
y:Ar
t.556

Al
lot
heri
njur
iest
otheper
sonot
hert
han
 615

t
hose t
hat f
all under t
he speci
fi
c
descr
ipt
ionsunderAr
ti
cle555ar
ecommon
wi
l
lfuli
njur
ies.Thei
njur
y,att
hesamet
ime,
shoul
d not be t
oo t
ri
vi
alas has been
ment
ionedunderAr
t560undert
heheadof
assaul
ts.Causi
ngofcommonwi
l
lfuli
njur
ies
i
spuni
shabl
eonl
yupont
hef
il
ingofaf
ormal
compl
aint
.

Puni
shment
:
1.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng1y
ear
orf
ine.
(Ar
t.556/
1)
2.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentof6mont
hsupt
o3
y
ear
s,wher
ethecausi
ngofcommonwi
l
lful
i
njur
yis accompani
es by t
he f
oll
owi
ng
speci
fi
caggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ance:
 Useofpoi
son,al
ethalweaponorany
ot
heri
nst
rumentcapabl
eof
 616

i
nfl
i
cti
ngi
njur
ies
 Br
eachofpr
ofessi
onal
oranyot
herdut
y
 Thev
ict
imi
sweak,si
ckori
ncapabl
eof
def
endi
nghi
msel
f

Exper
tEv
idenceast
otheNat
ureofI
njur
y:
Ar
t.554
I
ncaseswher
ether
eisadoubtr
egar
dingt
o
t
henat
ureofi
njur
yi.
e.whet
heri
tisgr
ave
i
njur
yorcommoni
njur
y,t
hecour
tmaycal
l
f
oranexper
tfor
ensi
cmedi
calassessment
t
oassi
sti
tsdeci
sion.

Ext
enuat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:Ar
t.557
Thepuni
shmentf
orcausi
ngwi
l
lfuli
njur
ies
shal
lnotexceed2y
ear
sofi
mpr
isonmentor
f
ine not exceedi
ng 4,
000 Bi
rr
,in t
he
 617

pr
esenceofanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances:
Excessofnecessi
ty(
Art75)
Excessofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ence(
Art78)
Exi
stence of under
standabl
e
ci
rcumst
ancesl
i
ke:
Gr
osspr
ovocat
ion,
or
Shock,
or
I
nfl
uenceofasur
pri
se,
or
Anemot
ionorpassi
on
-
whi
chmaybeexcusabl
etosomeext
ent
.
Att
her
equestorwi
tht
heconsentoft
he
v
ict
im
Her
esuchconsent
ingv
ict
im shoul
dbet
he
one who capabl
e of under
standi
ng t
he
act
ion and i
ts consequences and shoul
d
hav
econsent
edt
oani
njur
yfor
biddenbyl
aw
orof
fendi
ngpubl
i
cdecency
.
 618

Howev
er,i
fsuch a v
ict
im i
s par
ti
all
y or
compl
etel
y i
ncapabl
e of r
eal
i
zing t
he
consequencesofhi
srequestorconsentdue
t
o age,ment
alor ot
her condi
ti
ons t
he
puni
shment shal
l ext
end up t
o si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng4y
ear
s.

Wher
e a per
son i
ntendi
ng t
o cause a
commoni
njur
ycausesgr
avei
njur
ythr
ough
cr
imi
nalnegl
i
gence,he shal
lbe l
i
abl
eto
si
mpl
e i
mpr
isonment r
angi
ng f
rom 6
mont
hst
o3y
ear
s(Ar
t558)
.

4.
3.I
njur
iesbyNegl
igence:Ar
t.559

Commoni
njur
iescausedt
oper
sonorheal
th
bynegl
i
gencear
etr
eat
edundert
hisar
ti
cl
e.
Wheni
tisgr
avet
hiscr
imei
spuni
shabl
e
 619

uponanaccusat
ion,butor
dinar
il
ywhent
he
i
njur
yiscommoni
tispuni
shabl
eonl
yupon
acompl
aintf
il
edbyt
heaggr
iev
edpar
ty.The
nat
ure of t
he i
njur
y i
s det
ermi
ned i
n
accor
dance wi
th ar
ti
cles 555 and
556(
Aar
t559/
3). The puni
shmentf
ort
he
i
njur
ies caused by negl
i
gent i
s of t
wo
di
ff
erentdegr
ees:
1.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng 6
mont
hsorf
inenotexceedi
ng1,
000Bi
rr
,if
t
hei
njur
yiscausedbyper
sonsot
hert
han
hav
ingpr
ofessi
onal
dut
y.

2.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentofnotl
esst
han6
mont
hsandf
inenotl
esst
han1,
000Bi
rr
wher
ethei
njur
yisgr
avewi
thi
nthemeani
ng
ofAr
t555andi
scausedbyt
hosewhoar
e
underaspeci
alorpr
ofessi
onal
dut
y.
 620

Hav
ingr
egar
dtot
hest
andar
dofcar
eand
caut
ion r
equi
red byAr
t59/
1 Par
a 2,t
he
degr
eeofpuni
shmenti
sfi
xed.Peopl
ewho
ar
eboundbyt
hei
rpr
ofessi
onalorspeci
al
dut
ytopr
otectl
i
feorheal
thofper
sonsar
e
exposedt
oagr
eat
erpuni
shment
.

4.
4.Assaul
ts:Ar
t560

Meani
ng:
Whoev
er makes any gest
ure, or any
pr
epar
ati
on,
int
endi
ngorknowi
ngt
obel
i
kel
y
t
hatsuchgest
ureorpr
epar
ati
onwi
l
lcause
anyper
son pr
esentt
o appr
ehend t
hathe
whomakest
hatgest
ureorpr
epar
ati
oni
s
aboutt
ousecr
imi
nal
for
ce,
tot
hatper
son,
is
sai
dto commi
tanassaul
t.Anassaul
tis
commi
tt
edwhenoneper
soncausesanot
her
 621

t
oappr
ehendorf
eart
hatf
orcei
saboutt
o
beusedt
ocausesomedegr
eeofper
sonal
cont
actandpossi
blei
njur
y.Ther
emustbe
some qual
i
ty of r
easonabl
eness t
othe
appr
ehensi
onont
hepar
toft
hev
ict
im.I
fthe
phy
sical cont
act i
s ev
ery
day soci
al
behav
ioursuchasahandshakeorf
ri
endl
y
paton t
he back,t
hisi
s accept
abl
e ev
en
t
hough t
he v
ict
im may hav
e a phobi
a
al
though,i
fthedef
endanti
sawar
eoft
he
psy
chol
ogi
cal di
ff
icul
ty, t
his may be
conv
ert
edi
ntoanassaul
tift
hei
ntent
ioni
s
t
oexpl
oitt
hecondi
ti
onandembar
rasst
he
v
ict
im.

Nor
mal
l
y,bot
htheonemaki
ngt
het
hreat
andt
hev
ict
im mustbephy
sical
l
ypr
esent
because,ot
her
wise,t
her
e woul
d be no
 622

i
mmedi
ate danger
.Howev
er,i
fa mobi
l
e
phone i
s used t
o t
ransmi
tthe t
hreat
(
whet
heror
all
yorbyamessage)and,f
rom
t
he wor
ds used,t
he v
ict
im r
easonabl
y
under
standst
hatanat
tacki
simmi
nent
,thi
s
mayconst
it
uteanassaul
t.

I
ncr
imi
nall
aw,
acommonassaul
tisacr
ime
whent
hedef
endantei
therput
sanot
heri
n
f
earofi
njur
yoract
ual
l
ycommi
tsabat
ter
y.
Abat
ter
yisanassaul
twher
ebyanyphy
sical
f
orceofadv
ersenat
urei
sact
ual
l
yappl
i
edt
o
t
heper
son(
body
)ofanot
her
,ort
othedr
ess
wor
n by hi
m,di
rect
ly ori
ndi
rect
ly.Ev
ery
bat
ter
yincl
udes an assaul
tbutnotv
ice
v
ersa.I
not
herwor
ds,wi
thi
nthecommon
meani
ngofanassaul
tther
eisnoact
ualuse
off
orceorv
iol
ence,t
her
eisonl
yat
hreatt
o
 623

usef
orceorv
iol
ence.

Howev
er,accor
ding t
o Ar
t 560 of t
he
Et
hiopi
anCr
imi
nalCodet
hecr
imeofassaul
t
i
snotdef
ined.Butt
hewor
dingoft
hear
ti
cl
e
i
ndi
cat
es t
hatt
he ar
ti
cle cov
ers bot
hthe
assaul
tswi
thoutuseofact
ualv
iol
enceand
act
ualv
iol
ence t
oo,butwi
thoutcausi
ng
bodi
l
yinj
uryori
mpai
rmentofheal
th. Ar
t
560/
1 Par
a 2 say
sthat si
mpl
e br
uises,
swel
l
ings,ort
ransi
entachesandpai
nsar
e
nothel
dto be i
njur
ies t
othe per
son or
heal
thandt
her
ebyi
mpl
i
est
hatt
hesear
ethe
ki
ndofi
njur
iest
hatmaybecov
eredbyt
his
pr
ovi
sion.

Themor
ali
ngr
edi
entoft
hiscr
imei
sthat
t
hisf
earmusthav
e been caused ei
ther
 624

i
ntent
ional
l
yorr
eckl
essl
y(Ar
t553)
.
Assaul
ts ar
e puni
shabl
e onl
y upon a
compl
aint
.
Puni
shmentf
orAssaul
t:
1.
Finenotexceedi
ng300Bi
rr
,inor
dinar
y
or
cases,
2.
Simpl
eimpr
isonment not exceedi
ng 3
mont
hs,
inser
iouscases.
3.
Puni
shmentunderAr
t840ofPet
tyCode,
i
ncasesofmi
norcr
imest
hatdonotcome
undert
heAr
t560/
1.
4.
Repr
imandorwar
ningf
ort
hef
utur
eon
ei
theroft
het
wopar
ti
esorbot
hoft
hem,
wher
ethev
ict
im hasr
etur
nedassaul
tfor
assaul
t.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Not
ethedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
hecr
imes
ofgr
avewi
l
lfuli
njur
y,commonwi
l
lfuli
njur
y
 625

andassaul
ts.
2.Whati
sa‘
ment
ali
njur
y’?I
sthi
scl
earf
rom
t
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
ti
cle553?
3.Doy
out
hinkt
hatt
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
ti
cl
es
556and560ar
ecl
earenoughodi
sti
ngui
sh
t
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenacommoni
njur
yand
aser
iousassaul
t?

Br
ainst
ormi
ng!
Ar
ethe i
njur
ies caused by def
ect
ive or
danger
ouspr
oduct
sli
kedr
ugs,cosmet
ics
and ot
her consumer goods puni
shabl
e
undert
hissect
ionoft
heCr
imi
nalCode?I
f
notwhati
sther
emedyf
ort
hesei
njur
ues?

Sect
ion.
5.Cr
imesagai
nstWomenand
 626

Chi
ldr
en:
5.
1.Const
it
uti
onal
Pri
nci
plesRel
ati
ngt
othe
Pr
otect
ionofWomenandChi
ldr
en:

Et
hiopi
a has r
ati
fi
ed i
nter
nat
ionalhuman
r
ight
s conv
ent
ions and t
reat
ies t
hatar
e
l
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngandt
hatf
orm i
nter
nat
ional
l
aw.TheConv
ent
ionont
heEl
i
minat
ionofAl
l
For
ms ofDi
scr
imi
nat
ion Agai
nstWomen
(
CEDAW)
,whi
chpr
ovi
dest
hef
oundat
ionf
or
r
epr
oduct
iver
ight
s,i
s one such not
abl
e
conv
ent
ion.The Tehr
an Pr
ocl
amat
ion,t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalConf
erenceonPopul
ati
onand
Dev
elopment (
ICPD)
,the Four
th Wor
ld
Congr
essonWomen,andt
he2000Uni
ted
Nat
ions(
UN)Summi
tar
esomeoft
hemaj
or
f
orumsatwhi
chnat
ionalgov
ernment
shav
e
expr
essed t
hei
rcommi
tmentt
oimpr
ovi
ng
 627

t
hest
atusofwomeni
nsoci
ety
.Theseand
ot
heri
nter
nat
ionali
nit
iat
ives hav
eyi
elded
wi
derr
ecogni
ti
on ofi
ndi
vi
dual
s’r
ight
sto
l
eadsaf
eandr
esponsi
bler
epr
oduct
ivel
i
ves
andhav
eunder
scor
edt
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyof
gov
ernment
sto not onl
yrespect t
hose
r
ight
sbutal
sot
ocr
eat
ethel
egalandpol
i
cy
env
ironmentf
ort
hei
rreal
i
zat
ion.

I
nref
erence t
o abor
ti
on,t
he i
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty has pl
edged commi
tmentt
o
r
educi
ng t
he need f
or abor
ti
on t
hrough
expandi
ng and i
mpr
ovi
ng f
ami
l
y pl
anni
ng
(
FP)ser
vicesand,
wher
ethel
awsoft
hel
and
al
l
ow,pr
ovi
ding women wi
th hi
gh-
qual
i
ty
abor
ti
oncar
e.Fur
ther
mor
e,att
hef
ive-
year
r
evi
ew oft
he I
CPD,t
her
e wer
e cal
l
sfor
gov
ernment
sto consi
derr
evi
ewi
ng l
aws
 628

t
hat cont
ain puni
ti
ve measur
es agai
nst
women who under
go i
l
legal abor
ti
ons.
Gov
ernment
s hav
e al
so agr
eed t
hat
,in
ci
rcumst
anceswher
eabor
ti
oni
snotagai
nst
t
he l
aw,heal
th sy
stems shoul
dtr
ain and
equi
p pr
ovi
der
s and t
ake measur
es t
o
ensur
ethatabor
ti
onser
vicesar
esaf
eand
accessi
ble. Addi
ti
onal measur
es t
o
saf
eguar
dwomen’
sheal
thar
eal
sor
equi
red.

Att
heUNsummi
tin2000,gov
ernment
sof
t
he wor
ld r
ati
fi
ed t
he Mi
l
lenni
um
Dev
elopment Goal
s (
MDGs) as an
i
nter
nat
ionalt
oolf
orr
educi
ngpov
ert
yand
i
mpr
ovi
ng t
he st
andar
d of l
i
ving i
nthe
dev
elopi
ngwor
ld.Oneoft
heei
ghtMDGsi
s
t
oreducet
hemat
ernalmor
tal
i
tyr
ateby75%
(
from 1990 l
evel
s) by t
he y
ear 2015.
 629

Pr
event
ingunsaf
eabor
ti
oni
soneoft
hef
ive
st
rat
egi
es f
orr
educi
ng mat
ernalmor
tal
i
ty
t
hatwas endor
sed by t
he Wor
ld Heal
th
Or
gani
zat
ion(
WHO)i
n2004.

I
nresponset
othesedev
elopment
satt
he
gl
oball
eveland changes i
n soci
aland
gender r
elat
ions wi
thi
nthe count
ry,t
he
gov
ernment of t
he Feder
al Democr
ati
c
Republ
i
cofEt
hiopi
a(FDRE)hasr
evi
ewedi
ts
l
awsandpol
i
cieswi
thi
nthel
astdecade.

Ar
ti
cles 14,15,and 16 underSect
ion I
(
HumanRi
ght
s)oft
heConst
it
uti
onr
efert
o
t
her
ight
stol
i
fe,l
i
ber
ty,andsecur
it
yoft
he
per
son.Ar
ti
cle35r
efer
stowomen’
sequal
i
ty
wi
thmenandt
hei
rri
ght
stoi
nfor
mat
ionand
t
he capaci
tyt
o be pr
otect
ed f
rom t
he
 630

danger
sofpr
egnancyandchi
l
dbi
rt
h.

The Women’
s Pol
i
cy r
ecogni
zes t
he l
ow
st
atusaccor
dedt
owomeni
nEt
hiopi
aand
el
abor
atesont
heunaccept
abl
yhi
ghl
evelof
mat
ernalmor
tal
i
ty,hi
ghf
ert
il
it
yrat
es,l
ow
use ofcont
racept
ives,har
mfult
radi
ti
onal
pr
act
icessuchasf
emal
egeni
talcut
ti
ngand
ear
lymar
ri
age,anddi
spr
opor
ti
onat
elyhi
gh
i
l
li
ter
acyr
ates.I
tal
so descr
ibes how t
he
l
awsoft
hel
andnegat
ivel
yaf
fectwomen’
s
st
atus i
n soci
ety
. The st
rat
egi
es f
or
i
mpr
ovi
ng women’
sst
atusout
li
ned i
nthe
pol
i
cyi
ncl
udei
nfor
mingandeducat
ingt
he
communi
tyonhar
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ices
and ensur
ing women’
s access t
o basi
c
heal
thcar
eandi
nfor
mat
iononFPmet
hods.
The pol
i
cy al
so st
ates t
hat“
…condi
ti
ons
 631

wher
ebywomen can hav
e ef
fect
ivel
egal
pr
otect
ionoft
hei
rri
ght
sshal
lbef
aci
l
itat
ed.
”

Ar
t35/
4oft
heConst
it
uti
onofFDRE,1995:
“
TheSt
ateshal
lenf
orcet
her
ightofwomen
t
o el
i
minat
e t
he i
nfl
uences of har
mful
cust
oms.Laws,cust
omsandpr
act
icest
hat
oppr
essorcausebodi
l
yorment
alhar
mto
womenar
epr
ohi
bit
ed.
”
Ar
t36/
1theConst
it
uti
onofFDRE,
1995:
“
Ever
ychi
l
dhast
her
ight
:

A. Tol
i
fe;
B.
Toanameandnat
ional
i
ty;
C. Toknowandbecar
edf
orbyhi
sor
herpar
ent
sorl
egal
guar
dians;
D. Nott
obesubj
ect
edt
oexpl
oit
ati
ve
pr
act
ices,
nei
thert
ober
equi
rednor
 632

per
mit
tedt
oper
for
m wor
kwhi
chmay
behazar
dousorhar
mful
tohi
sorher
educat
ion,
heal
thorwel
l
-bei
ng;
E.
Tobef
reeofcor
por
alpuni
shmentor
cr
uel
andi
nhumanet
reat
menti
n
school
sandot
heri
nst
it
uti
ons
r
esponsi
blef
ort
hecar
eofchi
l
dren.
”

5.
2.SomeSer
iousCr
imesCommi
tt
ed
Agai
nstWomenandChi
ldr
en:
5.2.
1.Abor
ti
on:

“
Abor
ti
oni
smor
ethanamedi
cali
ssue,or
anet
hicali
ssue,oral
egali
ssue.I
tis,above
al
l
,a human i
ssue,i
nvol
vi
ng women and
men as i
ndi
vi
dual
s,as coupl
es,and as
member
sofsoci
eti
es”(
Tiet
ze,
1978)
.
 633

Def
ini
ti
onofAbor
ti
on:
Abor
ti
on i
sthe t
ermi
nat
ion ofpr
egnancy
bef
oref
etalv
iabi
l
ity
,whi
chi
sconv
ent
ional
l
y
t
akent
obel
esst
han28weeksf
rom t
hel
ast
nor
malmenst
rualper
iod (
LNMP)
.Ift
he
LNMPi
snotknown,abi
rt
hwei
ghtofl
ess
t
han1000gm i
sconsi
der
edasabor
ti
on.

Wher
eAbor
ti
onI
sLegal
:
Ar
ti
cle551oft
heCr
imi
nalCodeoft
heFDRE
l
i
stsoutt
hecondi
ti
onsi
nwhi
cht
ermi
nat
ion
of pr
egnancy may be al
l
owed.Abor
ti
on
per
for
medundert
hoseci
rcumst
ancesi
snot
a cr
ime. Ar
ti
cle 552 pr
ovi
des f
or t
he
Pr
ocedur
e ofTer
minat
ing Pr
egnancy and
t
hepenal
tyofv
iol
ati
ngt
hePr
ocedur
e.Thi
s
ar
ti
cleal
sopr
ovi
desi
nit
ssub-
art
icl
e(1)t
hat
,
 634

t
heMi
nist
ryofHeal
thshal
lshor
tl
yissuea
di
rect
ive wher
eby pr
egnancy may be
t
ermi
nat
edundert
hecondi
ti
onsspeci
fi
edi
n
Ar
ti
cle 551,i
n a mannerwhi
ch does not
af
fectt
hei
nter
estofpr
egnantwomen.I
n
accor
dance wi
tht
his mandat
ethe St
ate
i
ssued, t
he ‘
Techni
cal and Pr
ocedur
al
Gui
del
i
nes f
orSaf
e Abor
ti
on Ser
vices i
n
Et
hiopi
a,May2006’whi
ch l
aid down t
he
f
oll
owi
ngi
mpl
ement
ati
ongui
del
i
nesf
ort
he
l
egal
i
zedabor
ti
on:
1.
Impl
ement
ati
ongui
def
orAr
ti
cle551sub-
ar
ti
cle1A:
 Wher
Þ 
  ethepr
egnancyi
sar
esul
tofr
ape
ori
ncest

 Ter
minat
ionofpr
egnancyshal
lbecar
ri
ed
outbasedont
her
equestandt
hedi
scl
osur
e
 635

oft
he woman t
hatt
he pr
egnancyi
sthe
r
esul
tofr
apeori
ncest
.Thi
sfactwi
l
lbe
not
edi
nthemedi
cal
recor
doft
hewoman.

 Women who r
equest t
ermi
nat
ion of
pr
egnancy af
terr
ape and i
ncestar
e not
r
equi
red t
o submi
tev
idence ofr
ape and
i
ncestand/
ori
dent
if
ytheof
fenderi
nor
der
t
oobt
ainanabor
ti
onser
vices.
2.
Impl
ement
ati
ongui
def
orAr
ti
cle551sub-
ar
ti
cle1B:
 Wher
Þ 
  ethecont
inuat
ionoft
he
pr
egnancyendanger
sthel
i
feoft
hemot
her
ort
hechi
l
dort
heheal
thoft
hemot
heror
wher
ethebi
rt
hoft
hechi
l
disar
iskt
othe
l
i
feorheal
thoft
hemot
her
3.Thepr
ovi
dershoul
d,i
nal
lgoodf
ait
h,f
oll
ow
t
heknowl
edgeofst
andar
dmedi
cal
 636

i
ndi
cat
ionst
hatnecessi
tat
eter
minat
ionof
pr
egnancyt
osav
ethel
i
feorheal
thoft
he
mot
her
.

4.Thewomanshoul
dnotnecessar
il
ybei
na
st
ateofi
l
lheal
thatt
het
imeofr
equest
ing
saf
eabor
ti
onser
vices.I
tist
her
efor
ethe
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heheal
thpr
ovi
deri
n
char
get
oassesst
hewoman’
scondi
ti
ons
anddet
ermi
nei
ngoodf
ait
hthatt
he
cont
inuat
ionoft
hepr
egnancyort
hebi
rt
hof
t
hef
etusposesat
hreatt
oherheal
thorl
i
fe.

3.
Impl
ement
ati
ongui
def
orAr
ti
cle551sub-
ar
ti
cle1C:
Þ 
  Wher
ethef
etushasan i
ncur
abl
eand
ser
iousdef
ormi
ty
 637

 I
fthe phy
sici
an af
terconduct
ing t
he
necessar
ytest
smakest
hedi
agnosi
sofa
phy
sicalor genet
ic abnor
mal
i
tyt
hat i
s
i
ncur
abl
e and/
or ser
ious,t
ermi
nat
ion of
pr
egnancycanbeconduct
ed.
4. I
mpl
ement
ati
on gui
de f
orAr
ti
cle 551
sub-
art
icl
e1D:
Þ 
  Wher
ethepr
egnantwoman,owi
ngt
oa
physi
calorment
aldef
ici
encyshe suf
fer
s
f
rom orhermi
nor
it
y,i
sphysi
cal
l
yaswel
las
ment
all
yunf
itt
obr
ingupt
hechi
l
d
Thepr
ovi
derwi
l
luset
hest
atedageont
he
medi
calr
ecor
dforage det
ermi
nat
ion t
o
det
ermi
newhet
hert
heper
soni
sunder18or
not
.Noaddi
ti
onal
proofofagei
srequi
red.

A di
sabl
ed per
son i
s one who has a
condi
ti
on cal
l
ed di
sabi
l
ityt
hat i
nter
fer
es
 638

wi
thhi
sorherabi
l
ityt
oper
for
m oneormor
e
act
ivi
ti
esofev
ery
dayl
i
ving.Di
sabi
l
itycanbe
br
oadl
ycat
egor
izedasment
alorphy
sical
.

 I
tist
her
efor
ether
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
he
heal
thpr
ovi
deri
nchar
get
oassesst
he
woman’
scondi
ti
onsanddet
ermi
nei
ngood
f
ait
hthatt
hewomani
sdi
sabl
edei
ther
ment
all
yorphy
sical
l
y.
 Ter
minat
ionofpr
egnancyunderAr
ti
cl
e
551sub-
art
icl
e1Dwi
l
lbedoneaf
terpr
oper
counsel
i
ngandi
nfor
medconsent
.
5.
Impl
ement
ati
ongui
def
orAr
ti
cle551sub-
ar
ti
cle2:
 I
Þ 
  nt
hecaseofgr
aveandi
mmi
nent
danger
,whi
chcanbeaver
tedonl
ybyan
i
mmedi
atei
nter
vent
ion,
anactof
t
ermi
nat
ingpr
egnancyi
naccor
dancewi
th
 639

t
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
ti
cle75oft
hisCodei
s
notpuni
shabl
e
Heal
thpr
ovi
der
sresponsi
blef
ort
he
pr
ovi
sionofcompr
ehensi
veabor
ti
oncar
e
ser
vicesar
eaut
hor
izedt
oper
for
m abor
ti
on
pr
ocedur
esonwomenwhosemedi
cal
condi
ti
onswar
rantt
hei
mmedi
ate
t
ermi
nat
ionofpr
egnancy.
Appl
icabl
eforal
lsub-
art
icl
es:

 Thepr
ovi
derhast
osecur
eani
nfor
med
consentf
ort
hepr
ocedur
eusi
ngast
andar
d
consentf
orm,whi
ch i
s annexed t
othi
s
gui
del
i
ne(
Appendi
xI)
.

 Thepr
ovi
dershal
lnotbepr
osecut
edi
fthe
i
nfor
mat
ion pr
ovi
ded by t
he woman i
s
subsequent
lyf
oundt
obei
ncor
rect
.
 640

 Mi
nor
s and ment
all
y di
sabl
ed women
shoul
dnotber
equi
redt
o si
gnaconsent
f
ormt
oobt
ainanabor
ti
onpr
ocedur
e.

o Pr
oofofRapeorI
ncest
:Ar
t552/
2
I
nthe case oft
ermi
nat
ing pr
egnancy i
n
accor
dancewi
thsub-
art
icl
e(1)(
a)ofAr
ti
cl
e
551t
hemer
est
atementbyt
hewomani
s
adequat
etopr
ovet
hatherpr
egnancyi
sthe
r
esul
tofr
apeori
ncest
.

o Ti
ming and pl
ace f
or t
ermi
nat
ing
pr
egnancy
:
1.
  
  
 Ter
minat
ionofpr
egnancyasper
mit
ted
byt
hel
aw canbeconduct
edi
napubl
i
cor
pr
ivat
efaci
l
ityt
hatf
ulf
il
lst
hepr
e-setcr
it
eri
a.
 641

2.
  
  
 Awomanwhoi
sel
i
gibl
eforpr
egnancy
t
ermi
nat
ionshoul
dobt
aint
heser
vicewi
thi
n
t
hreewor
kingday
s.Thi
sti
mei
susedf
or
counsel
i
ng and di
agnost
ic measur
es
necessar
yfort
hepr
ocedur
e.

3.
  
  
 Al
lheal
thf
aci
l
iti
esatt
hel
evelofa
heal
th cent
er and abov
e can per
for
m
t
ermi
nat
ion ofpr
egnancyasper
mit
ted by
Ar
ti
cle 551 f
orpr
egnanci
es l
ess t
han 12
weeksofgest
ati
onf
rom t
hef
ir
stdayoft
he
LNMP.

4.
  
  
 Ter
minat
ionofpr
egnancybet
ween13
and28weeksofgest
ati
onshoul
dbedonei
n
asecondar
yort
ert
iar
ylev
elofcar
e.

3.
Women who ar
e el
i
gibl
efor pr
egnancy
 642

t
ermi
nat
ion shoul
d hav
e t
he necessar
y
i
nfor
mat
iont
oseekabor
ti
oncar
easear
lyi
n
pr
egnancyaspossi
ble.

 Puni
shmentf
orv
iol
ati
onoft
heDi
rect
ive:
Ar
t552/
3
Anyper
son who i
svi
olat
ed t
he di
rect
ive
ment
ioned i
n sub-
art
icl
e (
1) abov
e, i
s
puni
shabl
e wi
thf
ine notexceedi
ng 1,
000
Bi
rr
,orsi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng
3mont
hs.

TheCr
imeofAbor
ti
on:Ar
ti
cle545-
550
Ar
t545 l
ays down t
he essent
ial
s oft
he
cr
imeofabor
ti
onasf
oll
ows:
1. The i
ntent
ional t
ermi
nat
ion of a
pr
egnancy
,
2.Atwhat
everst
ageorhowev
eref
fect
ed,
 643

3.Except as ot
her
wise pr
ovi
ded under
Ar
ti
cle551.

 Puni
shmentf
orAbor
ti
on:

Thenat
ureand ext
entoft
hepuni
shment
gi
ven f
or i
ntent
ional abor
ti
on shal
l be
det
ermi
ned accor
ding t
o whet
her i
tis
pr
ocur
edbyt
hepr
egnantwomanher
sel
for
byanot
her
,andi
nthel
att
ercaseaccor
ding
t
owhet
herornott
hepr
egnantwomangav
e
herConsent(Ar
t545/
2).

 Abor
ti
on Pr
ocur
ed by t
he Pr
egnant
Woman:Ar
ti
cle546.
Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentshal
lbei
mposedon
a pr
egnant woman who i
ntent
ional
l
y
pr
ocur
es her own abor
ti
on. Any ot
her
 644

per
sonwhopr
ocur
edf
orhert
hemeansof
,
or ai
ds her i
n t
he abor
ti
on, shal
l be
puni
shabl
e as a pr
inci
palcr
imi
naloran
accompl
i
ce,
wit
hsi
mpl
eimpr
isonment
.

 Abor
ti
onPr
ocur
edbyAnot
her
:Ar
ti
cle547
1.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentshal
lbei
mposedon
aper
sonwhoper
for
msanabor
ti
oncont
rar
y
t
othel
aw,orassi
stsi
nthecommi
ssi
onof
t
hecr
ime.

2.Ri
gor
ous i
mpr
isonmentshal
lbe f
rom 3
y
ear
sto10y
ear
s,shal
lbei
mposedwher
e
t
hei
nter
vent
ionwasaf
fect
ed:
agai
nstt
hewi
l
loft
hepr
egnantwoman,
or
wher
e she was i
ncapabl
e ofgi
vi
ng her
consent
,or
wher
e such consent was ext
ort
ed by
 645

t
hreat
,coer
cionordecei
t,or
wher
eshewasi
ncapabl
eofr
eal
i
zingt
he
si
gni
fi
canceofheract
ions.

3.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentshal
lbei
mposed
onapr
egnantwomanwhoconsent
stoan
act of abor
ti
on except as i
s ot
her
wise
per
mit
tedbyl
aw.

Aggr
avat
ed Cases ofAbor
ti
on:Ar
ti
cle
548

Wher
eabor
ti
oni
sper
for
medapar
tfr
om t
he
ci
rcumst
ances pr
ovi
ded by l
aw t
he
puni
shmentshal
lbeaggr
avat
edasf
oll
ows:

1.Aper
soncommi
tt
ingani
l
legalabor
ti
oni
s
puni
shabl
e wi
thf
ine i
n addi
ti
on t
othe
 646

penal
ti
espr
escr
ibedi
nAr
ti
cl
e547abov
e,i
n
caseswher
ethecr
imi
nalhasact
edf
orgai
n,
ormadeapr
ofessi
onofabor
ti
on(
Art
.92)
.
2. The puni
shment shal
l be si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentf
ornotl
esst
han1y
ear
,and
f
ine,i
ncaseswher
ethecr
imei
scommi
tt
ed
bya per
son who has no pr
opermedi
cal
pr
ofessi
on.

3. TheCour
tshal
l
,inaddi
ti
ont
o si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentandf
ine,or
derpr
ohi
bit
ionof
pr
act
ice,
eit
herf
oral
i
mit
edper
iod,
or,
wher
e
t
hecr
imei
srepeat
edl
ycommi
tt
ed,f
orl
i
fe
(
Art
.123)
,in cases wher
ethe cr
ime i
s
commi
tt
edbyapr
ofessi
onal
,inpar
ti
cul
ar,
byadoct
or,phar
maci
st,mi
dwi
fe,ornur
se
pr
act
ici
nghi
spr
ofessi
on.
 647

At
temptt
oPr
ocur
eanAbor
ti
ononaNon-
Pr
egnantWoman:Ar
ti
cle549

The gener
alpr
ovi
sions r
elat
ing t
o cr
imes
i
mpossi
ble ofcompl
eti
on (
Art
.29)shal
l
appl
yint
hecaseofat
temptt
opr
ocur
ean
abor
ti
ononawomanwr
ongl
ysupposedt
o
bepr
egnant
.

Ext
enuat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:Ar
ti
cle550

Subj
ectt
othepr
ovi
sionofAr
ti
cl
e551under
whi
ch per
for
mance ofabor
ti
on has been
al
l
owed, i
f t
he pr
egnancy has been
t
ermi
nat
ed on account of an ext
reme
pov
ert
y t
he Cour
t shal
l mi
ti
gat
e t
he
puni
shmentunderAr
ti
cle180.
 648

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Def
ineabor
ti
on.Di
scusst
hei
nst
ancesi
n
whi
chabor
ti
oni
snotacr
ime.

2.Exami
ne t
he ‘
Techni
caland Pr
ocedur
al
Gui
del
i
nes f
orSaf
e Abor
ti
on Ser
vices i
n
Et
hiopi
a,May2006’
.Ar
etheysuf
fi
ci
ent
ly
saf
etopr
otectt
hei
nter
est
sofawoman?

Br
ainSt
ormi
ng!

Shoul
d‘abor
ti
on’
bel
egal
i
zed?Doy
out
hink
t
hatawomanshoul
dhav
eabsol
uter
ight
sto
deci
deaboutt
hisquest
ionasi
tisherr
ight
 649

t
opr
ivacyandamat
terofheri
ndi
vi
dual
aut
onomy
?

CasePr
obl
em:
Ti
gistwasa6mont
hpr
egnantwoman.One
dayshe pi
cked up an ar
gumentov
eran
i
ssuewi
thDemi
ewhowashernei
ghbor
.The
ar
gumentgr
ew v
eryi
ntense and Demi
e
st
art
edbeat
ingherwi
thast
ickwhi
chhe
f
ound l
yi
ng down nearby wi
thoutev
en
consi
der
ingt
hatshewasapr
egnantwoman.
Two,t
hreebl
owsf
ellonherbel
l
ytoo.The
nextdayTi
gistdev
elopedsev
erepai
ninher
st
omach and wentf
ormedi
calcheckup.
Thedoct
orexami
nedherandt
ohershock
i
nfor
medhert
hatt
hebabyi
nherwombhad
di
edduet
othei
njur
iest
hatf
ellonherbel
l
y.
Thedeceasedbabyhadt
ober
emov
edf
rom
 650

herwombbyasur
ger
y.
Answert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ions:
1.Ofwhatcr
imeDemi
eshoul
dbechar
ged?
a. Homi
cide? Not
e t
hese poi
nt bef
ore
pr
oceedi
ng:
I
s a chi
l
dint
he womb ofi
ts mot
hera
‘
humanbei
ng’
?Doesi
tamountt
o‘causi
ng
t
hedeat
hofahumanbei
ng…’
asperAr
t.538?
CanAr
t.58/
3beappl
i
ed?Not
ethesepoi
nts:
Theact
uali
ntent
ionoft
hemani
sonl
yto
causei
njur
iest
othemot
her
.
Unl
esst
heunbor
nchi
l
dcanbesai
dtohav
e
t
hel
egalst
atusofahumanbei
nghowcani
t
bea‘
Negl
i
gentHomi
cide’ev
enbyappl
yi
ng
Ar
t.58/
3?

b.Does t
he cr
ime f
allunderany oft
he
pr
ovi
sionsdeal
i
ngwi
th“
Cri
mesAgai
nstLi
fe
ofUnbor
n”(
Art
s.545-
552)
?Do y
ou t
hink
 651

t
hatt
hehar
m causedt
otheunbor
nher
e
amount
sto‘
Abor
ti
on’
?
c.Doy
out
hinkt
hatt
her
eissomel
apsei
nthe
Cr
imi
nal
Codet
ori
ght
lycov
ert
hiscase?

5.
2.2.Har
mfulTr
adi
ti
onalPr
act
ices:

Meani
ng:
Har
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
icesi
ncl
udef
emal
e
ci
rcumci
sion/
geni
tal mut
il
ati
on, f
aci
al
scar
ri
ng,andt
hef
orce-
feedi
ngofwomen,
ear
ly orf
orced mar
ri
age,and nut
ri
ti
onal
t
aboos,
tradi
ti
onalpr
act
icesassoci
atedwi
th
chi
l
dbi
rt
h, dowr
y-r
elat
ed cr
imes, honor
cr
imes,and t
he consequences of son
pr
efer
ence. These pr
act
ices adv
ersel
y
af
fectt
heheal
th ofwomen and chi
l
dren.
 652

Thr
ough cont
rol
l
ing women’
s bodi
es f
or
men’
s benef
itand t
hrough ensur
ing t
he
pol
i
ticaland economi
c subor
dinat
ion of
women, har
mful t
radi
ti
onal pr
act
ices
per
pet
uat
ethe i
nfer
iorst
atus ofwomen.
Despi
te t
hei
r har
mful nat
ure and t
hei
r
v
iol
ati
onofi
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
slaws,
suchpr
act
icesper
sistbecauseoft
hef
act
t
hatt
heyar
enotquest
ioned.

Ther
eis an encour
agi
ng and a gr
owi
ng
i
nter
nat
ional awar
eness t
hat har
mful
t
radi
ti
onalv
aluesandpr
act
icesactasr
oot
causes f
or di
scr
imi
nat
ion and v
iol
ence
agai
nstgi
rl
s.Sev
eralst
udi
esbot
hsci
ent
if
ic
andsoci
alat
testt
hef
actt
hatv
aluebased
di
scr
imi
nat
ioni
ssy
stemi
canduni
ver
sal
.
 653

Thest
udi
esoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsSpeci
al
Rappor
teur on Tr
adi
ti
onal Pr
act
ices
Af
fect
ingt
heHeal
thofWomenandGi
rl
s,
Mr
s.Hal
i
ma E.War
zaziunder
taken si
nce
1989hav
epr
esent
edcompel
l
ingev
idences
ofdi
scr
imi
nat
ionandv
iol
enceagai
nstgi
rl
s
based on l
ong uphel
d soci
alv
alues and
pr
act
ices. The soci
ali
zi
ng pr
ocesses
obser
ved f
orboy
sand gi
rl
sar
edesi
gned
andr
igor
ousl
yappl
i
edt
oinst
il
laf
eel
i
ngof
super
ior
it
ytoboy
swhi
l
egi
rl
sar
egr
oomed
t
o acceptsubj
ugat
ion and i
nfer
ior
it
ywi
th
apat
hy.Thi
sest
abl
i
shedpat
ri
archalsy
stem
has l
ong endur
ed t
he passage of t
ime
cut
ti
ngacr
ossgeogr
aphi
calboundar
iesas
wel
las r
eli
gious and cl
ass di
ff
erences.
Whi
l
e t
his unf
ort
unat
e si
tuat
ion i
s
uni
ver
sal
l
ythemani
fest
ati
onsofexpr
essi
on
 654

of di
scr
imi
nat
ion and t
he degr
ees of
v
iol
enceagai
nstgi
rl
svar
yfr
om soci
etyt
o
soci
ety
.

Anof
fi
cialRepor
trel
easedonJune1,2001,
byt
heOf
fi
ceoft
heSeni
orCoor
dinat
orf
or
I
nter
nat
ionalWomen'
sIssues,Of
fi
ceoft
he
Under Secr
etar
yfor Gl
obalAf
fai
rs,U.
S.
Depar
tmentofSt
ate, ent
it
led “
Ethi
opi
a:
Repor
tonFemal
eGeni
talMut
il
ati
on(
FGM)
orFemal
eGeni
talCut
ti
ng(
FGC)
”li
stedt
he
f
oll
owi
ng t
ypes of har
mful t
radi
ti
onal
pr
act
icespr
eval
enti
nEt
hiopi
a:

Ty
peI
:Ty
peIi
stheexci
sion(
remov
al)of
t
hecl
i
tor
alhoodwi
thorwi
thoutr
emov
alof
al
lorpar
toft
hecl
i
tor
is.
 655

Ty
peI
I:Ty
peI
Iist
heexci
sion(
remov
al)of
t
hecl
i
tor
ist
oget
herwi
thpar
toral
loft
he
l
abi
ami
nor
a(t
hei
nnerv
agi
nal
li
ps)
.

Ty
peI
II
:Ty
peI
IIi
stheexci
si
on(
remov
al)of
par
toral
loft
heext
ernalgeni
tal
i
acl
i
tor
is,
l
abi
ami
nor
aandl
abi
amaj
ora)andst
it
chi
ng
ornar
rowi
ngoft
hev
agi
nalopeni
ng,l
eav
ing
av
erysmal
lopeni
ng,aboutt
hesi
zeofa
mat
chst
ick,
toal
l
owf
ort
hef
lowofur
ineand
menst
rualbl
ood.Thegi
rlorwoman'
slegs
ar
ethenboundt
oget
herf
rom t
hehi
ptot
he
ankl
e so she r
emai
ns i
mmobi
l
e f
or
appr
oxi
mat
ely 40 day
sto al
l
ow f
ort
he
f
ormat
ionofscart
issue.

Ty
pe I
V: Ty
pe I
Vincl
udes t
he pr
icki
ng,
pi
erci
ng ori
nci
sion oft
he cl
i
tor
is and/
or
 656

l
abi
a.I
nEt
hiopi
athe"
Mar
iam Gi
rz"i
nvol
ves
bl
oodl
ett
ingwi
thashar
pneedl
eper
for
med
on gi
rl
s wi
th a st
unt
ed cl
i
tor
is who ar
e
assumedt
ohav
ebeenal
readyci
rcumci
sed
bySt
.Mar
y.

Thet
ypeofpr
ocedur
eandt
hest
agei
na
womanorgi
rl
'
sli
fewheni
tisper
for
med
v
aryaccor
dingt
oregi
onsoft
hecount
ry.I
t
mayt
akepl
aceei
ghtday
saf
terbi
rt
h,atany
t
ime bet
ween t
he age ofsev
en and t
he
onsetofpuber
ty,orj
ustbef
oremar
ri
age.
Womenpr
act
it
ioner
sper
for
mthepr
ocedur
e.
I
tisgener
all
yper
for
medwi
thoutt
heai
dof
anest
hesi
a.

 Pr
act
ice:
Ty
pe I (
commonl
y r
efer
red t
o as
 657

cl
i
tor
idect
omy
) and Ty
pe I
I(commonl
y
r
efer
redt
oasexci
sion)ar
ethet
womost
commonf
ormsoff
emal
egeni
talmut
il
ati
on
(
FGM) or f
emal
e geni
tal cut
ti
ng (
FGC)
pr
act
icedamongEt
hiopi
anwomenandgi
rl
s,
Ty
peI
Ibei
ngt
hemostcommon.Ty
peI
II
(
commonl
yref
err
ed t
o as i
nfi
bul
ati
on)i
s
pr
act
iced i
nthe east
ern Musl
i
m r
egi
ons
bor
der
ing Sudan and Somal
i
a.Ty
pe I
V
(
ref
err
edt
oas"
Mar
iam Gi
rz"i
nEt
hiopi
a)i
s
pr
act
iced mai
nlyi
nthe Amhar
aregi
on.
Thesepr
act
icescr
ossr
eli
giousboundar
ies,
i
ncl
udi
ngChr
ist
ians,Musl
i
msandEt
hiopi
an
Jews(
Fal
ashas)
.

 I
nci
dence:
Et
hiopi
aremai
nsoneoft
heAf
ri
ca'
smost
t
radi
ti
onalsoci
eti
es,ev
enwheni
tcomest
o
 658

l
egi
slat
ion.Al
thought
hecount
ryhasagr
eat
et
hni
c, r
eli
gious and cul
tur
al di
ver
sit
y,
at
ti
tudes t
owar
ds women'
s r
ight
s ar
e
r
elat
ivel
y homogenous i
nrur
alsoci
eti
es,
wher
efemal
egeni
talmut
il
ati
on and ear
ly
mar
ri
agesar
ethenor
ms. Thesepr
act
ices
ar
esodeepr
oot
edi
nthecul
tur
eandt
he
soci
alpsy
cheofEt
hiopi
athatt
hepeopl
e
hav
eal
mostaccept
edi
taspar
toft
hei
rli
fe
especi
all
y i
n t
he Or
omi
a and Somal
i
a
r
egi
ons.Ther
efor
e,t
hese i
ssues need a
car
efulandsensi
ti
vet
reat
mentt
hroughl
ong
t
erm pr
ogr
amswi
thper
sist
enceandst
rong
det
ermi
nat
ion.I
tisawel
lknownf
actt
hat
t
hese pr
obl
ems ar
erampant t
hroughout
Af
ri
cancont
inent
.

Anest
imat
ed130mi
l
li
onwomeni
nAf
ri
ca
 659

hav
e under
gone FGM (
Femal
e Geni
tal
Mut
il
ati
on)
, a pr
act
ice car
ri
ed out i
n
appr
oxi
mat
ely28Af
ri
cancount
ri
es.Acr
oss
EastAf
ri
ca gi
rl
s and y
oung women f
ace
FGM,whi
chv
iol
atet
hei
rri
ght
sandposea
sev
erer
isk t
othei
rment
aland phy
sical
heal
th.I
nfi
bul
ati
on,t
hemostsev
eref
orm of
mut
il
ati
on i
s pr
act
iced pr
edomi
nant
lyi
n
Sudan,Somal
i
a,andDj
i
bout
iaswel
lasi
n
some par
ts of Et
hiopi
a and Egy
pt.
Et
hiopi
ansper
for
m geni
talcut
ti
ngwi
thi
na
f
ew day
s of bi
rt
h,and Sudanese gi
rl
s
exper
iencei
tatageof12.

I
n 1997/
1998 t
he Nat
ionalCommi
tt
ee on
Tr
adi
ti
onalPr
act
ices i
n Et
hiopi
a(NCTPE)
car
ri
ed outa nat
ionalbasel
i
ne sur
veyt
o
det
ermi
net
hepr
eval
enceoft
hispr
act
ice.
 660

Some44,
000peopl
ewer
eint
erv
iewedi
na
st
udyr
eachi
ng 65 ofEt
hiopi
a'
s80 et
hni
c
gr
oups(
urbanandr
ural
)inal
ltenr
egi
onsof
t
he count
ry.The publ
i
shed r
esul
ts show
72.
7per
centoft
hef
emal
epopul
ati
onhav
e
under
goneoneoft
hesepr
ocedur
es.

Regi
onalst
ati
sti
csoft
hepr
eval
encef
rom
t
hesur
veyar
e:Af
arRegi
on–94.
5per
cent
;
Har
are Regi
on – 81.
2 per
cent
;Amhar
a
Regi
on – 81.
1 per
cent
;Or
omi
a Regi
on –
79.
6 per
cent
;Addi
s Ababa Ci
ty – 70.
2
per
cent
;Somal
iRegi
on – 69.
7 per
cent
;
BeneshangulGumuzRegi
on–52.
9per
cent
;
Ti
gray Regi
on – 48.
1 per
cent
;Sout
her
n
Regi
on–46.
3per
cent
.

Ty
peI
,of
tencal
l
edt
he"
sunnaci
rcumci
si
on"
 661

i
nEt
hiopi
a,i
scommonl
ypr
act
icedamong
t
he Amhar
as,Ti
gray
ans and t
he Jeber
ti
Musl
i
msl
i
vingi
nTi
gray
.TheGur
ages,
some
Ti
gray
ans, Or
omos and t
he Shanki
l
as
pr
act
iceTy
peI
I.Ty
peI
II
,themostdr
ast
ic
andhar
mfulf
orm,i
scommonamongt
he
Af
ar,t
heSomal
iand t
heHar
ari
.Ty
peI
V,
cal
l
ed"
Mar
iam Gi
rz"
,ispr
act
icedmai
nlyi
n
Goj
am i
ntheAmhar
aregi
on.

Anumberofgr
oupsdonotpr
act
iceanyof
t
hese f
orms.These ar
ethe Bengas of
Wel
l
ega,t
heAzezo,t
heDor
ze,t
heBonke,
t
heShamaandsomepopul
ati
ongr
oupsi
n
Godol
e,KonsoandGoj
am.

 At
ti
tudesandBel
ief
s:
Cul
tur
alpr
act
ice encour
ages women t
o
 662

under
gooneoft
hesepr
ocedur
es.I
tisof
ten
associ
atedwi
thposi
ti
veat
tri
but
essuchas
gai
ning r
espect wi
thi
n t
he v
il
lage and
becomi
ngawoman.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,gi
rl
s
who hav
e not under
gone one of t
he
pr
ocedur
esar
econsi
der
edmor
eli
kel
ytobe
pr
omi
scuous and,t
her
efor
e,unwor
thy of
mar
ri
age.Thebel
i
efal
soexi
stst
hatext
ernal
f
emal
egeni
tal
sar
euncl
ean

Some use r
eli
gion as t
he basi
sfort
hei
r
j
ust
if
icat
ioni
nper
for
mingt
hesepr
ocedur
es,
despi
tet
hef
actt
heyar
enotr
equi
red by
ei
thert
heQur
anort
heBi
ble.SomeCopt
ic
Chr
ist
ianpr
iest
sref
uset
obapt
izegi
rl
swho
hav
enotunder
goneoneoft
hepr
ocedur
es.

Ot
herhar
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
icessur
vey
ed
 663

byt
heNCTPEi
ncl
udeuv
ulect
omy
,mi
l
k-t
eet
h
ext
ract
ion, ear
ly mar
ri
age, mar
ri
age by
abduct
ion,andf
oodandwor
kpr
ohi
bit
ions.
The mat
ernalmor
tal
i
tyr
atei
s ext
remel
y
hi
ghdue,
inpar
t,t
ofoodt
aboosf
orpr
egnant
women,pov
ert
y,ear
lymar
ri
age,and bi
rt
h
compl
i
cat
ions r
elat
ed t
o FGM,especi
all
y
i
nfi
bul
ati
on.
 
 Per
for
mer
sofFGM:
Because t
he maj
ori
ty of Af
ri
can
communi
ti
esst
il
lli
vei
nrur
alcommuni
ti
es,
t
radi
ti
onal
cir
cumci
ser
sper
for
mthepr
act
ice
usi
ngav
ari
etyofsomet
imescont
ami
nat
ed
and i
nst
rument
s and wi
thoutanest
hesi
a.
I
nst
rument
s used r
ange i
ncl
ude t
he
t
radi
ti
onal ci
rcumci
sion bl
ades, kni
ves,
pi
ecesofgl
assorst
ones,scal
pel
s,r
azor
 664

bl
ades and sci
ssor
s.I
ncr
easi
ngl
y,t
rai
ned
heal
thpr
ovi
der
s(nur
ses,mi
dwi
ves,doct
ors
andot
heral
l
iedheal
thper
sonnel
)car
ryout
FGM/
FGC.Hospi
talcl
eaner
sandv
eter
inar
y
doct
orshav
eal
sobeenr
epor
tedt
oper
for
m
t
hepr
act
icei
nsomecommuni
ti
es.Wi
tht
he
i
ncr
easi
ng awar
eness ofnegat
ive heal
th
consequencesofFGM/
FGC,mor
efami
l
ies
especi
all
ytheeducat
edandur
bani
zedar
e
t
aki
ngt
hei
rdaught
erst
otheheal
thf
aci
l
iti
es
and/
orpr
ofessi
onal
sinor
dert
oreducet
he
i
mmedi
atecompl
i
cat
ions.Heal
thpr
ovi
der
s
of
ten use hospi
talequi
pmentand dr
ugs
(
localanest
hesi
a,ant
ibi
oti
cs,ant
-t
etanus
and v
itami
n K)t
oreduce t
he i
mmedi
ate
compl
i
cat
ions of t
he pr
act
ice i
ncl
udi
ng
bl
eedi
ng,pai
n and i
nfect
ions. Howev
er,
WHO,UNFPA andi
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty
 665

condemn medi
cal
i
zat
ion of t
he pr
act
ice
underanyci
rcumst
ances.

 I
mmedi
ate Heal
th consequences of
FGM:
Theheal
thconsequencesofFGM ar
ebot
h
i
mmedi
ate and l
i
fe-
long i
ncl
udi
ng
haemor
rhage, t
rauma, and i
nfect
ions,
i
ncl
udi
ngHI
V/AI
DS.I
nfactFGM i
soneof
t
he mai
n heal
th hazar
ds t
hat hav
e
si
gni
fi
cant
ly cont
ri
but
ed t
o av
ery hi
gh
mat
ernal mor
tal
i
ty r
ate i
n Somal
i
a.
Obst
ruct
edl
abourduet
ogeni
talscar
ri
ngi
s
oneoft
hemostcommoncompl
i
cat
ionsof
FGM.

Theaf
teref
fect
sofFGM st
artdur
ingt
he
pr
ocess ofmut
il
ati
on and cont
inue f
ora
 666

per
iod ofa f
ew hour
sto sev
eraly
ear
s.
These i
ncl
ude hemor
rhage,pai
n,shock,
i
nfect
ion and abscesses, i
njur
yto t
he
adj
acentt
issues,Fr
act
uresanddi
sl
ocat
ion,
f
ail
uret
o heal
.Wound heal
i
ng may be
del
ayedasar
esul
tofi
rr
it
ati
onofur
ine,
poor
cy
stsandabscessesont
hev
ulv
a,r
ecur
rent
ur
inar
ytr
acti
nfect
ions,i
nfect
ion neart
he
ur
ethr
acancer
,di
ff
icul
ti
esi
nmenst
ruat
ion,
chr
oni
c pel
vi
c i
nfect
ion, obst
etr
ic
compl
i
cat
ions, kel
oid scar f
ormat
ion,
di
ff
icul
ti
esi
npr
ovi
dinggy
necol
ogi
cal
car
e.

 Har
mful Tr
adi
ti
onal Pr
act
ices
Pr
ohi
bit
ed Under t
he Cr
imi
nalCode of
Et
hiopi
a:Ar
ts561-
570

Tr
adi
ti
onal Pr
act
ices Endanger
ing t
he
 667

Li
vesofPr
egnantWomenandChi
ldr
en Ar
t
561-
563
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethepr
act
icest
radi
ti
onal
l
y
pr
act
iced agai
nstwomen and chi
l
dren i
n
Et
hiopi
aandar
eli
kel
ytoendangert
hei
rli
ves:
omassagi
ng t
he abdomen ofa pr
egnant
woman,orshaki
ngawomani
napr
olonged
l
abour
;or
osoi
l
ingt
heumbi
l
icalcor
dofanewl
y-
bor
n
chi
l
dwi
thdungorot
hersi
mil
arsubst
ances,
keepi
nganewl
y-
bor
nchi
l
doutoft
hesun,
or
of
eedi
ngt
henewl
ybor
n-chi
l
dwi
thbut
ter
,
exci
singt
heuv
ulaofachi
l
dor
ot
aki
ngoutmi
l
kteet
hor
opr
event
ingt
hechi
l
dfr
om bei
ngv
acci
nat
ed;
or
ot
heexer
ciseofot
hert
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ices
known by t
he medi
calpr
ofessi
on t
o be
 668

har
mful

 Puni
shment
s:
1.Fi
neorsi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentr
angi
ngf
rom
3mont
hst
o1y
ear
,forcausi
ngt
hedeat
hof
apr
egnantoradel
i
ver
ingwomanort
hatof
a newl
y bor
n chi
l
d as a r
esul
tof t
he
appl
i
cat
ionofahar
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ice
(
Art
.561/
1).

2.a)Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentr
angi
ngf
rom 6
mont
hst
o3y
ear
sorf
inef
rom 2,
000Bi
rrt
o
4,
000Bi
rr
,Wher
ethedeat
hwascausedby
negl
i
gence,
( Ar
t 561/
2)(
the r
elev
ant
pr
ovi
sionoft
hisCodeAr
t.543)
.

b)Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentof1 y
eart
o5
y
ear
sandf
inef
rom 3,
000Bi
rrt
o6,
000Bi
rr
,
 669

wher
ethedeat
hwasduet
othenegl
i
gence
ofapr
ofessi
onal
medi
cal
per
son9Ar
t543/
2.

3. Fi
ne or si
mpl
e i
mpr
isonment not
exceedi
ng si
xmont
hs,f
orcausi
ng bodi
l
y
i
njur
yorment
ali
mpai
rmentt
oapr
egnantor
del
i
ver
ingwomanort
oanewl
y-
bor
nchi
l
das
ar
esul
toft
he appl
i
cat
ion ofa har
mful
t
radi
ti
onal
pract
ice(
Art562/
1).
4. a)Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng
si
xmont
hsorf
inenotexceedi
ng1,
000Bi
rr
,
wher
ethei
njur
ytobody
,mi
ndorheal
thwas
caused by negl
i
gence Ar
t 562/
2 (
the
r
elev
antpr
ovi
sion oft
hisCode(
Art
.559)
shal
lappl
y).
b)Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnotl
ess t
han 6
mont
hsandf
inenotl
esst
han1,
000Bi
rr
wher
ethei
njur
yisgr
avewi
thi
nthemeani
ng
 670

ofAr
t555andi
scausedbyt
hosewhoar
e
undera speci
alorpr
ofessi
onaldut
y(Ar
t
559/
2).

5.War
ning i
nst
ead ofpuni
shmentatt
he
di
scr
eti
onoft
heCour
t:Ar
t.563
I
nrespectoft
hecr
imesspeci
fi
ed under
Ar
ti
cles561and562,t
heCour
tmaygi
vea
cr
imi
nalonl
yawar
ningi
nst
eadoff
ineora
penal
tyent
ail
i
ngt
hel
ossofl
i
ber
tyt
aki
ng
i
ntoaccountt
heage,educat
ion,exper
ience
orsoci
alst
atusoft
hecr
imi
nal
,

 Vi
olenceAgai
nstaMar
ri
agePar
tnerora
Per
sonCohabi
ti
ngi
nanI
rr
egul
arUni
on:
Ar
ti
cle564
Thi
sar
ti
cler
aisesaser
iousdoubtr
egar
ding
whet
her t
his cr
ime r
ight
ly f
all
s under
 671

har
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ices ornot
.Thi
s
ar
ti
cle def
ines a cr
ime r
elat
ing t
ovi
olent
conductofahusbandoraper
sonl
i
vingi
n
an i
rr
egul
aruni
on t
owar
ds hi
s spouse or
compani
on. Wher
e a per
son bei
ng a
mar
ri
agepar
tneroraper
soncohabi
ti
ngi
n
ani
rr
egul
aruni
oncausesgr
aveorcommon
i
njur
ytohi
s/herphy
sicalorment
alheal
th
by doi
ng v
iol
ence,he shal
lbe puni
shed
undert
her
elev
antpr
ovi
sion oft
hisCode
(
Art
s.555 -560)
.The cr
imi
nalshal
lbe
puni
shed hav
ing r
egar
dtot
he nat
ure of
i
njur
ythati
scausedt
othev
ict
im ofsuch
v
iol
ence.

Femal
eCi
rcumci
sion:Ar
t.565
Femal
e ci
rcumci
sion (
FC)
,al
so known as
f
emal
e geni
tal mut
il
ati
on (
FGM)
,is a
 672

pr
ocedur
ethati
nvol
vespar
ti
alorcompl
ete
r
emov
alofext
ernalf
emal
e geni
tal
i
a.The
def
ini
ti
on gi
ven by t
he Wor
ld Heal
th
Or
gani
zat
ion (
WHO) st
ates t
hat
,“f
emal
e
ci
rcumci
sion compr
ises ofal
lpr
ocedur
es
i
nvol
vi
ng par
ti
alort
otalr
emov
aloft
he
ext
ernalf
emal
egeni
tal
i
aorot
heri
njur
yto
t
he f
emal
e geni
tal or
gans whet
her f
or
cul
tur
al,r
eli
giousorot
hernon-
ther
apeut
ic
r
easons" (
WHO,1998,p.
5).The Uni
ted
Nat
ionsChi
l
dren'
sFund,t
heUni
tedNat
ions
Popul
ati
onFund,andt
heWHO hav
ejoi
ntl
y
i
ssuedast
atementt
hatFCandFGM causes
unaccept
abl
ehar
m andi
ssuedacal
lfort
he
el
i
minat
ionoft
hospr
act
icewor
ldwi
de.The
WHO al
so cont
ends t
hat f
emal
e
ci
rcumci
sioni
sa"
viol
ati
onofi
nter
nat
ional
l
y
accept
ed r
ight
s" (
WHO, p.
1). Femal
e
 673

ci
rcumci
sion i
s a wi
despr
ead cul
tur
al
pr
act
ice and af
fect
s mi
l
li
ons of y
oung
women. I
ssues r
elat
ed t
o f
emal
e
ci
rcumci
siont
hatar
eofspeci
alconcer
nar
e
heal
th consequences,ci
vi
lri
ght
s,cul
tur
al
consi
der
ati
ons, and l
egal and et
hical
aspect
s.
Anot
herpr
obl
em i
sthatt
het
ermf
emal
e
ci
rcumci
sioni
svague,
ref
err
ingt
oany
oneor
mor
eofanumberofsur
gical
procedur
es.
Thesehav
ebeendef
inedbyt
heWor
ld
Heal
thOr
gani
zat
ionasf
oll
ows:

Femal
eGeni
tal
Mut
il
ati
oncompr
isesal
l
pr
ocedur
est
hati
nvol
vepar
ti
alort
otal
r
emov
aloff
emal
eext
ernal
geni
tal
i
aand/
or
i
njur
ytot
hef
emal
egeni
tal
organsf
or
cul
tur
aloranyot
hernon-
ther
apeut
icr
eason.
 674

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Ty
pe1:
Exci
sionoft
hepr
epucewi
thor
wi
thoutexci
sionofpar
toral
loft
hecl
i
tor
is
Ty
pe2:
Exci
sionoft
hecl
i
tor
ist
oget
herwi
th
par
ti
alort
otal
exci
sionoft
hel
abi
ami
nor
a
Ty
pe3:
Exci
sionofpar
toral
loft
heext
ernal
geni
tal
i
aandst
it
chi
ng/
nar
rowi
ngoft
he
v
agi
nal
openi
ng(
inf
ibul
ati
on)
Ty
pe4:
Uncl
assi
fi
ed(
butmayi
ncl
ude)
:
 pr
icki
ng,
pier
cingori
nci
sionoft
hecl
i
tor
is
and/
orl
abi
a;
 st
ret
chi
ngoft
hecl
i
tor
isand/
orl
abi
a;
 caut
eri
zat
ionbybur
ningoft
hecl
i
tor
isand
sur
roundi
ngt
issue;
 i
ntr
oci
sion;
 scr
api
ng(
angur
yacut
s)orcut
ti
ng(
gishr
i
cut
s)oft
hev
agi
naorsur
roundi
ngt
issue;
 i
ntr
oduct
ionofcor
rosi
vesubst
ancesor
 675

her
bsi
ntot
hev
agi
na;
 anyot
herpr
ocedur
ethatf
all
sundert
he
def
ini
ti
onoff
emal
egeni
tal
mut
il
ati
ongi
ven
abov
e

(
Sour Femal
ce: eGeni
talMut
il
ati
on:Repor
t
ofaWHOTechni
calWor
kingGr
oup,
Genev
a,
Jul
y1995.(
Wor
ldHeal
thOr
gani
zat
ion:
Genev
a,1996)
The sev
eri
ty of f
emal
e ci
rcumci
si
on
dependsonwhi
choft
heseoper
ati
onsar
e
per
for
med(
aswel
lashowr
oughl
y),
andi
tis
t
ruet
hatt
hemostext
remef
orms(
inv
olv
ing
t
heamput
ati
onoft
heext
ernalgeni
tal
i
a,wi
th
or wi
thout i
nfi
bul
ati
on) ar
e si
gni
fi
cant
ly
wor
set
hanev
ent
hemostr
adi
calf
oreski
n
amput
ati
on.
 676

Puni
shment
:
Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentf
ornotl
esst
han3
mont
hs,orf
inenotl
esst
han500Bi
rr
,shal
l
bei
mposedonany
onewhoci
rcumci
sesa
womanofanyage.

I
nfi
bul
ati
on of t
he Femal
e Geni
tal
ia:
Ar
ti
cle566
I
nfi
bul
ati
oni
nvol
vest
heexci
sionofgeni
tal
i
a
and cl
osur
e of t
he v
agi
nalopeni
ng by
st
it
chi
ng and i
s gener
all
y consi
der
ed t
he
most ext
reme f
orm of FGM/
C.Thi
sis
di
stur
bingasi
tindi
cat
est
hatsomewomen
who hav
e not under
gone i
nfi
bul
ati
on
t
hemsel
veschooset
oputt
hei
rdaught
ers
t
hrough t
he most sev
ere t
ype of
ci
rcumci
sion.
 677

Puni
shment
s:
1.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
rom 3y
ear
sto5
y
ear
s shal
l be i
mposed on any
one
per
for
mingi
nfi
bul
ati
onoft
hegeni
tal
i
aofa
woman.

2.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
rom 5y
ear
sto
10y
ear
sshal
lbei
mposedont
hecr
imi
nal
wher
einj
uryt
obodyorheal
thhasr
esul
ted
duet
oinf
ibul
ati
on,subj
ectt
othepr
ovi
si
on
oft
heCr
imi
nalCodewhi
chpr
ovi
desf
ora
mor
esev
erepenal
ty.
Puni
shment
sforcausi
ngBodi
lyI
njur
ies
Thr
ough Ot
her Har
mful Tr
adi
ti
onal
Pr
act
ices:Ar
ts.567-
578
 678

1.
Oneoft
hepenal
ti
espr
escr
ibedundert
he
pr
ovi
sions ofAr
ti
cle 561 orAr
ti
cl
e 562
abov
e shal
lbe i
mposed on t
he cr
imi
nal
s
i
nfl
i
cti
ng upon anot
her bodi
l
yinj
ury or
ment
al i
mpai
rment t
hrough a har
mful
t
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ice ot
her t
han t
he ones
speci
fi
ed abov
e and ar
e known f
ort
hei
r
i
nhumani
tyandascer
tai
nedt
obehar
mfulby
t
hemedi
cal
prof
essi
on.

2.
Thepenal
ti
espr
escr
ibedf
ort
hespr
eadof
communi
cabl
edi
seasesunderAr
t514shal
l
beappl
i
edconcur
rent
lywher
ethev
ict
im has
cont
ract
ed a communi
cabl
edi
sease asa
r
esul
tofone oft
he har
mfult
radi
ti
onal
pr
act
icesspeci
fi
edi
ntheabov
epr
ovi
si
ons.
Puni
shment
sforPar
ti
cipat
ioni
nHar
mful
Tr
adi
ti
onalPr
act
icesi
ndi
ff
erentcapaci
ti
es:
 679

Ar
ts569-
570
1.
Simpl
eimpr
isonment not exceedi
ng 3
mont
hs,orf
inenotexceedi
ng500Bi
rr
,shal
l
bei
mposedonapar
entoranyot
herper
son
par
ti
cipat
ingi
nthecommi
ssi
onofoneof
t
he cr
imesspeci
fi
ed i
nthi
sChapt
er(
Art
.
569)
.

2.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentf
ornotl
esst
han3
mont
hs,orf
inenotl
esst
han500Bi
rr
,or
bot
h,shal
lbet
hepuni
shmenti
mposedona
cr
imi
nalwho i
nci
tes t
he commi
ssi
on of
any
oneoft
hehar
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ices
ment
ionedabov
e,i
nany
oneoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
way
s(Ar
t.570)
:
opubl
i
clyorot
her
wisei
nci
tesorpr
ovokes
anot
hert
odi
sregar
dthepr
ovi
si
onsoft
his
Code pr
ohi
bit
ing har
mful t
radi
ti
onal
 680

pr
act
ices,
or
oor
gani
zesamov
ementt
opr
omot
esuch
end,
ort
akespar
tinsuchamov
ement
,or
osubscr
ibes t
othe schemes of such
mov
ement
.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Def
inehar
mfult
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ices.Why
ar
etheybei
ngpr
act
icedi
rr
espect
iveoft
hei
r
har
mful
nat
ure?
2.Whati
sFGM?Howmanyt
ypesofFGM ar
e
pr
act
icedi
nEt
hiopi
aandwhatar
ethei
rev
il
consequences?

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng:

1.Do y
ou t
hink t
hat t
he puni
shment
s
pr
escr
ibed f
orv
ari
ous har
mfult
radi
ti
onal
pr
act
icesar
esuf
fi
cient
lydet
err
ent
?
 681

2.I
svi
olenceagai
nsta mar
ri
agepar
tnera
t
radi
ti
onalpr
act
ice? Why i
s Ar
ti
cl
e 564
i
ncl
udedi
nthi
schapt
eroft
heCode?

5.
2.3.
Bigamy
:

Bi
gamyi
sthecondi
ti
onofhav
ingt
wowi
ves
ort
wo husbands att
he same t
ime.A
mar
ri
age i
n whi
ch one oft
he par
ti
es i
s
al
readyl
egal
l
ymar
ri
ed i
sbi
gamous,v
oid,
and gr
ound f
orannul
ment
.The one who
knowi
ngl
yent
ersi
ntoabi
gamousmar
ri
age
i
s gui
l
ty of t
he cr
ime of bi
gamy
.
Unf
ort
unat
ely
,iti
s sel
dom pr
osecut
ed
unl
essi
tispar
tofaf
raudul
entschemet
o
getanot
her
'spr
oper
tyorsomeot
hercr
ime.
Hav
ingsev
eralwi
vesatt
hesamet
imei
s
cal
l
ed "
pol
ygamy
"and bei
ng mar
ri
ed t
o
 682

sev
eral
husbandsi
s"pol
yandr
y."

 Bi
gamy Jeopar
dizes Tr
adi
ti
onal
I
nst
it
uti
onofMar
ri
age:
Bi
gamy mor
e di
rect
ly j
eopar
dizes t
he
t
radi
ti
onali
nst
it
uti
onofmar
ri
age,andmor
e
t
hanmor
ali
tyi
sinpl
ay.
 Recor
dkeepi
ngby
st
ates,t
hesaf
etyandwel
l
-bei
ngofchi
l
dren
andt
hest
abi
l
ityoft
hef
ami
l
yuni
tar
eal
l
pot
ent
ial
l
y i
mpl
i
cat
ed by bi
gamous
r
elat
ionshi
ps. Bi
gamy al
so f
inds no
wi
despr
eadt
radi
ti
onoft
oler
ance,ei
theri
n
ourcount
ry'
srecentormor
edi
stantpast
.
Soci
ety sees bi
gamy as mor
all
y wr
ong.
Bi
gamy has ev
erbeen pr
otect
ed by our
soci
ety–t
othecont
rar
ybi
gamyhasal
way
s
 been i
l
legal
,and a basi
sfor mar
it
al
di
ssol
uti
on.
 683

 Bi
gamy UnderEt
hiopi
an Fami
ly Law:
Ar
ti
cle650-
651
Ar
ti
cle650r
equi
rest
hef
oll
owi
ngessent
ial
el
ement
stoconst
it
uteacr
imeofbi
gamy
:
1.I
ntent
ional
l
ycont
ract
inganot
hermar
ri
age
2.Whi
l
est
il
lbei
ngt
iedbyt
hebondofa
v
ali
dmar
ri
agei
.e.bef
oret
hef
ir
stuni
onhas
beendi
ssol
vedorannul
l
ed

Puni
shment
sforBi
gamy
:
1.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonment
,innor
mal
cases.
2.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ngf
ive
y
ear
s,i
ngr
avecases,andespeci
all
ywher
e
t
he cr
imi
nal has knowi
ngl
y mi
sl
ed hi
s
par
tneri
ntheseconduni
onast
ohi
str
ue
st
ate.
3.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentshal
lbei
mposedon
 684

anyunmar
ri
edper
sonwhomar
ri
esanot
her
he knows t
o be t
ied byt
he bond ofan
exi
sti
ngmar
ri
age(
Art
.650/
2).

Suspensi
onofLi
mit
ati
onPer
iod:Ar
t650/
3
Li
mit
ati
on of cr
imi
nal pr
oceedi
ngs i
s
suspendedunt
ilsucht
imeasoneoft
het
wo
mar
ri
ages shal
lhav
e been di
ssol
ved or
annul
l
ed.I
n ot
her wor
ds,t
he l
i
mit
ati
on
per
iodst
art
srunni
ngonl
yaf
teroneoft
he
t
wo mar
ri
ages hav
e been decl
ared as
di
ssol
vedorannul
l
ed.

Except
iont
oBi
gamy
:Ar
ti
cle651
Mar
ryi
ngagai
ndur
ingt
hesubsi
stenceofa
v
ali
dmar
ri
agemaynotamountt
hecr
imeof
bi
gamy wher
eiti
sin conf
ormi
ty wi
th
r
eli
giousort
radi
ti
onalpr
act
icesr
ecogni
zed
 685

byl
aw.Thi
spr
ovi
sioni
sinf
acti
nli
newi
th
t
heConst
it
uti
onalpr
ovi
sionsAr
t.34(
4)and
(
5).UnderAr
t34/
4theConst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
des
t
hat
,laws may be enact
ed t
o gi
ve
r
ecogni
ti
on t
o r
eli
gious and cust
omar
y
mar
ri
ages. Accor
dingl
y,t
he Ci
vi
l Code
r
ecogni
zessuchmar
ri
ages.Ar
t.34/
5al
l
ows
t
heuseofcust
omar
yandr
eli
giousl
awst
o
adj
udi
cat
edi
sput
esofaf
ami
l
yandper
sonal
l
aw nat
ure,pr
ovi
ded t
he par
ti
es consent
t
her
eto.Ont
hebasi
sofAr
t.
34(
5),Ar
ti
cl
e
78(
5)oft
heConst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
dest
hat“
…the
Counci
lof peopl
e’
s Repr
esent
ati
ves and
st
atecounci
l
scanest
abl
i
shorgi
veof
fi
ci
al
r
ecogni
ti
ont
orel
i
gionsandcul
tur
alcour
ts.
”
Ther
efor
e,underEt
hiopi
an l
aw,mar
ri
age
coul
d be concl
uded i
n any
one of t
he
f
oll
owi
ngt
hreeway
s:
 686

bef
oreanof
fi
cerofci
vi
lst
atus,
accor
dingt
other
eli
gionoft
hepar
ti
es,
or
accor
dingt
olocalcust
om (
Art
.577oft
he
Ci
vi
lCode)
.
Al
ltheset
ypesofmar
ri
agespr
oducet
he
same l
egalef
fect
s(Ar
t.
625 oft
he Ci
vi
l
Code)
.Ar
ts.605(
2)and606(
2)speci
fi
cal
l
y
pr
ovi hat r
de t eli
gious and cust
omar
y
mar
ri
ages ar
e subj
ectt
othe condi
ti
ons
common t
o al
lfor
ms ofmar
ri
age,most
i
mpor
tantofwhi
char
eage,pr
ohi
bit
ionof
mar
ri
age bet
ween per
sons r
elat
ed by
consangui
nit
yandaf
fi
nit
y,t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionof
bi
gamy
,andt
her
equi
rementofconsentof
t
hespouses.I
fthi
sisso,Ar
t561oft
he
Cr
imi
nalcode seems t
o be cont
radi
cti
ng
wi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
t606/
2oft
heCi
vi
l
Code whi
ch makes ev
en t
he cust
omar
y
 687

mar
ri
ages subj
ect t
o t
he common
condi
ti
onsofav
ali
dmar
ri
ageandt
her
eby
bei
ngi
nav
ali
dmar
ri
agei
sadi
squal
i
ficat
ion
f
orasubsequentcust
omar
ymar
ri
age.

Ar
t.34(
5)oft
heFDREConst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
des
t
hat adj
udi
cat
ion of f
ami
l
y di
sput
es by
r
eli
giousandcul
tur
all
awsi
sal
l
owed…i
fal
l
par
ti
est
othedi
sput
eagr
ee.Butt
hisgoes
cont
rar
ytoCEDAW Ar
t.
5(a)whi
chi
mposes
an obl
i
gat
ion of modi
fyi
ng soci
al and
cul
tur
alpr
ejudi
cesandpr
act
icesbasedon
t
hei
nfer
ior
it
yandsuper
ior
it
yoft
hesexes,
and CEDAW Ar
t. 15 under whi
ch al
l
agr
eement
s whi
ch hav
e t
he ef
fect of
r
est
ri
cti
ngt
hel
egalcapaci
tyofwomen(
in
t
his case v
olunt
ary submi
ssi
on t
o t
he
j
uri
sdi
cti
on of cust
omar
y and r
eli
gious
 688

t
ri
bunal
s.)Ar
t.34(
5)oft
heConst
it
uti
onf
ail
s
t
opr
otectt
her
ight
sofwomen.Ar
t.
34(
1)of
t
heConst
it
uti
ongi
veswomenequalr
ight
s
asr
egar
dst
omar
ri
age,dur
ingmar
ri
ageand
ati
tsdi
ssol
uti
on,
andi
frel
i
giousl
aws,
whi
ch
ar
egi
venr
ecogni
ti
onaccor
dingt
oAr
t.34(
5)
di
scr
imi
nat
e agai
nst women;i
t can be
ar
guedt
hatt
heyar
eunconst
it
uti
onal
.

TheCi
vi
lCodepr
ohi
bit
sbi
gamy(
Art
.588)
.
Bi
gamousmar
ri
agesar
edi
ssol
vabl
eont
he
r
equest of ei
ther spouse or t
he publ
i
c
pr
osecut
or;and non-
conf
ormi
ty wi
th Ar
t.
585oft
heCi
vi
lCodei
spuni
shabl
e.

Si
ncebi
gamyi
sani
ndi
gni
tyt
owomenanda
v
iol
ati
onofCEDAW Ar
t.
5(a)whi
chr
equi
res
t
hemodi
fi
cat
ionofcul
tur
alpr
act
iceswhi
ch
 689

ar
epr
ejudi
ci
alt
owomen,t
her
evi
si
onofAr
t
34/
5oft
heConst
it
uti
onandAr
t561oft
he
Cr
imi
nal Code shoul
d be ser
iousl
y
consi
der
edi
nor
dert
omeett
hest
andar
dsof
t
hei
nter
nat
ionali
nst
rument
sont
hepoi
nt.I
n
ot
her wor
ds, Ar
t.
34(
5) of t
he FDRE
Const
it
uti
on whi
ch al
l
ows adj
udi
cat
ion of
per
sonalorf
ami
l
ydi
sput
esbyr
eli
giousor
cul
tur
all
aws i
s by i
tsel
fcont
rar
yto our
t
reat
yobl
i
gat
ions.

Judi
cialTr
endt
owar
dsBi
gamyandPr
oof
Mar
ri
age
•AnshaSei
dVTsehayAbebe(
Addi
sAbeba
Hi
ghCour
t,Ci
vi
lCaseNo37/
82)
•Di
ri
beAnaV YeshiZewge(
Addi
sAbeba
Hi
ghCour
t,Ci
vi
lCaseNo402.
85)
•TsehayAssef
aVSunkaBi
yan(
Regi
on14
 690

Regi
onal
Cour
t,1987,
CaseNo404/
85)

Al
lthese casesr
evealt
hatCour
tsar
ein
f
avoroff
indi
ng t
hatbi
gamousmar
ri
ages
ar
eval
i
d.Bi
gamyi
sani
ndi
gni
tyt
owomen,
but
,ift
hebi
gamousmar
ri
agei
sconcl
uded
i
naccor
dancewi
tht
hel
aw(
inei
theroft
he3
modes) and i
fiti
s not di
ssol
ved i
n
accor
dancewi
tht
hel
aw (
inei
theroft
he3
di
ssol
vi
ng modes)
,the mar
ri
age,al
bei
ta
bi
gamous one,must be r
ecogni
zed as
l
egal
l
yval
i
d.Thi
sisgood f
ort
hesecond
wi
fewhowoul
dot
her
wisebedeni
edaccess
t
o common pr
oper
ty and pensi
on.The
danger
,howev
er,i
sthat i
t encour
ages
pol
ygamy
.In any ev
ent
,the Cour
t’
s
deci
sionsar
einl
i
newi
tht
hel
awandpr
ovi
de
l
egalpr
otect
ion f
orwomen whose r
ight
s
 691

wer
einf
ri
nged byt
hepr
act
iceofbi
gamy
.
Thi
spr
otect
ioni
sinl
i
newi
thCEDAW Ar
t.2
(
c).Thepr
obl
em ofbi
gamycanbeseeni
n
l
i
ght of t
he f
ail
ure f
or compul
sor
y
r
egi
str
ati
onofmar
ri
ages.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Def
inebi
gamy
.Ist
hisal
i
mit
ati
ont
o
i
ndi
vi
dual
aut
onomy
?
2.Ar
t651cr
eat
eanexcept
iont
othecr
ime
ofbi
gamy
.Isi
tnotv
olat
izi
ngt
hepr
inci
pleof
equal
i
ty?

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng!
Why i
s t
he cr
ime of adul
ter
y made
 692

puni
shabl
e onl
yon t
he f
il
ing ofa f
ormal
compl
aintandf
oracr
imeofbi
gamyt
her
eis
no such pr
ocedur
alf
ormal
i
ty? Does t
his
meant
hatont
hei
nfor
mat
ionofbi
gamous
mar
ri
agest
atepr
osecut
ioncanbei
nst
it
uted?
I
sn’
tthecr
imeofbi
gamyofpr
ivat
enat
ure?

Br
ainst
ormi
ng!
Hav
ingr
egar
dtot
hej
udi
cial
trendi
nfi
ndi
ng
t
hebi
gamousmar
ri
agesv
ali
dwhatpur
pose
dot
hepr
ovi
sionsi
ntheCr
imi
nal
Codeser
ve?
Cant
hecr
imi
nal
sti
l
lbepuni
shedf
orbi
gamy
ev
enaf
tert
hebi
gamousmar
ri
agebei
ng
decl
aredv
ali
d?
 693

6.
Rape:
Rapei
sanactofsexuali
nter
cour
sewi
thout
women'
sconsent
.Iti
saper
vasi
vef
orm of
gender
-basedv
iol
ence.Asar
esul
t,women
suf
ferphy
sical
l
y,soci
all
y,psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y
andemot
ional
l
y.Rapei
ssi
mpl
ytheul
ti
mat
e
weapon t
hatmen use t
o exer
cise t
hei
r
powerov
erwomen and t
o exhi
bitt
hei
r
al
l
egednat
uraldomi
nat
ion.I
tisanactof
host
il
it
y, power
, cont
rol
, humi
l
iat
ion,
degr
adat
ion and i
tis an at
tack on a
woman’
sbody
,onherf
eel
i
ngsandonher
whol
eli
fe,si
nce,i
nthef
inalanal
ysi
s,i
tisa
v
iol
ati
onoft
hemostsensi
ti
vepar
tofher
bodyaswel
lasherpsy
che.Rapei
snotj
ust
t
hepr
obl
em oft
hedev
elopi
ngwor
ld;i
tis
al
so a gl
obalpr
obl
em t
hatneeds gl
obal
 694

at
tent
ion.

 Def
ini
ti
onofRape:

Thewor
d‘r
ape’
hasdi
ff
erentdef
ini
ti
ons.For
e, Webst
exampl er’
s Di
cti
onar
y (
1975)
def
inesi
tast
he'
i
ll
ici
tcar
nalknowl
edgeofa
woman wi
thoutherconsent
,ef
fect
ed by
f
orce,dur
ess,i
nti
midat
ion,ordecept
ionas
t
othe nat
ure oft
he act
.'Mi
l
lerf
urt
her
def
ines i
t as ‘
a consci
ous pr
ocess of
i
nti
midat
ion by whi
ch al
lmen keep al
l
womeni
nast
ateoff
ear
’.Mor
ri
s,i
nherbook
Women,Cr
ime,andCr
imi
nalJust
ice,speaks
ofr
apeasmot
ivat
edbyanger(
inv
olv
ingan
expr
essi
onofhost
il
it
ytowar
dswomenand
a desi
ret
o humi
l
iat
ethem)and power
(
inv
olv
ingt
heasser
ti
onofdomi
nanceov
er
 695

women)
.

These def
ini
ti
ons, howev
er, ar
e l
i
mit
ed
becauset
hev
ict
imsofr
api
ngar
enotj
ust
women. I
tis an open secr
et t
hat a
si
gni
fi
cantnumberofchi
l
drenandmenar
e
r
aped dai
l
y,and t
hatt
he r
api
sts and t
he
v
ict
imsar
enotonl
yhet
erosexual
.Rapeand
f
earofr
apehassi
gni
fi
cant
lyaf
fect
edt
he
l
i
vesoft
hev
ict
ims,whet
herwomen,menor
chi
l
dr Excer
en. ( pt f
rom Ref
lect
ions:
Document
ati
on oft
he For
um on Gender
,
Number5,
Jul
y2001,
PanosEt
hiopi
a)

 CausesofRape:
Ev
ent
hought
hepot
ent
ial
causesofr
apear
e
v
ari
ed and cont
rov
ersi
al, because of
per
sonaland cul
tur
albel
i
efs as wel
las
 696

economi
c st
atus, t
he most commonl
y
at
tri
but
edcausesofr
apear
einequal
i
tyi
n
genderpowerr
elat
ionsandt
heangerand
sadi
sm oft
her
api
sts.Sexi
nessi
snott
he
pr
imar
y mot
ive under
lyi
ng r
ape,as most
peopl
emi
ghtt
endt
othi
nk.Ev
idencesr
eveal
t
hatt
he sexualaspectofa r
ape i
s of
secondar
yimpor
tance,asmar
ri
edmenand
womenwi
thpar
tner
shav
ebeenr
epor
tedt
o
hav
efor
cedt
hemsel
vesonot
herwomenor
chi
l
dren.
I
nEt
hiopi
a'
scaset
her
eisar
angeofot
her
compl
ex cont
ri
but
ing f
act
orsf
or r
api
ng,
suchascul
tur
eandt
radi
ti
on,pov
ert
yand
war
.

 Cul
tur
e: Cul
tur
all
y t
ransmi
tt
ed
assumpt
ionsaboutmen'
sdomi
nanceov
er
 697

women,men'
s power ov
er women,et
c.
cont
ri
but
e hi
ghl
ytot
he ev
er i
ncr
easi
ng
numberofr
apecasesr
epor
ted.Ther
eisa
t
remendous deni
al about t
he i
ssue of
v
iol
ence agai
nstwomen and chi
l
dren i
n
Et
hiopi
a.Et
hiopi
ansar
edef
ensi
veaboutany
cr
it
ici
sm di
rect
edagai
nstt
hei
rsoci
ety
.The
ev
idencet
hatt
heEt
hiopi
ancul
tur
etol
erat
es
sexualv
iol
enceagai
nstgi
rl
sandwomeni
s
t
he pr
act
ice of mar
ri
age by abduct
ion.
Abduct
ion and ear
ly mar
ri
age, al
way
s
f
oll
owed byr
ape,ar
ethenor
msi
nsome
par
ts ofoursoci
ety
.Ki
dnappi
ng and t
he
concomi
tantr
api
ngofawoman,
asoneway
ofacqui
ri
ngawi
fe,
isacommonoccur
rence.
Thesoci
alaccept
anceoft
hispr
act
iceput
s
al
lwomenandchi
l
dreni
nast
ateoff
ear
,so
much so t
hatt
he UN has r
epor
ted t
hat
 698

womenar
esev
erel
yreduci
ngt
hedai
l
ywat
er
and nut
ri
ti
onali
ntake oft
hei
rfami
l
ies i
n
or
dert
oav
oidbei
ngr
apedi
nthef
iel
dor
wal
ki
ngt
owel
l
stocol
l
ectwat
er

 Pov
ert
y:Pov
ert
y dr
ives women and
chi
l
dreni
ntocommer
cialsexandst
reet
ism,
whi
ch make t
hem v
ulner
abl
eto sexual
expl
oit
ati
on, abuse and r
ape. As ear
ly
mar
ri
agei
srampanti
nther
uralar
eas,
those
escapi
ng t
hist
ype ofmar
ri
age,ort
hose
si
mpl
yescapi
ng r
uralpov
ert
y,mi
grat
eto
t
owns and ci
ti
es wher
ethey wi
l
lei
ther
become mai
dser
vant
s or j
oin t
he
commer
cialsex i
ndust
ry.Theyar
e,mor
e
of
tent
hannot
,rapedi
nthesepl
aceswher
e
t
heymaket
hei
rli
vi
ngaspr
ost
it
utesorev
en
att
hehomeswher
etheyser
veasmai
ds.
 699

 War
:Hi
stor
yissmear
edwi
thal
otof
ugl
ylessonsaboutt
hei
nter
rel
ati
onbet
ween
warandr
ape.Thi
shashappenedi
nal
most
al
lthewar
sthathi
stor
yhasknown.Rapei
s
used i
n mostwar
s as r
evenge agai
nst
cer
tai
nraces,et
hni
cgr
oupsand r
eli
gious
communi
ti
es.Put
ti
ngasi
def
ort
hemoment
t
heunf
orgi
vabl
evi
cti
mizat
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
women,
thev
ict
orsuser
apef
ort
hepur
pose
ofdemor
ali
zi
ngandi
nti
midat
ingt
hesi
det
o
whi
ch t
he v
ict
ims bel
ong. UNI
CEF'
s
Pr
ogr
ess of Nat
ions 1997 r
epor
t has
r
eveal
ed t
hatov
er20,
000 Musl
i
m women
wer
eknownt
ohav
ebeenr
apedi
nBosni
a-
Her
zegov
ina dur
ing t
her
ecentwari
nthe
Bal
kans,andt
hatmor
ethan15,
000women
wer
erapedi
noney
eari
nRwanda.Mass
 700

r
apehasal
sobeenr
epor
tedt
ohav
etaken
pl
ace as a weapon ofwari
n Cambodi
a,
Li
ber
ia,
Per
u,Somal
i
aandUganda.Et
hiopi
an
medi
ahav
erepor
tedt
hatEr
it
reansol
dier
s
r
apedEt
hiopi
anwomendur
ingt
het
woy
ear
Et
hio-
Eri
tr
eanconf
li
ct.

 ConsequencesofRape:
1.Psy
chol
ogi
calI
njur
y:
Though t
he compl
i
cat
ions ofr
api
ng v
ary
enor
mousl
y,dependi
ng upon age,cul
tur
e
and ot
her r
elat
ed f
act
ors,i
tleav
es t
he
v
ict
ims,t
hei
rfami
l
ymember
s,aswel
las
t
hei
r communi
ti
es wi
th enor
mous
psy
chol
ogi
cal
trauma.Ot
herf
ormsoft
ort
ure
and i
l
l-t
reat
ment t
hat ar
e al
way
s
accompani
edbyr
apel
eav
evi
cti
msscar
red
 701

f
orl
i
fe.About90% oft
hev
ict
imssuf
fer
s
somedegr
eeofphy
sicali
njur
yandt
hreat
s
ofv
iol
encecompoundedbyt
hepr
esenceof
weaponsandi
nti
midat
ingv
erbalabuses.As
ar
esul
t,t
he f
oll
owi
ng ar
esomepossi
ble
psy
chol
ogi
calconsequences whi
ch r
aped
womenandchi
l
drenf
ace:f
earandphobi
a,
r
epr
essed angerl
eadi
ng t
o ov
erwhel
ming
depr
essi
onandanxi
ety
,feel
i
ngofgui
l
t,sel
f-
bl
ame,shame,l
ossofcont
rolov
eronesel
f,
i
mmense shock and di
sbel
i
ef,conf
usi
on,
di
ff
icul
ty i
n maki
ng deci
si
ons, hat
red
t
owar
ds men, di
mini
shed sel
f-
est
eem,
f
eel
i
ngs ofwor
thl
essness,f
earofbei
ng
al
one,di
sobedi
ence,av
ersi
on t
o sexual
i
nter
cour
se,t
hought
sofsui
ci
de,desi
ref
or
r
evenge,et
c.Atl
eastt
woort
hreeoft
hese
emot
ionaldi
sor
der
s occur i
n any gi
ven
 702

v
ict
im.I
tis al
so easy t
oimagi
ne how
hor
rendous t
he out
come wi
l
lbe when i
t
happenst
ophy
sical
l
y,psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
yand
ment
all
yimmat
urechi
l
dren.Wor
ldwi
de40-
90 per
cent of sexual assaul
ts ar
e
per
pet
rat
edagai
nstgi
rl
swhoar
e15y
ear
s
ol
dory
ounger
.

2.Ef
fect
sonPhy
sical
Heal
th:
Rapebr
ingssi
gni
fi
cantheal
thpr
obl
emst
o
t
hev
ict
ims.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,i
tcanl
eadt
o
unwant
edpr
egnanci
esandt
ransmi
ssi
onsof
STDs,i
ncl
udi
ng HI
V/AI
DS.Somet
imest
he
r
apev
ict
imsar
efor
cedt
oresor
ttounsaf
e
opt
ionst
o abor
tthei
rpr
egnanci
esusual
l
y
car
ri
ed outbyi
ncompet
entpeopl
e,whi
ch
ar
e mor
e of
ten t
han not f
oll
owed by
compl
i
cat
ions.Someoft
hecompl
i
cat
ions
 703

ar
einf
ect
ion,i
ncl
udi
ngHI
V/AI
DS,t
orr
ent
ial
bl
eedi
ng,per
for
ati
onoft
heut
erus,i
nfer
ti
li
ty,
et
c.These and ot
herphy
sicaldamages
occur especi
all
y when r
ape v
ict
ims ar
e
t
hosewhoar
ebi
ologi
cal
l
yweak.

Mor
eov
er, due t
o t
he hi
gh bi
ologi
cal
r
ecept
ivi
tyt
ovi
ralt
ransmi
ssi
on ofy
oung
v
ict
ims,
ther
eisagr
eat
err
iskofcont
ract
ing
STDs, i
ncl
udi
ng HI
V/AI
DS. Wor
ldwi
de,
women bet
ween t
he ages of15 and 24
accountf
orhal
fofnew HI
Vinf
ect
ions,and
t
her
eisnodoubtt
hatmostoft
hem ar
edue
t
orapi
ng.Gener
all
y,t
heconsequencesof
r
api
ng ar
eal
lint
err
elat
ed.Thepr
ocessi
s
l
i
keav
ici
ousci
rcl
e.

oSoci
alSt
igma:
 704

Because r
api
ng i
s associ
ated wi
th soci
al
st
igma,t
he v
ict
imsl
ose t
hei
rdi
gni
tyand
r
especti
nthe soci
ety
.They al
so f
ind i
t
di
ff
icul
ttopar
ti
cipat
einsoci
alact
ivi
ti
es,as
ar
esul
tofwhi
cht
heyal
i
enat
ethemsel
ves
f
rom t
he soci
ety
.Inr
uralar
eas,when a
womani
sabduct
edandr
aped,shewi
l
lno
l
ongergeta husband unl
ess herr
api
st
mar
ri
esher
,whi
chofcour
sewi
l
laddt
oher
mi
ser
y.Shewi
l
lrunawayt
oci
ti
eswher
e
nobodyknowsher
,onl
ytof
acepr
ost
it
uti
on,
st
reet
ism andot
hersoci
alpr
obl
ems.
.
Rapi
stsandVi
cti
msofRape:
Al
lwomenar
epot
ent
ialv
ict
imsofr
api
ng
andal
lmenar
epot
ent
ialr
api
sts.Theactof
r
api
nghasnoboundar
ies.I
tcanhappent
o
any
oneandany
wher
e,becausei
tisasoci
al
 705

at
tack agai
nst women, i
rr
espect
ive of
r
eli
gion,r
ace,age,col
or,economi
cst
atus,
et
c.Rapi
sts,t
oo,ar
emember
sofav
ary
ing
r
aci
al,r
eli
gious,soci
o-economi
c and age
gr
oups.I
tisanactt
hatmayi
nvol
vey
our
mot
her
,si
ster
,daught
er,f
ri
ends,andev
en
y
our
sel
fasv
ict
im,andt
her
api
stcoul
dbe
y
ourf
ather
,br
other
,rel
ati
ve,st
ranger
,lov
ed
one, nei
ghbor
, f
ri
end or a casual
acquai
ntance.I
tiscont
inuousl
ybecomi
ng
i
mpossi
ble f
or any
one t
o compl
etel
y
guar
ant
eet
hei
rownper
sonalsaf
etyi
nthei
r
env
ironment
.

I
n t
he maj
ori
ty of cases,r
api
ng i
sa
del
i
ber
atel
y pl
anned acti
n whi
ch r
api
sts
car
eful
l
ysel
ectt
hei
rvi
cti
msaswel
last
he
t
ime and pl
ace t
o per
pet
rat
ethe cr
ime.
 706

Rapi
stst
ake adv
ant
age ofci
rcumst
ances
and l
ook f
or oppor
tuni
ti
es t
o get t
hei
r
v
ict
ims al
one,par
ti
cul
arl
ytar
get
ing y
oung
gi
rl
s.I
nev
eryactofr
api
ngt
hesexualacti
s
ameansofexpr
essi
ngt
heaggr
essi
veneeds
andf
eel
i
ngst
hatoper
atei
ntheper
pet
rat
or.
The coer
cion t
akes a v
ari
ety of f
orms,
i
nvol
vi
ngt
heuseofphy
sicalf
orce,
thr
eat
,or
t
act
icsofbar
gai
ningbyt
her
api
st.
U.D.Nuj
oma say
sthatt
he maj
ori
ty of
r
api
stsar
enotpat
hol
ogi
calmonst
ersbut
psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y'nor
mal
'men.Thei
mageof
t
her
api
stasal
one,psy
chopat
hicst
alkeri
s
t
heexcept
ionandnott
her
ule.Ont
heot
her
hand,ot
her
s ar
gue t
hatmen who hav
e
ser
ious psy
chol
ogi
cal and per
sonal
i
ty
di
sor
der
s,whi
ch t
hey di
schar
ge t
hrough
sexualv
iol
ence,
hav
enor
egar
dtowhatmay
 707

happent
othem ort
oot
her
s.Ther
efor
e,t
hey
ar
e not det
err
ed by such l
ogi
cal
consi
der
ati
onsast
hepuni
shmentt
heymay
f
aceort
hedi
sgr
acet
heybr
ingupont
hei
r
f
ami
l
ies,ort
he pai
nthey cause t
othei
r
v
ict
ims.Butwhatwecangener
all
yagr
ee
abouti
sthatar
api
sti
sasexual
l
ydev
iant
per
son whose act
ions ar
e uni
ver
sal
l
y
condemned.The maj
ori
ty oft
he r
api
sts
car
ryoutt
heact
stoexpr
esst
hei
rhost
il
it
y
t
owar
ds women (
anger
),t
o asser
tthei
r
domi
nanceov
erwomen(
power
),orasan
out
letf
ort
hei
raggr
essi
vebehav
ior
.

TheExt
entofRapei
nEt
hiopi
a:
I
n Et
hiopi
ather
eis har
dlyanyst
ati
sti
cal
ev
idenceordat
aonr
api
ngapar
tfr
om what
i
soccasi
onal
l
yment
ionedont
hemedi
a.So,
 708

wecannotst
atet
heext
entofi
tspr
eval
ence
and di
str
ibut
ion i
nthe count
ry.Thi
sis
because r
api
ng i
s one of t
he most
unr
epor
ted cr
imes due t
othe pr
evai
l
ing
at
ti
tudet
hati
tisshamef
ulanddegr
adi
ngt
o
t
hev
ict
ims,
andt
hus,
thel
esssai
dabouti
ta
bet
terway
.

Howev
er,i
tis bel
i
eved t
hatr
api
ng has
i
ncr
easedov
ert
hel
astf
ew y
ear
s.Though
t
her
easonsf
ort
hisbel
i
efar
enotst
il
lcl
ear
,
one r
eason coul
d be t
hat r
ape cases
r
epor
tedt
othepol
i
cehav
eincr
easedsol
ate.
Thepr
obl
em coul
dnotbeef
fect
ivel
ysol
ved,
howev
er,ast
her
eisnosy
stemat
icr
esear
ch
doney
et.Butwecanhav
eagl
i
mpseofhow
r
api
ngi
sput
ti
ngoursoci
etyi
ndangerf
rom
asur
veyconduct
edbyKasay
eMul
uget
ain
 709

hi
ghschool
sofAddi
sAbabaandWest
ern
Shoa. I
n 1997, a sel
f-
admi
nist
ered
anony
mousquest
ionnai
rewasdi
str
ibut
edt
o
det
ermi
ne t
he pr
eval
ence ofr
api
ng and
r
epor
tedt
heout
comesofsexualv
iol
ence.A
t
otalof1401f
emal
est
udent
swer
einv
olv
ed
i
nthest
udy
.Thepr
eval
enceofcompl
eted
r
ape and at
tempt
ed r
ape agai
nstf
emal
e
st
udent
swas5%and10%,r
espect
ivel
y.The
age r
ange oft
hose agai
nstwhom act
ual
r
api
ngwascommi
tt
edwasbet
ween12and
23y
ear
s,and85%oft
her
api
ngv
ict
imswer
e
l
ess t
han 18 y
ear
s ofage.Oft
he t
otal
r
espondent
s78%bel
i
evedt
hatr
api
ngwasa
maj
or pr
obl
em const
rai
ning t
hei
r
educat
ionalper
for
mance.Among t
he 72
gi
rl
swhor
epor
tedt
hatt
heyhadbeenr
aped,
24% had v
agi
naldi
schar
ge and 17% had
 710

becomepr
egnant
.Soci
ali
sol
ati
on,f
earand
phobi
a,hopel
essnessandsui
ci
deat
tempt
s
wer
erepor
tedi
n33%,19%,22%,6% oft
he
r
apecases,r
espect
ivel
y.I
twasconcl
uded
t
hat t
he pr
eval
ence of sexual v
iol
ence
among hi
gh schoolst
udent
sisa ser
ious
pr
obl
em.Consi
der
ingt
hatt
hisdat
apr
ovi
de
onl
yav
erysmal
lsampl
eoft
heexper
iences
off
emal
e st
udent
sin Et
hiopi
a,one can
i
magi
net
heext
entoft
hedangert
hatt
he
soci
etyi
sfaci Excer
ng.( ptf
rom Ref
lect
ions:
Document
ati
on oft
he For
um on Gender
,
Number5,
Jul
y2001,
PanosEt
hiopi
a).

The Et
hiopi
an Const
it
uti
on and Cr
imi
nal
CodeonRape:
Ar
ti
cle 35(
4)oft
he Const
it
uti
on pr
ovi
des
pr
otect
ion f
orwomen and chi
l
dren f
rom
 711

cr
imesofr
api
ngandabduct
ion.What
ever
t
hemot
ivat
ionf
orr
ape,t
hev
astmaj
ori
tyof
t
hev
ict
imsdonotf
eeladequat
elypr
otect
ed
byl
aw.Despi
tet
hef
actt
hatl
awsagai
nst
r
api
ng exi
st on paper
, ost
ensi
bly f
or
women'
s pr
otect
ion,t
her
e ar
e ef
fect
ive
soci
alandl
egalconst
rai
ntswhi
chpr
event
womenf
rom ut
il
izi
ngt
hei
rlegalr
ight
s.The
1957PenalCodeaddr
essest
hequest
ionof
r
api
ngi
nar
ti
cle589,accor
dingt
owhi
cht
he
act i
s “
puni
shabl
e wi
th r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonment not exceedi
ng 10 y
ear
s.”
Wher
eiti
scommi
tt
ed“
onachi
l
dunder15
y
ear
sofage;oronani
nmat
eofahospi
tal
,
al
ms-
houseorasy
lum,oranyest
abl
i
shment
of educat
ion, cor
rect
ion, i
nter
nment or
det
ent
ion,
whosei
sundert
hesuper
visi
onor
cont
rolordependentupon t
he accused
 712

per
son;orbyanumberofper
sonsact
ingi
n
concer
t,
”iti
s“puni
shabl
e by a r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng15y
ear
s.”
Thi
sPenalCodei
swhatwehav
ebeenusi
ng
f
oral
most44 y
ear
snow.Thel
aw books
r
efl
ectt
heat
ti
tudeoft
hecul
tur
e.Buti
tis
r
idi
cul
ous t
o st
il
l mai
ntai
n such l
aws
(
Ori
ginalWol
de Gi
orgi
s ofEWLA)att
he
pr
esent
.

EWLAshoul
dbecommendedf
orwhatt
hey
hav
ebeendoi
ngonbehal
fofal
lEt
hiopi
an
women.Theyhav
erev
isedt
hel
awr
egar
ding
r
api
ng as wel
las ot
herl
aws r
elat
ed t
o
women,andt
heyar
eal
sogi
vi
ngl
egalai
dto
women.Atonef
orum pr
esent
ati
oni
twas
r
epor
ted t
hat t
her
e wer
e some
i
mpr
ovement
sint
henewdr
aftl
aw,suchas
 713

speci
fyi
ngt
hemi
nimum (
5year
s)andt
he
maxi
mum (
20y
ear
s)penal
ti
esofr
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonment
,dependi
ngonci
rcumst
ances;
si
mil
arl
y,t
hecat
egor
yof‘
young’r
egar
ding
r
apev
ict
imshasbeenchangedt
oincl
ude
per
sonswhoar
e18y
ear
sol
d.Buti
nsome
cases,t
hepr
obl
em doesnotl
i
ewi
tht
hel
aw
i
tsel
fbutwi
tht
he j
udi
ciar
y sy
stem.Few
casescomet
ocour
t,st
il
lfewerr
api
stsar
e
conv
ict
ed,and t
hev
ict
im,r
athert
han t
he
r
api
st,i
sputont
ri
al,r
ender
ingr
apest
il
la
ser
ious t
hreat t
o women. When one
consi
der
sthati
tist
her
api
stwhobenef
it
s
mostf
rom t
hesi
l
enceont
hepar
toft
he
j
udi
ciar
y,i
tishar
dtoav
oidt
heconcl
usi
on
t
hatsoci
alat
ti
tudesandt
hei
rar
ti
cul
ati
oni
n
t
hel
egalpr
ocessoper
atet
opr
otectnott
he
v
ict
im butt
her
api
st.Ast
hingsst
andnow,
 714

bei
ngr
apedi
swhati
spuni
shedandwhatat
t
hesamet
imeconst
it
utest
hecr
imeThe
r
easonspr
ovi
dedbyr
api
stsf
ort
hei
racti
s
t
hatt
hev
ict
im was‘
wal
ki
ngal
one'oratt
he
wr
ongpl
aceatt
hewr
ongt
ime,ort
hatshe
wasaski
ngf
ori
tdur
ingadat
e.Letusgr
ant
t
hatsuchsexualmy
thsar
etr
ue.Butwhatof
chi
l
dvi
cti
ms?I
tist
ooobv
ioust
ost
ateher
e
t
hat t
her
eis a need f
or ar
rest
ing and
conv
ict
ing r
api
sts so t
hatt
hey don'
tgo
aboutr
api
ngmor
epeopl
eatwi
l
l.

Thedut
iesofpar
ent
stot
hei
rchi
l
dren,as
bei
ng t
hei
rnat
uralguar
dians,consi
sti
n
mai
ntai
ningandeducat
ingt
hem dur
ingt
he
seasonofi
nfancyandy
out
h,andi
nmaki
ng
r
easonabl
e pr
ovi
sion f
or t
hei
r f
utur
e
usef
ulness and happi
ness i
nli
fe,by a
 715

si
tuat
ion sui
ted t
o t
hei
r habi
ts,and a
compet
entpr
ovi
sionf
ort
heexi
genci
esof
t
hatsi
tuat
ion.

Essent
ialEl
ement
sofRapi
ng:Ar
ti
cle620
Toest
abl
i
shacr
imeofr
api
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
element
sshoul
dbepr
oved:
1.
Compul
sion of a woman t
o submi
tto
sexual
int
ercour
se
2.
Out
sidet
hewedl
ock
3.
The compul
sion may be by any oft
he
f
oll
owi
ngmeans:
a.
Useofv
iol
ence;
or
b.
Grav
eint
imi
dat
ion,
or
c.
Aft
erhav
ing r
ender
ed herunconsci
ousor
i
ncapabl
eofr
esi
stance

 Puni
shmentf
orRapi
ng:
 716

1.
Rigor
ous i
mpr
isonment r
angi
ng f
rom 5
y
ear
sto15y
ear
sinnor
mal
cases.
2.
Rigor
ous i
mpr
isonment r
angi
ng f
rom 5
y
ear
s t
o 20 y
ear
s i
n t
he f
oll
owi
ng
ci
rcumst
ances as ment
ioned i
nthe sub-
ar
ti
cle(
2),
wher
ether
api
ngi
scommi
tt
edon:
a.Ay
oungwomanbet
ween13and18y
ear
s
ofage;
or
b.Ani
nmat
eofanal
ms-
houseorasy
lum or
any est
abl
i
shment of heal
th,educat
ion,
cor
rect
ion,det
ent
ionori
nter
nmentwhi
chi
s
undert
hedi
rect
ion,super
visi
onoraut
hor
it
y
oft
heaccusedper
son,oronany
onewhoi
s
under t
he super
visi
on or cont
rolof or
dependantuponhi
m;or
c.Awomani
ncapabl
eofunder
standi
ngt
he
nat
ureorconsequencesoft
heact
,orof
r
esi
sti
ngt
heact
,duet
ool
dage,phy
sicalor
 717

ment
ali
l
lness,depr
essi
on or any ot
her
r
eason;
or
d. Byanumberofmenact
ingi
nconcer
t,or
bysubj
ect
ingt
hev
ict
imt
oactofcr
uel
tyor
sadi
sm,

3.
Impr
isonmentf
orl
if
e,wher
erapi
nghas
causedgr
avephy
sicalorment
ali
njur
yor
deat
h.(
Sub-
art
.3)
4.
Enhanced puni
shmentf
orconcur
rence,
wher
ether
api
ngi
srel
atedt
o
a.I
ll
egal
rest
rai
nt;
or
b.Abduct
ionoft
hev
ict
im,
or
c.Wher
eacommuni
cabl
edi
seasehasbeen
t
ransmi
tt
edt
othev
ict
im

The r
elev
ant pr
ovi
sions puni
shi
ng t
hese
cr
imesshal
lbeconcur
rent
lyappl
i
ed.
 718

5.
Rigor
ous i
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ng f
rom 5
y
ear
sto25y
ear
soranyot
hermor
esev
ere
penal
tyi
far
elev
antpr
ovi
sionpr
escr
ibesso.
Ar
t. 628 enumer
ates such aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancesast
hef
oll
owi
ng:
a.Wher
ethev
ict
im becomespr
egnant
;or
b.Wher
ethecr
imi
nal
transmi
tst
othev
ict
ima
v
ener
eal
diseasewi
thwhi
chheknowst
hat
hi
msel
fisi
nfect
ed;
or
c.Wher
ethev
ict
imi
sdr
ivent
osui
ci
deby
di
str
ess,
anxi
ety
,shameordespai
r.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Whatar
ethecausesandconsequences
ofr
api
ng?

2.Whatar
etheessent
ialel
ement
sofr
api
ng
undert
he Ar
t.620?Expl
ain each one of
t
hem i
ndet
ail
.
 719

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng!
I
frapi
ng i
sagai
nstt
he wi
l
l,consentand
di
gni
ty of a woman why i
s f
orci
ble
i
nter
cour
sewi
thone’
swi
fei
snotr
api
ng?I
s
consentgi
venbyt
hewomanatt
het
imeof
cont
ract
ingmar
ri
agea‘
blanketconsent
’for
al
lthesexuall
i
febet
weent
hespousesaf
ter
t
hemar
ri
age?Whyi
s‘mar
it
alr
ape’nota
cr
ime?

Br
ainSt
ormi
ng!
Accor
dingt
oAr
t.
627(
1)whoev
erper
for
ms
sexuali
nter
cour
se wi
th a mi
nor of t
he
opposi
te sex,who i
s undert
he age of
t
hir
teen y
ear
s,orcauses hert
o per
for
m
such an actwi
th her
,is puni
shabl
e wi
th
r
igor
ousi
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ngf
rom t
hir
teen
y
ear
stot
went
y-f
ivey
ear
s.
 720

Whyi
stheconductdescr
ibedi
nthi
sar
ti
cl
e
doesnotamountr
api
ng?Her
eev
eni
fthe
i
nfantconsent
sthe acti
tis nota v
ali
d
consentandt
husamount
stoanactagai
nst
t
heconsentoft
hev
ict
im.
Don’
tyout
hinkt
hatt
hedef
ini
ti
onofr
api
ng
under Ar
t 620 shoul
d hav
e used t
he
expr
essi
on “
wit
hout t
he consent of t
he
womanoragai
nstherwi
l
l”?

7. Mal
tr
eat
mentofMi
nor
s:Ar
ti
cle576

 Meani
ngofMal
tr
eat
ment
:
Mal
tr
eat
mentofmi
nor
sincl
udes phy
sical
abuse,sexualabuse,negl
ect
,andcor
por
al
puni
shment
.Causi
ngment
ali
njur
yisal
so
i
ncl
uded i
nthe phy
sicalabuse.Negl
ect
meansconducti
nvol
vi
ngf
ail
uret
opr
ovi
de
 721

r
equi
redcar
eforachi
l
d,f
ail
uret
opr
otecta
chi
l
d f
rom endanger
ment
,or f
ail
uret
o
pr
ovi
deappr
opr
iat
esuper
visi
on.

 Cor
por
al puni
shment
: Hi
tt
ing or
spanki
ngast
udentwi
thorwi
thoutanobj
ect
ort
heuseofunr
easonabl
ephy
sicalf
orce
t
hat causes bodi
l
y har
m or subst
ant
ial
emot
ional
har
m ar
eal
somal
tr
eat
ment
.

Puni
shmentf
orMal
tr
eat
mentofMi
nor
s:
1.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ngt
hree
mont
hs shal
l be t
he puni
shment f
or
mal
tr
eat
mentofmi
nor
sift
he f
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
sar
eful
fi
ll
ed:
a.Thecr
imi
nalshoul
dbet
heone,hav
ing
t
hecust
odyorchar
geofami
nor
,
b.Thecr
imi
nalshoul
dhav
ecommi
tt
edany
 722

oft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hinst
owar
dst
hemi
nor
:
 I
ll
-t
reat
inghi
m,or
 Negl
ect
inghi
m,or
 Ov
ert
aski
nghi
m,or
 Beat
inghi
m
2.Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentofnotl
esst
han
oney
earshal
lbet
hepuni
shmentwher
ethe
cr
imecausesgr
avei
njur
ytot
heheal
th,
wel
l
-
bei
ng, educat
ion or phy
sical or
psy
chol
ogi
caldev
elopmentoft
hemi
nor
.In
addi
ti
ont
othei
mpr
isonmentt
hecr
imi
nal
shal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
sfami
l
yri
ght
s.
 Def
ence f
orAct
s ofCor
rect
ion:Ar
t
576/
3andAr
t68/
b
Par
ent
s,guar
dians,t
eacher
s and mast
ers
ar
eimpl
i
edl
yaut
hor
izedbyAr
t.2039/
cof
t
heCi
vi
lCodet
oexer
cisej
ust
if
icat
ionf
or
i
nfl
i
cti
ngr
easonabl
ecor
por
alpuni
shmenton
 723

t
hei
rchi
l
dren,war
ds,pupi
l
sorser
vant
sas
t
hecasemaybe.Howev
er,sucht
aki
ngofa
di
sci
pli
nar
y measur
e by par
ent
s orot
her
per
sonshav
ingsi
mil
arr
esponsi
bil
i
ties,shal
l
notcont
rav
enet
hispr
ovi
sion,pr
ovi
dedt
hat
suchact
sar
ewi
thi
nthel
i
mit
soft
hel
egal
l
y
per
missi
blel
i
mit
s.Ar
t68/
boft
heGener
al
Par
tpr
ovi
dest
hat
:
“
Act
srequi
redoraut
hor
izedbyl
aw donot
const
it
uteacr
imeandar
enotpuni
shabl
e;
i
n par
ti
cul
ar, act
s r
easonabl
y done i
n
exer
cisi
ng t
he r
ight of cor
rect
ion or
di
sci
pli
ne;
”

Themoder
n soci
etybel
i
evesmor
eint
he
moder
n met
hods ofcor
rect
ion such as,
mor
al i
nfl
uence, per
suasi
on, subt
le
mechani
sms l
i
ke pr
aise and cr
it
ici
sm.A
 724

count
ry’
scul
tur
aldev
elopmenti
sexpect
ed
t
orepl
acecor
por
alpuni
shmentwi
tht
hese
met
hods.

5.
2.6.
Fai
lur
etoMai
ntai
n:Ar
ti
cle658

 Meani
ngofMai
ntenance:
Mai
ntenancei
sthesuppor
tthatoneper
son
who i
s bound byl
aw t
o do so,gi
ves t
o
anot
her f
or hi
s l
i
vi Bouvi
ng ( er Law
Di
cti
onar
y).Ev
erychi
l
dhast
her
ightt
obasi
c
necessi
ti
essuchas:
1.
Food
2.
Shel
ter
3.
Clot
hing
4.
Medi
cal
car
e
5.
School
i
ng
Chi
l
drenshoul
dgett
hesebasi
cneedsf
rom
 725

t
hei
rpar
ent
sorr
elat
ives.Thi
ssuppor
tgi
ven
bypar
ent
sorr
elat
ivesi
scal
l
ed
mai
ntenance.

 Cr
imi
nalLi
abi
li
tybyOmi
ssi
on:
Fai
l
uret
omai
ntai
n(Ar
t.658)andf
ail
uret
o
br
ingup(
Art659)ar
ecr
imesbyomi
ssi
ons.
As has been st
udi
ed undert
he gener
al
pr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
,iti
sonl
yunder
cer
tai
nci
rcumst
ances,t
hatan‘
omi
ssi
on’t
o
act becomes cr
imi
nal
.Inf
act t
he l
aw
i
mposes r
esponsi
bil
i
ty f
or omi
ssi
ons
r
eluct
ant
ly.Omi
ssi
on”wi
thr
efer
encet
othe
per
for
manceofadut
yinv
olv
est
hei
deaof
consci
ous or wi
l
lful omi
ssi
on. The
expr onomi
essi ssi
ondoesnotconnot
eany
obl
i
gat
ion.Omi
ssi
on i
s a col
orl
ess wor
d
whi
ch mer
elyr
efer
stot
he notdoi
ng of
 726

somet
hing.Under t
he cr
imi
nall
aw onl
y
f
ail
urest
oper
for
mlegaldut
iescanamount
t
ocr
imi
nalomi
ssi
ons.Legaldut
iest
oact
mi
ghtar
iseoutofr
elat
ionshi
psorcont
ract
s,
ormi
ghtbei
mposedbyst
atut
es.Fai
l
urest
o
per
for
m mor
aldut
iescannotconst
it
utet
he
act
usr
eaus.

Li
mit
ing cr
imi
nalomi
ssi
ons t
ofai
l
ures t
o
per
for
m l
egal dut
ies i
s based on t
he
pr
oposi
ti
ont
hatt
hei
ndi
vi
dualconsci
ence,
peergr
oup pr
essur
e and ot
heri
nfor
mal
compul
sion r
egul
ates behav
iour mor
e
ef
fect
ivel
ythandi
rectcr
imi
nalpr
osecut
ions.
Al
so,i
twoul
dnotonl
ybebur
densomebut
al
so i
mpossi
blef
or t
he cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice
sy
stem t
oenf
orcemor
alobl
i
gat
ions.
 727

Car
eofChi
ldr
enorOt
herDependent
s:
The gener
alr
ulei
sthat par
ent
s,l
egal
guar
di seeRvSmi
ans,spouses( th(
1979)
CLR 251wher
ethewi
fedi
edaf
tergi
vi
ng
bi
rt
hto a st
il
lbor
n chi
l
d,del
i
ver
ed byher
husband at home) and any
one who
v
olunt
ari
l
yagr
eest
ocar
eforanot
herwhoi
s
dependentbecauseofage,i
l
lnessorot
her
i
nfi
rmi
ty,
mayi
ncuradut
y,atl
eastunt
ilcar
e
can behanded ov
ert
o someoneel
se.I
n
t
hreecases,
thedut
ywasi
mpl
i
ed:
 RvI
nst
an(
1893)1QB450,I
nst
anl
i
ved
wi
thheraunt
,whowassuddenl
ytakeni
l
l
andcoul
dnol
ongerf
eedher
sel
forcal
lfor
hel
p.Shewasconv
ict
ed ofmansl
aught
er
becauseshenei
therf
edheraunt
,norcal
l
ed
f
ormedi
calhel
p,ev
ent
houghshecont
inued
t
ost
ayi
nthehouseandat
eheraunt
'sf
ood.
 728

RvSt
one&Dobi
nson(
1977)QB354.St
one
andhi
smi
str
essagr
eedt
ocar
eforhi
ssi
ster
who wassuf
fer
ing f
rom anor
exi
a.Asher
condi
ti
on det
eri
orat
ed,she became bed-
r
iddenbutnohel
pwassummonedandshe
di
ed. They wer
e conv
ict
ed of her
mansl
aught
erbecause t
heyhad accept
ed
heri
ntot
hei
rhomeandsoassumedadut
y
ofcar
ingf
orher
.
RvGi
bbons&Pr
oct
or(
1918)13CrAppRep
134.Af
atherandl
overnegl
ect
edhi
schi
l
d
byf
ail
i
ngt
ofeedhi
m.Thel
overhadt
aken
on a dut
y ofcar
ing f
ort
he chi
l
d when
mov
ingi
ntot
hehouseandwasunderan
obl
i
gat
iont
ocar
eforhi
m.
Ar
t.658 oft
he Cr
imi
nalCode i
mposes
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityonper
sonsf
all
i
ngunderany
oft
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies:
 729

a. Per
sonsr
efusi
ngoromi
tt
ingt
opr
ovi
de
mai
ntenancewhi
chheowes,
byv
irt
ueofl
aw,
t
obeent
it
ledper
sons,i
ncl
udi
ngaspouse
whobr
oughtact
ionf
ordi
vor
ce,unt
ilsuch
di
vor
cei
spr
onounced;
or
2. A per
sonsf
ail
i
ngt
omeett
hef
inanci
al
obl
i
gat
ionshehasi
ncur
red,byv
irt
ueofl
aw
orf
ormal
under
taki
ng;
a. t
owar
ds a woman whom he has
madepr
egnantoutofwedl
ock;
or
b. t
owar
dsaper
sonwi
thwhom hehas
l
i
vedi
nani
rr
egul
aruni
on.

Per
sonsEnt
it
ledToMai
ntenanceByVi
rt
ue
OfLaw:
 730

Ar
ts.197and198ofTheRev
isedFami
l
y
Code i
ncl
udes a per
son’
s ascendant
s,
descendant
s,br
other
s,si
ster
s,andper
sons
r
elat
edbyaf
fi
nit
ysuchaswi
fe’
smot
herand
f
atheri
nthel
i
stofper
sonst
hatar
eent
it
led
t
omai
ntenance.

 Puni
shmentf
orFai
lur
etoMai
ntai
n:
Thi
scr
imei
spr
osecut
edandpuni
shedonl
y
on t
he f
il
ing ofa f
ormalcompl
aint
.The
cr
imi
nal
ispuni
shabl
ewi
th:
1.
Fine,
or
2.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng si
x
mont
hs

5.
2.7.
Fai
lur
etoBr
ingUp:Ar
ti
cle659

Thi
spr
ovi
sionmakespar
ent
sandot
her
 731

per
sonshav
ingt
heaut
hor
it
yofguar
diansor
t
utor
sbutf
ail
i
ngi
nthei
rdut
iesi
nsuch
capaci
ty.Par
ent
’snat
ural
dut
ytobr
ingupt
hei
r
chi
l
drenhasbeenr
ecogni
zedasal
egal
dut
y
byt
hispr
ovi
siont
obi
ndnegl
i
gentpar
ent
sto
t
hei
robl
i
gat
ionsaspar
ent
s.

Theessent
ial
element
soft
hiscr
imeunder
Ar
t659ar
e:

1.
A par
entorot
herper
son exer
cisi
ng t
he
aut
hor
it
yofguar
dianort
utor
,
2.
For gai
n or i
n der
eli
cti
on of hi
s dut
y,
commi
tsanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngact
s:
a.
grossl
y negl
ect
sthe chi
l
dren under hi
s
char
geandabandonst
hem wi
thoutduecar
e
andat
tent
ionort
omor
alorphy
sicaldanger
;
or
 732

b.ent
rust
sachi
l
dforal
ongt
imet
oaper
son,
anor
gani
zat
ionorani
nst
it
uti
onwi
thwhom
orwher
eheknows,orcoul
dhav
efor
eseen,
t
hati
twi
l
lber
educedt
ophy
sicalormor
al
dest
it
uti
on, or wi
l
l be phy
sical
l
y or
psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
yendanger
ed

 Puni
shmentf
orFai
lur
etoBr
ingUp:
2.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentorf
ine,i
n nor
mal
ci
rcumst
ances oft
he commi
ssi
on oft
he
cr
ime.
3.
Simpl
e i
mpr
isonment or f
ine and
depr
ivat
ionoft
hecr
imi
nal
’
sfami
lyr
ight
s,i
n
gr
avecases.
4.
Enhancement of puni
shment wi
th
concur
rence(
Art63)shal
lappl
ywher
ethe
chi
l
dhassuf
fer
edi
njur
y,whet
herf
oreseen
orcal
cul
ated,whet
herbyabuseoft
her
ight
 733

t
o admi
nist
erchast
isementort
hrough i
l
l-
t
reat
ment
.

Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Def
ine‘
mal
tr
eat
mentofmi
nor
s’.Whatar
e
t
hepossi
bledef
encesf
ort
hiscr
ime?
2.Expl
aint
heconceptofcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityf
or
omi
ssi
ons?

3. Expl
ain t
he meani
ng of t
he t
erm
‘
mai
ntenance’
.Whyf
ail
uret
omai
ntai
nisa
cr
ime?Whycannoti
tbe deal
twi
th ci
vi
l
r
emedi
esonl
y?

5.
2.8.
Traf
fi
c/Tr
aff
icki
ngi
nWomenand
Mi
nor
s:

The expr
essi
on ‘
tr
aff
ic’means,i
l
legalor
 734

di
sreput
abl
ebusi
nessoract
ivi
ty.Accor
ding
o ‘
t the Convent
ion on Tr
ansnat
ional
Or
gani
zed Cr
ime and i
ts Pr
otocol on
Tr
aff
icki
ng’
,(Pr
otocolt
opr
event
,suppr
ess
andpuni
sht
raf
fi
cki
ngi
nper
sons,especi
all
y
women and chi
l
dren,suppl
ement
ing t
he
Uni
ted Nat
ions Conv
ent
ion agai
nst
t
ransnat
ional or
gani
zed cr
ime, Uni
ted
Nat
ions,2000(
art
icl
e3)
,si
gnedbyGr
eece,
December12,2000)
,tr
aff
icki
ngi
nper
sons
means,
“
the r
ecr
uit
ment
,tr
anspor
tat
ion,t
ransf
er,
har
bor
ingorr
ecei
ptofper
sons,bymeansof
t
hreatoruse off
orce orot
herf
orm of
coer
cion, of abduct
ion, of f
raud, of
decept
ion,oft
heabuseofpowerorofa
posi
ti
onofvul
ner
abi
l
ityoroft
hegi
vi
ngor
r
ecei
vi
ngofpayment
sorbenef
it
stoachi
eve
 735

t
heconsentofaper
sonhavi
ngcont
rolover
anot
her per
son, f
or t
he pur
pose of
expl
oit
ati
on.Expl
oit
ati
onshal
lincl
udeata
mi
nimum,t
heexpl
oit
ati
onoft
hepr
ost
it
uti
on
of ot
her
s or ot
her f
orm of sexual
expl
oit
ati
on, f
orced l
abour or ser
vices,
sl
aver
y or pr
act
ices si
mil
ar t
o ser
vices,
ser
vit
udeort
her
emovalofor
gans”
.

The consent of a v
ict
im i
sir
rel
evant
.
Tr
aff
icki
ngi
nwomenandchi
l
dreni
snota
new phenomenon (
O. Phi
l
ippon)
. Ov
er
cent
uri
es,womenandchi
l
drenwer
ebought
,
sol
dandsexual
l
yexpl
oit
ed.Howev
er,
recent
dev
elopment
shav
eledt
oit
spr
omot
ionand
expansi
on:si
ncet
he1970sandespeci
all
y
dur
ingt
he1990si
thasbecomeaf
lour
ishi
ng
andl
ucr
ati
vei
ndust
ryi
nAsi
aandEur
ope.
 736

Thepr
obl
em i
sacut
einEast
ernEur
opeand
especi
all
yint
he Bal
kan count
ri
es.The
abov
ement
ionedcondi
ti
onscont
inueatt
he
begi
nni
ng oft
he 21stcent
uryof
ten i
na
hi
ghl
y or
gani
zed and sy
stemat
ic manner
,
r
esul
ti
ngi
namoder
nfor
m ofsl
aver
yunder
whi
ch condi
ti
ons t
odayl
i
vet
housands of
women and chi
l
dren l
i
ke t
oday i
n t
he
Eur
opeanUni
on.

Tr
aff
icki
ngi
sadi
ff
erentnot
ionf
rom t
hatof
t
he pr
ost
it
uti
on ofwomen,(
Ph.Wi
l
li
ams)
whi
ch i
tsel
fis an act
ivi
ty cov
eri
ng t
he
spect
rum – f
rom i
ndi
vi
dualwomenact
ing
i
ndependent
ly t
o hi
ghl
y or
gani
zed
ar
rangement
s i
n whi
ch women ar
e
cont
rol
l
edbypi
mpsorcr
imi
nalent
erpr
ises.
As Scambl
er poi
nts out
, women “
sex
 737

wor
ker
s”ahet
erogeneousbodyofwor
ker
s,
and manyoft
hem ar
eaut
onomous.I
tis
i
nappr
opr
iat
e t
o char
act
eri
ze t
hem as
passi
vev
ict
ims;t
hey ar
e notdupes but
r
equi
rer
esour
cef
ulness and exper
ti
se t
o
cope wi
th day t
o day act
ivi
ti
es and t
o
sust
aint
hei
rli
vel
i
hoods.Howev
er,ot
her
sci
ent
ist
shav
eest
imat
edt
hat80-
95%ofal
l
pr
ost
it
uti
on i
spi
mp cont
rol
l
ed (
J.Faugi
er
and M.Sar
geant
).Ot
her
s(O.Phi
l
ippon)
di
sti
ngui
sh t
he di
ff
erence bet
ween f
orced
and f
reepr
ost
it
uti
on,i
n whi
ch t
hef
orced
t
ypei
nvol
vest
heexpl
oit
ati
onofwomen.
i
nmanyoft
her
ichernat
ions’
chi
l
d
pr
ost
it
uti
onandpor
nogr
aphymar
ket
s.

Por
nogr
aphy, Accor
ding t
o I
MO
(
Int
ernat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ion f
or Mi
grat
ion)
 738

por
nogr s“
aphyi t
heabuseoft
hebasi
cri
ght
ofl
i
ber
tyandexpr
essi
onandt
radi
ngi
tisan
out
rageuponf
undament
alhumanr
ight
sof
t
hir
dpar
ti
es”
.Por
nogr
aphyi
smani
fest
edv
ia
publ
i
cat
ions,phot
ogr
aphy
,fi
l
ms,v
ideosand
comput
ergames.Bef
oret
heemer
genceof
t
he I
nter
net
, an act
ive t
rade i
n i
l
li
ci
t
v
ideocasset
teswascar
ri
edouti
nsexshops.
The new di
git
aler
a cr
eat
es and f
uel
s
“
speci
alpr
efer
ences”
.Absol
ute di
scr
eti
on,
dozens ofbr
anches ofpor
nogr
aphy and
har
mless sexual i
nter
cour
se wi
thout
per
sonalcont
actconv
ertt
heI
nter
neti
nto
t
hepar
adi
seofpor
nogr
aphyi
ngener
aland
chi
l
dpor
nogr
aphyi
npar
ti
cul
ar.

Tr
aff
icki
ngi
nchi
ldr
en f
ort
hecommer
cial
sexi
ndust
ryandpor
nogr
aphyi
sev
enmor
e
 739

pr
onouncedt
hant
hatoft
hewomen.Ar
ound
t
hewor
ld,chi
l
drenar
ebei
ngsoughtf
ora
v
ari
etyofi
l
li
citpur
poses,(
e.g.f
orcedwor
k,
f
orcedbeggi
ngsomet
imesaf
termut
il
ati
on
byunscr
upul
oust
raf
fi
cker
s)andar
ebei
ng
bought
,abduct
edorl
uredawayf
rom t
hei
r
f
ami
l
ies,of
ten t
o be t
ranspor
ted acr
oss
bor
der
s and t
hen sol
d f
or adopt
ion
(
especi
all
ychi
l
drenf
rom Lat
inAmer
icaand
East
ern Eur
ope wi
th emphasi
s on war
or
phans)orf
ort
her
emov
aloft
hei
ror
gans,
t
issuesand ot
herbodymat
eri
al,al
though
i
nfor
mat
ionont
hisact
ivi
tyi
sli
mit
ed.The
mostwi
despr
eadpur
poseoft
raf
fi
cki
ngi
n
f
orm chi
l
dren i
sthatofcommer
cialand
sexual expl
oit
ati
on. Accor
ding t
o t
he
Pr
otocoloft
heUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ion
agai
nstt
ransnat
ionalor
gani
zedcr
imechi
l
d
 740

i
s consi
der
ed anyper
son underei
ght
een
y
ear
sofage(
IOM)
.Thesemai
nfor
msof
sexualexpl
oit
ati
on wer
e def
ined by t
he
Wor
ld Congr
ess Agai
nst Commer
cial
SexualExpl
oit
ati
onofChi
ldr
en,
1996:

o pr
ost
it
uti
on;
o t
raf
fi
cki
ngandsal
eforsexualpur
poses:
t
ransf
err
ing per
sons f
rom one par
tyt
o
anot
heri
n exchange ofmoney orot
her
r
ecompense;
o chi
l
dpor
nogr
aphy
.

I
n many cases, t
hese t
hree f
orms ar
e
i
nter ed.TheCounci
connect lofEur
ope,2000
gi
vest
hef
oll
owi
ngdef
ini
ti
ons:
a) Sal
e of chi
ldr
en means any act
ion
 741

t
ransact
ionwher
ebyachi
l
dist
ransf
err
edby
anyper
sonorgr
oupofper
sonst
oanot
her
f
orr
emuner
ati
onorot
herconsi
der
ati
on;
b)Chi
ldpr
ost
it
uti
onmeanst
heuseofachi
l
d
i
nsexualact
ivi
ti
esf
orr
emuner
ati
onorot
her
f
orm ofconsi
der
ati
on;
c) Chi
ld por
nogr
aphy means any
r
epr
esent
ati
on by what
evermeans,ofa
chi
l
dengagedi
nrealorsi
mul
atedexpl
i
cit
sexualact
ivi
ti
es oranyr
epr
esent
ati
on of
sexual par
ts of a chi
l
d,t
he domi
nant
char
act
eri
sti
csofwhi
chi
sdepi
cti
onf
ora
sexual
pur
pose.

The Uni
ted Nat
ions (
1996)consi
der
sthe
commer
cialsexualexpl
oit
ati
onofchi
l
drenas
i
nvi
sibl
e,mobi
l
e,gl
obal
,escal
ati
ng,and a
hi
ghl
y pr
ofi
tabl
e busi
ness.The adv
ent of
 742

di
git
al phot
ogr
aphy and new di
git
al
t
echnol
ogi
es al
l
ow chi
l
d por
nogr
aphyt
o be
copi
ed,st
ored and t
ransmi
tt
ed qui
ckl
ywi
th
per
fectaccur
acy
.The abundance ofchi
l
d
por
nogr
aphyav
ail
abl
ein cy
ber
space means
t
hatt
radi
ti
onalpr
int
ingandphot
ogr
aphyar
e
l
i
kel
ytobeecl
i
psedbydi
git
alt
echnol
ogyas
t
hedomi
nantmedi
afort
hepr
oduct
ionand
di
str
ibut
ion of t
he mat
eri
al. UNI
CEF and
UNESCO r
epor
tsi
ndi
cat
ethati
nter
nat
ional
cr
imi
nalor
gani
zat
ionsi
nEast
ernEur
opeand
Russi
aar
ebecomi
ngi
ncr
easi
ngl
yinv
olv
edi
n
t
raf
fi
cki
ng chi
l
dren f
rom t
hese ar
eas t
o
West
ernEur
opef
ort
heuseofmanyoft
he
r
icher nat
ions’ chi
l
d pr
ost
it
uti
on and
por
nogr
aphymar
ket
s.
 743

Tr
aff
icki
ng/
Traf
fi
cinWomenandMi
nor
s
UnderEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nalCode:Ar
ts.597-
600and634-
638

TheEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nalCodedeal
swi
tht
he
cr
ime of t
raf
fi
cki
ng under t
wo di
ff
erent
headi
ng basi
ng on t
he pur
pose of t
his
cr
imi
nal
conduct
.Theyar
e;
1.
Traf
fi
cki
ngf
ort
hepur
poseoff
orcedl
abor
,
Ar
ts.597-
600
2.
Traf
fi
cfort
hepur
posesofpr
ost
it
uti
on,
Art
s.
634-
638

 Tr
aff
icki
ng Fort
hePur
posesofFor
ced
l
abor
:Ar
ts.597-
600
Thi
scr
imi
nalconducti
spuni
shabl
eunder
 744

f
ourspeci
fi
ccr
imes,
namel
y:

Tr
aff
icki
ngi
nWomenandChi
ldr
en:Ar
ti
cle
597
Theessent
ialel
ement
soft
hiscr
imei
ncl
ude
t
hef
oll
owi
ng:
1.
Recr
uit
ing,r
ecei
vi
ng,hi
ding,t
ranspor
ti
ng,
expor
ti
ngori
mpor
ti
ngawomanorami
nor
f
ort
hepur
poseoff
orcedl
abour
,
2.
Byv
iol
ence,t
hreat
,decei
t,f
raud,ki
dnappi
ng
orbygi
vi
ngofmoneyorot
heradv
ant
ages
andhav
ingcont
rol
overawomanorachi
l
d
Sub-
Art
icl
e(2)makes peopl
e who ai
d or
r
enderanyt
ypeoft
heassi
stancef
ort
he
abov
esai
dpur
posesar
eequal
l
ypuni
shabl
e
al
ongwi
tht
hepr
inci
pal
cri
minal
.

 Puni
shment f
or Tr
aff
icki
ng: Ri
gor
ous
 745

i
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ngf
rom 5y
ear
sto20
y
ear
s,andf
inenotexceedi
ng50,
000Bi
rr
.

Unl
awf
ulSendi
ng ofEt
hiopi
ansf
orWor
k
Abr
oad:Ar
ti
cle598
Whi
l
eAr
ti
cle597i
sacr
imeagai
nstwomen
and chi
l
dren t
hisi
s cr
ime agai
nstbot
h
women and men equal
l
y.The essent
ial
el
ement
soft
hiscr
imear
e:
1.
Sendi
ngofanEt
hiopi
anwomenormen[
Sub
-
Art
.(3)
]forwor
kabr
oad,
2.
Wit
houthav
ingobt
ainedal
i
censeorbyany
ot
herunl
awf
ulmeans

 Puni
shment f
or Unl
awf
ulSendi
ng f
or
wor
kabr
oad:
1.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ng f
rom 5
y
ear
sto10y
ear
s,andf
inenotexceedi
ng
 746

25,
000Bi
rr
.
2.Ri
gor
ous i
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ng f
rom 5
y
ear
sto20y
ear
s,andf
inenotexceedi
ng
50,
000Bi
rr,wher
eanEt
hiopi
anwomanor
man sentt
o abr
oad,owi
ng t
othe act
ment
ionedabov
e,andsuf
fer
sani
njur
yto
her
/hi
shumanr
ight
s,ort
oher
/hi
sli
fe,body
orpsy
chol
ogi
cal
make-
up.
The Code al
so puni
shes t
he i
l
legal
associ
ati
ons and j
uri
dical per
sons f
or
par
ti
cipat
ingi
ntheabov
esai
dcr
imesand
t
heof
fi
cial
satanyl
eveloft
hegov
ernment
al
hi
erar
chywhof
ail
stot
aket
heappr
opr
iat
e
measur
eexpect
edofhi
mfort
hecont
rolor
pr
event
ionoft
raf
fi
cunderAr
ti
cl
es599and
600r
espect
ivel
y.

 Tr
aff
icForThePur
posesOfPr
ost
it
uti
on:
 747

Ar
ts.
634-
638
Ther
e ar
ethr
ee cr
imes f
all
i
ng undert
his
sect
ion,namel
y,Habi
tualExpl
oit
ati
on f
or
Pecuni
aryGai
n(Ar
t634)
,Tr
aff
ici
nWomen
andMi
nor
s(Ar
t635)andOr
gani
zat
ionof
Tr
aff
ici
nWomenandMi
nor
s(Ar
t637)
.

 Habi
tualExpl
oit
ati
onf
orPecuni
aryGai
n:
Ar
ti
cle634
A per
son i
s sai
dto hav
e commi
tt
ed t
he
cr
imeofhabi
tualexpl
oit
ati
onf
orpecuni
ary
gai
nifhedoesanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hings:
1.Makesapr
ofessi
onoforl
i
vesbypr
ocur
ing
or on t
he pr
ost
it
uti
on or i
mmor
ali
ty of
anot
her
,forpecuni
arygai
n,or
2.Mai
ntai
nsabr
othel
,asal
andl
ordorkeeper

 Puni
shment
:Si
mpl
eimpr
isonment and
 748

f
ine.
 Tr
aff
ici
nWomenandMi
nor
s:Ar
ti
cle635
Wi
thi
nthemeani
ngoft
hispr
ovi
si
ont
raf
fi
c
i
nwomenandmi
nor
srequi
rest
hef
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
element
s:
1.
Seduci
ng,orent
ici
ng,orpr
ocur
ing,or
ot
her
wisei
nduci
ngf
orpr
ost
it
uti
on women
ormi
nor
s,orkeepi
ngsuchaper
soni
na
br
othel
tol
ethi
m outt
opr
ost
it
uti
on,

2.
Wit
hani
ntent
iont
omakepecuni
arygai
n,
ort
ogr
ati
fyt
hepassi
onsofanot
her

3.
Eit
herwi
thorwi
thoutt
hei
rconsentoft
he
v
ict
im
Thephr
ase,‘
Whoev
er,f n,ort
orgai ogr
ati
fy
t
hepassi
onsofanot
her
’makesi
tcl
eart
hat
 749

doi
ngofanyoft
heseact
ivi
ti
esev
enwi
thout
any gai
nto hi
msel
f but t
o gr
ati
fyt
he
passi
ons of anot
her i
s wel
lwi
thi
nthe
pur
viewi
fthi
spr
ovi
sionandi
sapuni
shabl
e
cr
ime

 Puni
shment
:
oRi
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng5
y
ear
s,andf
inenotexceedi
ng10,
000Bi
rr
,
subj
ectt
otheappl
i
cat
ionofmor
esev
ere
pr
ovi
sions especi
all
y wher
e t
her
e i
s
concur
renti
l
legal
rest
rai
nt(
Art585)
.

o Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentshal
lber
angi
ng
f
rom 3y
ear
sto10y
ear
s,andt
hef
ineshal
l
not exceed t
went
y 20,
000 Bi
rri
n t
he
f
oll
owi
ng aggr
avat
ing ci
rcumst
ances (
Art
.
536)
:
a)Aggr
avat
ing Ci
rcumst
ancesr
elat
ing t
o
 750

t
hev
ict
im:
ot
hev
ict
imi
sami
nor
;or
ot
he v
ict
im i
sthe wi
fe ora descendant
cr
imi
nal
,hi
sadopt
edchi
l
dort
hechi
l
dofhi
s
spouse,
hisbr
otherorhi
ssi
ster
,orhi
swar
d,
orwher
ethev
ict
im hasbeenent
rust
ed,on
anygr
oundwhat
soev
er,t
ohi
scust
odyor
car
e;or
ot
hev
ict
imi
sint
endedf
orapr
ofessi
onal
pr
ocur
er,
orhasbeent
akenabr
oadorwher
e
t
hev
ict
im'
swher
eabout
sorpl
aceofabode
cannotbeest
abl
i
shed;
or
ot
hev
ict
im hasbeendr
ivent
osui
ci
deby
shame,
dist
ressordespai
r.

B)Aggr
avat
ing Ci
rcumst
ancesr
elat
ing t
o
t
hecr
imi
nal
:
 751

ot
hecr
imi
nalhast
akenunf
airadv
ant
ageof
t
hemat
eri
alorment
aldi
str
essofhi
svi
cti
m,
orofhi
sposi
ti
on aspr
otect
or,empl
oyer
,
t
eacher
,landl
ordorcr
edi
tor
,orofanyot
her
l
i
kesi
tuat
ion;
or
ot
he cr
imi
nalhas made use oft
ri
cker
y,
f
raud,v
iol
ence,i
nti
midat
ion,coer
cion,or
wher
ehehasmi
susedhi
saut
hor
it
yov
ert
he
v
ict
im;

 Or
gani
zat
ion ofTr
aff
ici
n Women and
Mi
nor
s:Ar
ti
cle637
The cr
ime of ‘
organi
zat
ion of t
raf
fi
cin
womenandmi
nor
’li
esi
ntheconductof
,
‘
maki
ngar
rangement
sorpr
ovi
dingofany
ki
ndoff
aci
l
iti
esf
ort
hepr
ocur
ementofor
t
raf
fi
cinwomenormi
nor
s’.
Puni
shment
:
 752

1.
Simpl
eimpr
isonment
,oraccor
dingt
othe
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecase.
2.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng3
y
ear
s,andaf
inewhi
chshal
lbenotl
ess
t
han 500 Bi
rr
,in gr
ave cases,especi
all
y
wher
eapr
ofessi
onalpr
ocur
eri
sinv
olv
edor
wher
ethear
rangement
sar
eful
l
ymadeand
i
ntendedt
oappl
ytomanyv
ict
ims.
Cr
imi
nalLi
abi
li
tyofa Jur
idi
calPer
son:
Ar
ti
cle638
Wher
eaj
uri
dicalper
sont
akespar
tint
he
cr
imesspeci
fi
edi
nthi
sSect
ion,i
tshal
lbe
puni
shabl
einaccor
dancewi
thAr
ti
cl
e90(
3)
oft
hisCode,
dependi
ngont
henat
ureoft
he
cr
imeandt
heci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecase.
 753

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Def
ine‘
tr
aff
icki
ngi
nwomenandmi
nor
s”.
Ar
ethe def
ini
ti
ons under t
he Et
hiopi
an
Cr
imi
nalCode i
n conf
ormi
ty wi
tht
hose
gi
venundert
hei
nter
nat
ional
inst
rument
s?
2.How many t
ypes ofcr
imes r
elat
ing t
o
t
raf
fi
cki
ng ar
efound undert
he Et
hiopi
an
Cr
imi
nal
Code?Whatar
ethey
?
3.Doest
heconsentofv
ict
im neut
ral
i
zet
he
cr
imeoft
raf
fi
cki
ng?
4.I
sthepecuni
arygai
n oft
hecr
imi
nalan
essent
ial
elementf
oral
lty
pesoft
raf
fi
cki
ng?

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng:

Hav
ingr
egar
dtot
heser
iousnat
ureoft
hese
cr
imesoft
raf
fi
cki
ngpar
ti
cul
arl
yofmi
nor
s,
 754

do y
ou t
hink t
hat t
he puni
shment
s
pr
escr
ibed under t
he Cr
imi
nalCode of
Et
hiopi
aar
esuf
fi
cient
lysev
ered?

Sect
ion.6.Cr
imesAgai
nstPr
oper
ty:

Const
it
uti
onalPr
inci
plesRel
ati
ngt
oRi
ght
t
oPr
oper
ty:

Theconst
it
uti
onal
prot
ect
ionsofst
ate,
publ
i
candpr
ivat
epr
oper
ti
esi
nEt
hiopi
aar
e
f
oundi
nAr
ti
cle40oft
heConst
it
uti
onof
FDRE1995.Thepr
inci
plesr
elat
ingt
othe
r
ightt
opr
oper
tyembodi
edi
nthi
sar
ti
cl
ear
e
t
hef
oll
owi
ng:
1.Ev
eryEt
hiopi
anci
ti
zenhast
her
ightt
othe
owner
shi
p of pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty. Unl
ess
 755

pr
escr
ibedot
her
wisebyl
aw onaccountof
publ
i
cint
erest
,thi
sri
ghtshal
lincl
udet
he
r
ightt
o acqui
re,t
o useand,i
namanner
compat
ibl
ewi
tht
her
ight
sofot
herci
ti
zens,
t
o di
spose ofsuch pr
oper
ty by sal
e or
bequestort
otr
ansf
eri
tot
her
wise.
2."
Pri
vat
epr
oper
ty"
,fort
hepur
poseoft
his
Ar
ti
cle,shal
lmeananyt
angi
bleori
ntangi
ble
pr
oductwhi
chhasv
alueandi
spr
oducedby
t
hel
abour
,cr
eat
ivi
ty,ent
erpr
iseorcapi
talof
an i
ndi
vi
dualci
ti
zen,associ
ati
ons whi
ch
enj
oyj
uri
dicalper
sonal
i
tyundert
hel
aw,or
i
n appr
opr
iat
e ci
rcumst
ances, by
communi
ti
esspeci
fi
cal
l
yempower
edbyl
aw
t
oownpr
oper
tyi
ncommon.
3.Ther
ightt
oowner
shi
pofr
uralandur
ban
l
and,aswel
lasofal
lnat
uralr
esour
ces,i
s
excl
usi
vel
yvest
edi
ntheSt
ateandi
nthe
 756

peopl
es ofEt
hiopi
a.Land i
s a common
pr
oper
tyoft
he Nat
ions,Nat
ional
i
tiesand
Peopl
esofEt
hiopi
aandshal
lnotbesubj
ect
t
osal
eort
oot
hermeansofexchange.
4.Et
hiopi
anpeasant
sthehav
eri
ghtt
oobt
ain
l
and wi
thoutpay
mentand t
he pr
otect
ion
agai
nstev
ict
ionf
rom t
hei
rpossessi
on.The
i
mpl
ement
ati
on oft
his pr
ovi
si
on shal
lbe
speci
fi
edbyl
aw.
5.Et
hiopi
anpast
oral
i
stshav
ether
ightt
ofr
ee
l
andf
orgr
azi
ngandcul
ti
vat
ionaswel
las
t
her
ightnott
obedi
spl
acedf
rom t
hei
rown
l
ands.Thei
mpl
ement
ati
onshal
lbespeci
fi
ed
byl
aw.
6.Wi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
other
ightofEt
hiopi
an
Nat
ions,Nat
ional
i
ties,and Peopl
est
othe
owner
shi
pofl
and,gov
ernmentshal
lensur
e
t
her
ightofpr
ivat
einv
est
orst
otheuseof
 757

l
andont
hebasi
sofpay
mentar
rangement
s
est
abl
i
shed by l
aw.Par
ti
cul
ars shal
lbe
det
ermi
nedbyl
aw.
7.Ev
eryEt
hiopi
anshal
lhav
ethef
ullr
ightt
o
t
hei
mmov
abl
epr
oper
tyhebui
l
dsandt
othe
per
manenti
mpr
ovement
shebr
ingsabout
ont
hel
andbyhi
slabourorcapi
tal
.Thi
s
r
ightshal
lincl
udet
her
ightt
oal
i
enat
e,t
o
bequeat
h,and,wher
ethe r
ight of use
expi
res,t
oremov
ehi
spr
oper
ty,t
ransf
erhi
s
t
it
le, or cl
aim compensat
ion f
or i
t.
Par
ti
cul
arsshal
lbedet
ermi
nedbyl
aw.
8. Wi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
other
ightt
opr
ivat
e
pr
oper
ty,t
hegov
ernmentmayexpr
opr
iat
e
pr
ivat
epr
oper
tyf
orpubl
i
cpur
posessubj
ect
t
o pay
menti
n adv
ance ofcompensat
ion
commensur
atet
othev
alueoft
hepr
oper
ty.
 758

The cr
imi
nall
aw i
s concer
ned wi
tht
he
unl
awf
ulv
iol
ati
ons of t
hese pr
otect
ions
guar
ant
eed undert
he Const
it
uti
on.Ar
ti
cl
e
662 of t
he Cr
imi
nalCode decl
ares al
l
i
nter
fer
ence wi
th pr
oper
ty and economi
c
r
ight
sorr
ight
scapabl
eofbei
ngcal
cul
ated
nmoneyf
i ormi
ngapar
toft
hepr
oper
tyof
anot
heraspuni
shabl
econduct
.St
ate,
publ
i
c
andpr
ivat
epr
oper
ti
esar
epr
otect
edunder
t
he Cr
imi
nalCode.Damage t
ori
ght
sin
pr
oper
tywi
thi
nthemeani
ngoft
hisCr
imi
nal
Code i
s const
it
uted by any i
njur
y or
pr
ejudi
cesuf
fer
edi
ncompar
isonwi
tht
he
nor
malsi
tuat
ioni
ntheabsenceoft
hecr
ime.

I
nter
fer
encesofmi
nori
mpor
tancewi
th
pr
oper
tyr
ight
sar
esubj
ectt
othepr
ovi
si
ons
andsanct
ionsr
egar
dingpet
tyof
fences.
 759

6.
2.SomeSer
iousCr
imesCommi
tt
ed
Agai
nstPr
oper
ty:
6.
2.1.Thef
t,Robber
yandt
hei
rfor
ms:

 Robber
y:
I
nthecr
imi
nall
aw,
robber
yisanaggr
avat
ed
f
orm oft
hef
tthati
nvol
vesv
iol
enceort
he
t
hreatofv
iol
enceagai
nsta v
ict
im i
n hi
s
pr
esence.Many cr
imi
nol
ogi
sts hav
elong
r
egar
dedst
ati
sti
csonr
obber
ytobeoneof
t
he mostaccur
ate gauges oft
he ov
eral
l
cr
imer
ate.

o Cat
egor
iesoft
hef
t:
 760

Robber
yist
he commi
ssi
on of t
hef
tin
ci
rcumst
ancesofv
iol
enceandi
nvol
vest
he
appl
i
cat
ionort
het
hreatoff
orcei
nor
dert
o
commi
tthe t
hef
tor t
o secur
e escape.
Robber
ytakes manyf
orms,r
angi
ng f
rom
muggi
ngst
obankr
obber
ies.Thepenal
tyf
or
r
obber
yisusual
l
ymor
esev
eret
hant
hatof
t
he l
arceny
.Manycr
imi
nol
ogi
sts consi
der
st
ati
sti
csonr
obber
ytobeamongt
hebet
ter
i
ndi
cat
orsoft
heov
eral
l
...

oCompar
isonwi
thext
ort
ion:
Thescopegi
vent
otheof
fenseofext
ort
ion
i
napar
ti
cul
arl
egalsy
stem i
sdet
ermi
ned
par
tl
ybyt
hecont
entoft
her
elat
edof
fense
ofr
obber
y.Robber
yist
ypi
cal
l
yconf
inedt
o
t
aki
ngpr
oper
tyf
rom t
heper
sonorpr
esence
oft
hev
ict
im byv
iol
enceorbyt
hreatt
odo
 761

ani
mmedi
atephy
sicalhar
m.Mor
eremot
e
and l
ess t
err
if
ying t
hreat
sfal
lwi
thi
nthe
pr
ovi
nceoft
heext
ort
ionandbl
ackmai
l
...

Gener
alPr
inci
ples r
elat
ing t
othe Cr
imes
agai
nstPr
oper
tyUnderTheCr
imi
nalCode:

Cr
imesagai
nstpr
oper
tyi
ncl
udeoneoft
he
f
oll
owi
ngessent
ial
element
s:
o Damage t
othe r
ight
s oft
he owneror
possessori
nthepr
oper
tyr
ight
s(Ar
t663)
,
e.
g.di
stur
banceofpossessi
on,di
stur
bance
ofanot
her
’shol
dingset
c.or
o Damage t
othe r
ight
s oft
he owneror
possessor i
n t
he pr
oper
ty r
ight
s and
unl
awf
ulorunj
ust
if
iabl
eenr
ichmentt
othe
cr
imi
nal (
Art 664)
,e.
g. Thef
t,Robber
y,
mi
sappr
opr
iat
ionet
c.
 762

Pr
esumpt
ion ofUnl
awf
ulorUnj
ust
if
iabl
e
Enr
ichment
:Ar
t664
Wher
ethel
aw r
equi
res,i
nor
dert
hatt
her
e
beacr
ime,
thatt
hecr
imi
nal
shal
lhav
eact
ed
wi
thi
ntentt
o obt
ainf
or hi
msel
f or t
o
pr
ocur
efor a t
hir
d per
son an unl
awf
ul
enr
ichment
,ther
eisapr
esumpt
iont
hatt
he
actwasdonei
nor
dert
oobt
ainorpr
ocur
ea
benef
itoranunj
ust
if
iabl
eadv
ant
age.

I
nsuchev
ent
,thecr
imei
scompl
etedf
rom
t
het
imewhensuchspeci
ali
ntent
,joi
nedt
o
t
he mat
eri
al el
ement
s, i
s pr
oved,
not
wit
hst
andi
ng t
hat t
he i
ntended
enr
ichmenthasnott
akenpl
ace.Repay
ment
ort
hemaki
nggoodoft
hedamage,ev
eni
f
unsol
i
cit
ed,af
tersucht
ime,doesnotv
iti
ate
 763

t
hecr
ime,butt
heCour
tmayt
akeaccount
t
her
eofi
ndet
ermi
ningt
hesent
ence(
Art
.79
(
e))
.

 Essent
ialEl
ement
sofThef
tAr
t.665
A cr
ime of t
hef
tis commi
tt
ed i
fthe
f
oll
owi
ngessent
ial
sar
esat
isf
ied:
1. Abst
ract
ion of anot
her per
son’
s
mov
abl
epr
oper
tyorat
hingdet
achedf
rom
ani
mmov
abl
epr
oper
ty,
2. Whet
herbyt
aki
ng and car
ryi
ng orby
di
rectappr
opr
iat
ion,orbyhav
ing i
tpass
i
ndi
rect
lyt
ohi
sownpr
oper
ty,
3. Wi
thani
ntent
iont
oobt
ainf
orhi
msel
for
t
oanot
heranunl
awf
ulenr
ichment
.

‘
Abst
ract
ion’means,t
aki
ngorappr
opr
iat
ing
ort
aki
ngf
rom anot
herwi
thi
ntentt
odef
raud.
 764

I
tis def
ined as,‘
Wrongf
ulabst
ract
ion’i
s
unaut
hor
ized and i
l
legal t
aki
ng or
wi
thdr
awi
ngoff
undset
c.,andappr
opr
iat
ion
t
her
eoft
othet
aker
’sbenef
it(
Black’
sLaw
Di
cti
onar
y).

 Puni
shmentf
orThef
t:
1.
Simpl
e i
mpr
isonment or r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonment not exceedi
ng 5y
ear
s
accor
ding t
o t
he ci
rcumst
ances of t
he
case.
(Ar
t665/
1)
2.
Damage t
o Pr
oper
ty:Wher
ethe cr
imi
nal
hi
msel
fhasdet
ached t
hemov
abl
eobj
ect
f
rom an i
mmov
abl
e pr
oper
ty,and whi
l
e
doi
ng so has caused damage t
o t
he
mov
abl
e or i
mmov
abl
e pr
oper
ty, t
he
pr
ovi
sionsr
elat
ingdamaget
opr
oper
tyi
.e.
 765

Ar
ts689-
691shal
lappl
yconcur
rent
ly.(
Art
665/
2)
3.
Pet
tyAbst
ract
ion:Wher
e anyper
son has
commi
tt
edpet
tyabst
ract
ionoft
hepr
oper
ty
ofanot
herofv
erysmal
lval
ue,heshal
lbe
puni
shedaccor
dingt
othepr
ovi
si
onsofAr
t
852and853oft
hePet
tyCode.
(Ar
t.665/
3)

Aggr
avat
edThef
tAr
t.669:
Wher
ethef
tas def
ined underAr
t665 i
s
accompani
ed by one or mor
e of t
he
aggr
avat
edci
rcumst
ancesl
i
stedouti
nthr
ee
sub-
art
icl
esofAr
t669,
thepuni
shmentshal
l
beSi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentofnotl
esst
han
1y
ear and may ext
end up t
ori
gor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng15y
ear
sift
he
gr
avi
tyoft
hecr
imesodemands.
 766

Robber
yAr
t670:
Thecr
imeof‘
robber
y’i
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ng
essent
ial
condi
ti
ons:
1.
Abst
ract
ion of a mov
abl
e pr
oper
ty of
anot
her
2.
Wit
hani
ntentt
oobt
ainf
orhi
msel
fort
o
pr
ocur
eforanot
heranunl
awf
ulenr
ichment
,
and
3.
By use ofv
iol
ence orgr
avei
nti
midat
ion
t
owar
dsaper
son:
a.f
orf
aci
l
itat
ingsuchabst
ract
ion,
or
b. t
o r
ender usel
ess any r
esi
stance
of
fer
eddur
ingoraf
tert
heabst
ract
ion,orc.
ot
her
wiset
orendersuchaper
soni
ncapabl
e
ofr
esi
sti
ng
 767

Puni
shment f
or Robber
y: Ri
gor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng15y
ear
s.
Aggr
avat
edRobber
yAr
t.671:
Thef
oll
owi
ngci
rcumst
ancesmakeacr
ime
ofr
obber
ytobeanaggr
avat
edoneunder
t
hispr
ovi
sion:
1.
Robber
ycommi
tt
edbyamemberofagang
f
ormedi
nor
dert
ocommi
tact
sofv
iol
ence
agai
nstper
sonsorpr
oper
ty;
or
2.
Robber
ycommi
tt
ed:
obyser
iousl
ythr
eat
eni
ng t
he v
ict
im wi
th
deat
hinpar
ti
cul
arbymeansofar
msorofa
danger
ousweapon,
or
obysubmi
tt
ingt
hev
ict
im t
o suf
fer
ingor
gr
avebodi
l
yinj
ury
;or
3.
inanyot
herci
rcumst
anceshowi
ngt
hathei
s
par
ti
cul
arl
ydanger
ous.
 768

 Puni
shmentofAggr
avat
edRobber
y:
1.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ngf
rom 5t
o
25y
ear
sundert
heci
rcumst
ancesenl
i
sted
undert
hesub-
art
.(1)
.

2.Ri
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
if
ewher
ethe
cr
imi
nalact
edt
oget
herwi
thagang,used
ar
msorot
herdanger
ousweapon,means
i
mper
il
ing col
l
ect
ive secur
it
yormeansof
par
ti
cul
ar cr
uel
ty or wher
ethe act
s of
v
iol
ence commi
tt
ed hav
e r
esul
ted i
n
per
manentdi
sabi
l
ityordeat
h(Ar
t671/
2).

3.
Deat
h penal
ty may be gi
ven i
f t
he
aggr
avat
ed r
obber
yis commi
tt
ed can be
sai
dtobet
hemostser
iouscasecommi
tt
ed
 769

undert
heci
rcumst
ancesment
ionedi
nsub-
ar
t.(
2).

6.
2.1.
BreachofTr
ustandMi
sappr
opr
iat
ion:
Ar
ts.675-
681

 Br
eachofTr
ust
:Ar
t675and676
Thecr
imeof‘
breachoft
rust
’issi
mil
art
o
t
hatoft
heof
fenceofembezzl
ementunder
t
heEngl
i
shl
aw.I
tsuggest
sthatt
hegi
stof
t
hecr
imei
s'di
shonestmi
sappr
opr
iat
ion'or
'
conv
ersi
ont
oownuse'anot
her
'spr
oper
ty,
whi
chi
snot
hingbutt
heof
fenceofcr
imi
nal
mi
sappr
opr
iat
ion. The onl
y di
ff
erence
bet
weent
het
woi
sthati
nther
espectoft
he
cr
imi
nalbr
each oft
rust
,the accused i
s
ent
rust
edwi
thpr
oper
tyorwi
thdomi
nionor
 770

cont
rol
overt
hepr
oper
ty.

 Ent
rust
ment
:Ast
het
it
leoft
hecr
imei
tsel
f
suggest
s,ent
rust
mentorpr
oper
tyi
s an
essent
ial r
equi
rement bef
ore any cr
ime
underAr
t675t
akespl
ace.Thel
anguageof
t
hear
ti
clei
sver
ywi
de.Thewor
dsusedar
e
'
proper
tydel
i
ver
edt
ohi
mint
rustorf
ora
speci
fi
c pur
pose'
. So, i
t ext
ends t
o
ent
rust
ment
sofal
lki
nds-
whet
hert
ocl
erks,
ser
vant
s,busi
nesspar
tner
sorot
herper
sons,
pr
ovi
dedt
hatt
heyar
ehol
dingaposi
ti
onof
t
rust
.

The essent
ialel
ement
s of t
he cr
imi
nal
br
eachoft
rustasperAr
t675i
ncl
ude:
1.Appr
opr
iat
ingorpr
ocur
ingoft
hepr
oper
ty
del
i
ver
ed t
othecr
imi
nali
ntr
ustorf
ora
 771

speci
fi
cpur
pose
2.
Wit
h an i
ntent
ion t
o obt
ain unj
ust
enr
ichment
3.
Eit
herf
ort
hebenef
itoft
hecr
imi
nalhi
msel
f
ort
hatofat
hir
dper
son

 Meani
ng of ‘
Proper
ty’
:The expr
essi
on
‘
proper
ty’f
ort
he pur
poses oft
his ar
ti
cl
e
i
ncl
udesasum amountofmoney
,obj
ector
at
hingofv
aluer
ecei
vedbyt
hecr
imi
nali
n
consi
der
ati
onofasum amountofmoney
,
obj
ectort
hingofv
alueent
rust
edt
ohi
mfor
sal
e,pur
chase,exchangeorot
herspeci
fi
c
pur
pose(
Art675/
2).
 Pr
esumpt
ionofWr
ongf
ulI
ntent
ion:The
i
ntentt
oobt
ainf
orhi
msel
fort
opr
ocur
efor
at
hir
dper
sonanunj
ust
if
iabl
eenr
ichment
shal
lbe pr
esumed under t
he f
oll
owi
ng
 772

ci
rcumst
ance:
oWher
ethecr
imi
nali
sunabl
etopr
oduceor
r
epay t
he t
hing orsum ent
rust
ed when
cal
l
edupont
odoso
oWher
ethecr
imi
nalf
ail
stor
etur
noraccount
f
oratt
het
imeheshoul
dhav
edoneso.
 Puni
shmentf
orBr
eachoft
rust
:
1.
Simpl
eimpr
isonment
,innor
mal
cases;
or
2.
Rigor
ous i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng 5
y
ear
s,accor
dingt
otheci
rcumst
ancesoft
he
case.

Aggr
avat
edBr
eachoft
rust
:Ar
t676
Thecr
imeofbr
eachoft
rustashasbeen
def
ined under t
he pr
evi
ous ar
ti
cl
e i
s
puni
shedf
oranaggr
avat
edcr
imeundert
he
f
oll
owi
ngci
rcumst
ancesAr
t.676/
1:
 773

1.
Ift
he cr
ime i
s commi
tt
ed agai
nst t
he
pr
oper
tyoft
he St
ate ort
hatofa publ
i
c
or
gani
zat
ion;
or
2.
Wher
ethecr
imi
nali
sapubl
i
cof
fi
ci
al,an
appoi
ntee orapubl
i
ctr
ust
eeoranel
ect
ed
r
epr
esent
ati
ve

 Puni
shment f
or aggr
avat
ed br
each of
t
rust
:
3.
Rigor
ousi
mpr
isonmentr
angi
ngf
rom 5t
o
15y
ear
sandf
inenotexceedi
ng100,
000
Bi
rr
,int
heci
rcumst
ancesspeci
fi
edunder
t
heAr
t676/
1.
4.
Simpl
eimpr
isonmentf
ornotl
esst
han1
y
ear or r
igor
ous i
mpr
isonment of not
exceedi
ng15y
ear
s,wher
etheecr
imi
nali
s
oneoft
hecat
egor
iesspeci
fi
edunderAr
t.
676/
2.
 774

Mi
sappr
opr
iat
ion:
Art
.679
Thecr
imeof‘
misappr
opr
iat
ion’undert
his
pr
ovi
sion r
equi
res t
he f
oll
owi
ng essent
ial
el
ement
s:
1.
Appr
opr
iat
ionofpr
oper
tyofanot
herwhi
ch
t
he cr
imi
nalgoti
nto hi
s possessi
on by
mi
stake,acci
dent
,theoper
ati
onofnat
ural
f
orcessuchaswi
ndorwat
erori
nanyot
her
manneri
ndependent
ly oft
he wi
l
loft
he
owner
2.
Wit
hint
entt
oobt
ainf
orhi
msel
forpr
ocur
e
f
or a t
hir
d per
son an unj
ust
if
iabl
e
enr
ichment
3.
Thepr
oper
tymayi
ncl
udeaat
hingoran
ani
mal whi
ch was st
ray
ed i
nto hi
s
possessi
on

 Puni
shmentf
orMi
sappr
opr
iat
ion:
 775

Si
mpl
eimpr
isonmentorf
ineshal
lbet
he
puni
shmentf
ormi
sappr
opr
iat
ionupont
he
f
il
ingofaf
ormal
compl
aint
.
Rev
iewQuest
ions:
1.Whatar
ethegener
alpr
inci
plesr
elat
ingt
o
pr
oper
tyundert
heCr
imi
nal
Code?
2. Expl
ain t
he Const
it
uti
onal pr
inci
ples
r
elat
ingt
ori
ghtt
opr
oper
ty?
3.Def
ine t
hef
t and di
sti
ngui
sh i
tfr
om
r
obber
y.
4. What i
sthe di
ff
erence bet
ween an
aggr
avat
edt
hef
tandar
obber
y?
5. What does br
each of t
rust mean?
Di
sti
ngui
shi
tfr
om mi
sappr
opr
iat
ion.

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng!
Do y
ou t
hink t
hat t
he expr
essi
on ‘
the
 776

pr
oper
tyofanot
her
’suf
fi
cient
lycov
ersal
l
possi
bleunl
awf
ulconduct
sint
hisar
ea?Can
aper
soncommi
tthef
tofhi
sownpr
oper
ty?
I
ll
ust
rat
ion:Akeepthi
sval
uabl
ejewel
l
eryi
n
hi
sfr
iendB’
shousef
orkeepi
ngi
tsaf
el.A
y
hadf
r oB’
eeaccesst shouseashewashi
s
nei
ghborandwer
eknownt
oeachot
herf
or
qui
tesomet
ime.Onedayi
ntheabsenceofB,
A ent
ered B’
s house and t
ook away hi
s
j
ewel
l
eryandsol
ditandmademoney
.Lat
er
hedemandedBt
oret
urnhi
sjewel
l
ery
.
Whati
sther
emedyav
ail
abl
eforB?Whose
pr
oper
tywasst
olennew?
I
fthe wr
ongf
ulconductofA i
srev
eal
ed
whatki
ndofcr
imecanhebechar
ged?
Don’
tyout
hinkt
hathaddef
ini
ti
onoft
hef
t
beensomet
hi ke“
ngl
i thedi
shonestt
aki
ng
ofpr
oper
tyoutoft
hepossessi
onofany
 777

per
sonwi
thoutt
hatper
son’
sconsent
”that
i
twoul
dhav
ebet
tercov
eredt
heunl
awf
ul
conductoft
hisnat
ure?

Uni
tSummar
y:
A good under
standi
ng oft
he r
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weendi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
heCr
imi
nalCode
i
sthef
ir
stmosti
mpor
tantt
hing t
hatt
he
cr
imi
nall
aw st
udent
s shoul
d hav
e.The
‘
Gener
alPar
t’oft
heCr
imi
nalCodeset
sout
t
he gener
alpr
inci
ples ofcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
whi
char
ecommont
oal
lcr
imes.Thi
spar
t
expl
ains t
he meani
ng of cr
imi
nal act
,
cr
imi
nali
ntent
ionornegl
i
gencei
.e.‘
thegui
l
t’
andl
aysdownt
hepr
inci
plesf
oll
owi
ngwhi
ch
 778

anaccused per
son’
sactcanbedecl
ared
puni
shabl
e. Fur
ther
, t
he gener
al par
t
pr
escr
ibes and def
ines t
he ki
nds of
puni
shment
s,measur
es t
o be appl
i
ed i
n
each case.To f
ind t
he r
elev
antl
aw t
he
i
nter
rel
ati
onshi
psofpr
ovi
sionsand cr
oss-
r
efer
ences wi
thi
nthe Code hav
eto be
appr
eci
atedv
erycl
ear
ly.

The Speci
alPar
t of t
he Cr
imi
nalCode
i
ncor
por
ates t
he conduct
s t
hat ar
e
pr
ohi
bit
edundert
het
hreatofpuni
shment
.
The obj
ect
ive oft
he cr
imi
nall
aw i
sto
pr
otectt
he “
int
erest
s”oft
he st
ate,t
he
communi
ty and t
he i
nter
est
s of t
he
i
ndi
vi
duali
n or
dert
o ensur
e peace and
secur
it
y.Ther
efor
e,cr
imes agai
nstsuch
i
nter
est
sar
ekeptunderv
ari
oust
it
lesi
na
 779

sy
stemat
icor
der
.Thei
ndi
vi
duali
nter
est
sof
aper
son pr
otect
edundert
heCodei
ncl
ude
hi
sli
fe,hi
sper
son (
body
),hi
sli
ber
ty,hi
s
honor
,hi
smor
alsat
tri
but
es,hi
sfami
l
y,hi
s
pr
oper
tyet
c.

Tr
easoni
sbet
ray
alofsov
erei
gnt
yofast
ate.
Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesoft
reasonundert
he
Cr
imi
nalCodeofEt
hiopi
a.Hi
ght
reasoni
s
al
so cal
l
ed an ‘
actofwar
’as t
he act
s
i
ncl
udedundert
hedef
ini
ti
onofhi
ght
reason
ar
eessent
ial
l
yli
nkedt
othesi
tuat
ionofwar
.
Tr
eason i
s notnecessar
il
yrel
ated t
othe
act
s of war
. Economi
ctr
eason i
sthe
speci
es oft
reason whi
ch i
sint
ended t
o
pr
otect t
he economi
c st
ruct
ure of t
he
count
ry. Unaut
hor
ized di
scl
osur
es and
communi
cat
ions r
elat
ing t
o economi
c
 780

negot
iat
ionsofast
atear
epr
ohi
bit
edunder
t
hispr
ovi
sion.

Espi
onage i
sthe pr
act
ice of obt
aini
ng
i
nfor
mat
ion about an or
gani
zat
ion or a
soci
ety t
hat i
s consi
der
ed secr
et or
conf
ident
ial(
spy
ing)wi
thoutt
heper
missi
on
oft
hehol
deroft
hei
nfor
mat
ion.Dur
ingwar
espi
onage i
s used t
o gat
heri
nfor
mat
ion
about opposi
ng ar
mies and t
o mi
sl
ead
opponent
s t
hrough count
eri
ntel
l
igence.
Thoseengagedi
nspy
ingr
iski
mpr
isonment
anddeat
hifconv
ict
edoft
reason.
Undert
he Cr
imi
nalCode t
her
e ar
ethr
ee
ki
ndsofhomi
cidest
hatr
equi
ret
hepr
oofof
‘
i
ntent
ion’as t
he mor
ali
ngr
edi
entoft
he
cr
ime,namel
y Aggr
avat
ed Homi
ci
de (
Art
539)
,Ext
enuat
ed Homi
cide (
Art541)and
 781

Or
dinar
yHomi
cide(
Art540)
.Thet
ypeof
homi
cidet
hati
sdef
inedunderAr
t543i
sthe
onl
yonet
hatmakesaper
sonpuni
shabl
efor
causi
ng deat
h negl
i
gent
ly.I
nfant
ici
de i
s
chi
l
dmur
deri
nthef
ir
sty
earofl
i
fe.Under
t
heCr
imi
nalCodeamot
herget
sami
ti
gat
ed
puni
shmentpr
ovi
dedt
hatshecommi
tst
he
cr
imewhi
l
eshei
sinl
abour
,orwhi
l
est
il
l
suf
fer
ingf
rom t
hedi
rectef
fect
sofl
abour
.

Cr
imes agai
nstt
he per
son,women and
chi
l
dren and pr
oper
ty ar
ever
y car
eful
l
y
t
reat
edbyt
heCr
imi
nalCode.I
tisessent
ial
f
or t
he st
udent
s t
o hav
e a t
hor
ough
under
standi
ngoft
hedi
ff
erentcr
imest
hat
ar
eincl
udedundert
heCode.Thest
udent
s
mayf
oll
ow t
he di
ff
erentway
sin whi
ch
cr
imesar
eint
erpr
etedi
nthi
suni
tfort
hef
act
 782

t
her
estoft
hecr
imesar
eincl
udedi
nthe
Code.

Ref
erences:
Cases:
 Thabo Mel
i v
.Regi
na Judi
ci
al
Commi
tt
ee, Pr
ivy Counci
l
, 1 Al
l
.
Eng.
Rep.
373(
1954)
 R.
V.Khandu (
1890)I
LR.Bombay
,194,
I
ndi
a
 R.
VShor
ty(
1950)SR.
280,
Afr
ica.
 Pal
ani Goundan v
.Emper
or (
1920)
Madr
as,
862,
Inda
 At
o Abay
neh Gabr
esel
l
assi
e v
. The
At
tomeyGener
al,Supr
emeI
mper
ialCour
t,
(
1963G.
C)
 At
o Leggesse Tumt
u and Agr
aw
Mamet
cha v
.At
tor
ncy Gener
al,Supr
eme
 783

l
mper
ial
cour
t(1964G.
C)

ReaderNot
e:
1. St
evenLowenst
ein–“
Mat
eri
alsf
ort
he
st
udyoft
hePenalLaw ofEt
hiopi
a”(
1967)
,
HSI
U,Addi
sAbaba,
Ethi
opi
a.
2. J.
C.Smi
thandBr
ainHogen–“
Cri
minal
7thEdi
Law”( ti
on)1992.
3.
Kenny
, C.
S.—“
Out
li
nes of Cr
imi
nal
Law”
(22ndEdn,2004)Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
y
Pr
ess
4. Lowenst
ein,S.–“
ThePenalSy
stem Of
Et
hiopi
a”JEL,
vol
.No.2,
1965
 784

UNI
T–V
THECODEOFPETTYOFFENCES
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Br
oadl
y speaki
ng,pet
ty of
fences can be
descr
ibed as ‘
publ
ic wel
far
e of
fences’
.
These ar
e al ed ‘
so cal
l the r
egul
ator
y
 785

of
fences’whi
ch i
nfact assumed mor
e
i
mpor
tancei
nthet
went
iet
hcent
ury
.These
ar
econduct
sdecl
aredbyspeci
alst
atut
esas
of
fensi
vet
othe soci
ali
nter
est
.Theyar
e
of
fencesofmi
norchar
act
eri
nvol
vi
ngmi
nor
puni
shment
.Theyar
eof
fencesconnect
ed
t
o sal
e ofadul
ter
ated f
ood ordr
ugs,or
of
fences of possessi
on of pr
ohi
bit
ed
ar
ti
cles,of
fencesconnect
edt
oroadt
raf
fi
c,
or of
fences agai
nst cust
om r
ules and
f
orei
gnr
egul
ati
ons.

I
nor
dert
obet
terappr
eci
atet
hemeani
ngof
pet
tyof
fencesandt
hesi
gni
fi
canceoft
he
Pet
ty Code i
t’
s wor
thwhi
l
eto consi
der
,
br
ief
ly,t
hedev
elopmentoft
heconceptof
‘
soci
alr
egul
ati
on’
.
 786

Al
lCr
imi
nall
aw i
sacompr
omi
sebet
ween
t
wo f
undament
all
yconf
li
cti
ng i
nter
est
s,-
--
t
hepubl
i
cint
erestandt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
int
erest
.
Thepubl
i
cint
erestdemandsr
est
rai
ntofal
l
whoi
njur
eort
hreat
ent
hesoci
alwel
l
-bei
ng
wher
east
hei
ndi
vi
duali
nter
estdemandst
he
maxi
mum l
i
ber
ty and f
reedom f
rom
i
nter
fer
ence.The hi
stor
y ofcr
imi
nall
aw
showsaconst
antswi
ngi
ngoft
hependul
um
soast
ofav
ort
hepubl
i
cint
erestatt
imes
andt
hei
ndi
vi
duali
nter
esty
etot
hert
imes.
Dur
ing t
he ni
net
eent
h cent
uryi
twas t
he
i
ndi
vi
dual i
nter
est whi
ch r
etai
ned i
ts
pr
omi
nence.The cr
imi
nall
aw machi
ner
y
wasov
erbur
denedwi
thi
nnumer
abl
echecks
t
o pr
eventpossi
blei
njust
ice t
oindi
vi
dual
def
endant
sasar
esul
tofwhi
cht
hepubl
i
c
i
nter
estof
tensuf
fer
ed.Ther
eact
iont
othi
s
 787

st
ate of af
fai
rs came i
nthe t
went
iet
h
cent
ury
.Theconcer
nnow i
smor
eoft
he
pr
otect
ionofsoci
alandpubl
i
cint
erest
s.The
t
eachi
ngoft
hemoder
ncr
imi
nol
ogi
stsi
nthe
f
iel
d ofl
egaladmi
nist
rat
ion i
sthat
,the
obj
ect
ive under
lyi
ng t
he cor
rect
ional
t
reat
mentshoul
d changef
rom t
hebar
ren
ai
m of puni
shi
ng human bei
ngs t
othe
f
rui
tf
uloneofpr
otect
ingsoci
ali
nter
est
s.As
adi
rectr
esul
toft
hisnew emphasi
supon
t
hepubl
i
candsoci
al,ascont
rast
edwi
tht
he
i
ndi
vi
duali
nter
est
s,cour
ts hav
e nat
ural
l
y
t
ended t
o concent
rat
e mor
e upon t
he
i
njur
ious conductoft
he def
endantt
han
upont
hepr
obl
em ofhi
sindi
vi
dualgui
l
t.I
n
t
hecaseoft
ruecr
imes,howev
er,al
though
t
heemphasi
smayshi
ft
,cour
tscannev
er
abandoni
nsi
stenceupont
heev
ili
ntentasa
 788

pr
erequi
sit
eto cr
imi
nal
i
ty,par
tl
y because
i
ndi
vi
dual
int
erest
scannev
erbel
ostsi
ghtof
andpar
tl
ybecauset
her
eal
menacet
osoci
al
i
nter
est
sist
hei
ntent
ional
,nott
hei
nnocent
doeroft
hehar
m.Butt
henew emphasi
s
bei
ng l
aid upon t
he pr
otect
ion ofsoci
al
i
nter
est
sencour
agedt
hedev
elopmentofa
speci
alt
ypeofr
egul
ator
yof
fensei
nvol
vi
nga
soci
ali
njur
ysodi
rectandwi
despr
ead anda
penal
ty so l
i
ghtt
hati
n such except
ional
cases cour
ts coul
d saf
ely ov
err
ide t
he
i
nter
est
s of t
he i
nnocent i
ndi
vi
dual
def
endant
sandpuni
shwi
thoutpr
oofofany
gui
l
tyofi
ntent
.

Anot
her i
mpor
tant and i
nev
itabl
e
consequenceoft
hegr
owi
ngcompl
exi
ti
esof
t
het
went
iet
hcent
uryl
i
fei
sani
ncr
easi
ng
 789

soci
alr
egul
ati
on;andf
ort
hispur
poset
he
exi
sti
ngmachi
ner
yoft
hecr
imi
nall
aw has
beensei
zeduponandut
il
ized.Theor
igi
nal
obj
ect
iveofcr
imi
nall
aw wast
okeept
he
peace.Tot
hisenddur
ingt
heMi
ddl
eAges,
undert
hest
rongi
nfl
uenceoft
heChur
ch,
the
f
unct
ionoft
hecr
imi
nall
awwasext
endedt
o
cur
b mor
aldel
i
nquenci
es ofone ki
nd or
anot
her
.Fort
hese pur
poses i
tdev
eloped
sui
tabl
epr
ocedur
e,r
equi
ri
ngpr
oofofmor
al
bl
amewor
thi
nessora cr
imi
nali
ntent
.But
t
odayt
hecr
owdedcondi
ti
onsofl
i
fer
equi
re
soci
al r
egul
ati
on t
o t
he degr
ee nev
er
at
tempt
ed bef
ore. The i
nvent
ion and
ext
ensi
veuseofhi
ghpower
edaut
omobi
l
es
r
equi
renewr
efor
msoft
raf
fi
cregul
ati
on;
the
i
ncr
easedsoci
alev
il
sfr
om dr
inkduet
othe
mor
ecr
owdedandcompl
excondi
ti
onsof
 790

moder
nli
fer
equi
renew r
efor
msofl
i
quor
r
egul
ati
on; t
he dev
elopment of moder
n
medi
calsci
enceand t
hecongest
ed l
i
ving
accommodat
ionsofmoder
nci
ti
esr
equi
re
newf
ormsofsani
tar
yandheal
thr
egul
ati
on;
t
hegr
owt
hofmoder
nfact
ori
esr
equi
renew
f
ormsofl
aborr
egul
ati
on;t
hedev
elopment
ofmoder
n bui
l
ding const
ruct
ion and t
he
gr
owt
hofsky
scr
aper
srequi
renewf
ormsof
bui
l
dingr
egul
ati
on.Thet
radi
ti
onalel
abor
ate
pr
ocedur
esoft
hecr
imi
nall
aw,desi
gnedt
o
t
ry t
he subj
ect
ive bl
amewor
thi
ness of
i
ndi
vi
dualof
fender
s,i
s not sui
tabl
efor
exer
cisi
ngpet
tyr
egul
ati
ononawhol
esal
e
scal
e.Ther
efor
e,aconsi
der
abl
eamountof
t
hisdev
elopi
ngr
egul
ati
onhasbeenpl
aced
under admi
nist
rat
ive cont
rol
. Howev
er,
cer
tai
n conduct
s def
ined and pr
ohi
bit
ed
 791

undert
hoser
egul
ati
onsar
epur
posel
ylef
tto
t
he j
uri
sdi
cti
on oft
he cr
imi
nalcour
tsf
or
ef
fect
ivei
mpl
ement
ati
on oft
hese speci
al
penall
egi
slat
ionsandt
oret
aint
hedet
err
ent
ef
fect
.Ther
efor
e,t
heexi
stenceoft
hePet
ty
Code i
n t
he Cr
imi
nalCode cannot be
under
est
imat
ed.I
t’
sav
eryi
mpor
tantpar
tof
t
he Cr
imi
nal Law whi
ch needs t
o be
met
icul
ousl
yimpl
ement
edhav
ingr
egar
dto
t
hespi
ri
tandnat
ureoft
hel
aw(
Art3par
a2)
,
t
oputi
tint
hewor
dsofAr
t734.Cl
ear
ly,
iti
s
f
ort
hepr
otect
ionoft
hecol
l
ect
ivei
nter
est
s
oft
hesoci
etyandt
her
ebyf
ort
hewel
far
eof
t
hesoci
ety
.

Obj
ect
ives:
Byt
heendoft
hisuni
tthest
udent
swi
llbe
abl
eto:
 792

Under
standt
heconceptof‘
publ
i
cwel
far
e
of
fences’ and t
he basi
c phi
l
osophy
under
lyi
ngt
hiscat
egor
yofof
fences
Expl
aint
heObj
ect
iveandscopeoft
hePet
ty
Code
I
dent
if
ythesi
mil
ari
ti
esand di
ff
erencesi
n
t
he appl
i
cabi
l
ity ofgener
alpr
inci
ples of
cr
imi
nall
aws t
othe cr
imes under t
he
Speci
alPar
tandPet
tyof
fences
Know t
hepr
ocedur
alr
equi
rement
sfort
he
pr
osecut
ionofpet
tyof
fences

Sect
ion1.Gener
al
1.
1.Pet
tyOf
fence–Def
ini
ti
on:

Wi
thi
nthe meani
ng of Ar
t 735 of t
he
Cr
imi
nalCodecommi
ssi
ona‘
pet
tyof
fence’
l
i
esi
nany
oneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngconduct
s:
 793

 An i
nfr
ingementoft
he mandat
oryor
pr
ohi
bit
ivepr
ovi
sionsofl
aw,
or
 Ani
nfr
ingementofar
egul
ati
oni
ssued
byacompet
entaut
hor
it
y,or
 Commi
ssi
onofami
norof
fencewhi
chi
s
notpuni
shabl
eundert
heCr
imi
nal
Law.
Such a pet
ty of
fence i
s subj
ect t
o
puni
shmentundert
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
hel
aw
f
oundi
nAr
ti
cles746-
775oft
hePet
tyCode.

Themandat
oryorpr
ohi
bit
orypr
ovi
si
onsof
t
hel
aw ort
her
egul
ati
onsment
ionedunder
Ar
t 735 shoul
d be under
stood hav
ing
r
efer
encet
oAr
t3oft
heCr
imi
nalCode.I
t
speci
fi
cal
l
yref
erst
othe speci
all
aws of
penal nat
ure and makes t
he gener
al
pr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nall
awappl
i
cabl
etot
hem
aswel
l
.Tomaket
hesel
awsmor
eef
fect
ive
 794

and meani
ngf
ul t
her
e ar
e penal
ti
es
pr
escr
ibed f
orcer
tai
nvi
olat
ions oft
hose
l
aws.I
fsuchpenal
ti
esf
allwi
thi
nther
ange
ofpenal
ti
espr
escr
ibedundert
hePet
tyCode
t
heywi
l
lbet
ri
edaccor
dingt
othepr
ovi
si
ons
of t
he Pet
ty Code and ar
e puni
shed
t
her
eunder
.Exampl
esofsuchl
awsmaybe,
The Wei
ght
sand Measur
esPr
ocl
amat
ion,
1973,The Wi
l
d Li
fe Conser
vat
ion Or
der
,
1970, t
he Cur
rency Pr
ocl
amat
ion, 1942
(
Proc.No.31)
,the Cur
rencyAmendment
Pr
ocl
amat
ionof1947(
Proc.No.99)
,et
c.,

Pet
tyOf
fencesGov
ernedbyt
hePet
tyCode:
Ar
t736cl
ear
lydef
inest
hecl
assesofpet
ty
of
fencest
hatar
emadepuni
shabl
ebyt
he
Pet
tyCode.Ar
t736/
1gi
vi
ngef
fectt
othe
pr
inci
ple of l
egal
i
ty speci
fi
es f
or t
he
 795

appl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hePet
tyCode,
theof
fensei
n
quest
ion shoul
d hav
e been one t
hati
s
def
ined:
oByoneoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heCr
imi
nal
Code,
or
oByt
hepr
ovi
sionsofaspeci
all
aw (
Art3
r
eadwi
thAr
t735)
.
Thepenal
ti
esappl
i
cabl
etosuchof
fenses
shal
l be t
hose whi
ch ar
e expr
essl
y
pr
escr
ibedi
nrespectt
her
eof
.
Pet
ty Code i
s Appl
icabl
e Onl
yin t
he
Absenceof aPr
ovi
sionf
orMor
eSev
ere
Penal
ty:Ar
t736/
1Par
a2
We f
ind of
fences ofsi
mil
arnat
ure bei
ng
def
inedunderPet
tycodeandt
heCr
imi
nal
Codet
oo.Forexampl
e,Ar
ti
cl
es830,831,
832 et
c, def
ine t
he pet
ty of
fences
ment
ioni
ng t
hatcases apar
tfr
om t
hose
 796

f
all
i
ng underAr
ti
cles 514-
533 ar
eto be
puni
shedundert
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
hePet
ty
Code.Thi
smeanst
hat
,thosecr
imest
hat
ar
emadepuni
shabl
eundert
heSpeci
alPar
t
oft
heCr
imi
nalCodet
houghessent
ial
l
yof
samedescr
ipt
ion,agai
nstt
hesamesubj
ect
mat
ter et
c.,t
hey pr
oduce mor
e sev
ere
consequencesandt
hust
heyar
epuni
shabl
e
wi
thmor
esev
erepenal
ti
es.Ther
efor
e,when
t
heunl
awf
ulconductdoes’notst
ri
ctl
yfal
l
undert
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heCr
imi
nalCode
t
henextst
epi
stocheckwhet
hert
her
eis
anypet
tyof
fencer
elat
ingt
osuchconduct
.
Thus,onl
yift
her
eis no pr
ovi
si
on t
hat
puni
shes t
he conduct mor
e sev
erel
y,i
t
becomespuni
shabl
eundert
hePet
tyCode.

But under no ci
rcumst
ances t
he same
 797

conductbecomespuni
shabl
eunderbot
hthe
cr
imi
nalCode and t
he Pet
tycode att
he
samet
ime.Thatwoul
dcl
ear
lyamountt
o
doubl
ejeopar
dy(
Art2/
5andAr
t736/
1Par
a
3)
.

Pet
ty Of
fences Shal
l not be Puni
shed
Ret
roact
ivel
y:Ar
t.736/
2
Pet
ty of
fences shal
lal
way
s be puni
shed
undert
hepr
ovi
sionsofl
awswhi
char
ein
f
orceatt
het
imeoft
hei
rcommi
ssi
on.They
shal
lnotbepuni
shedr
etr
ospect
ivel
y.

1.
3.Jur
isdi
cti
onofPet
tyCode:Ar
t738

Wi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t738/
1thepet
ty
of
fencesshal
lbegov
ernedbyt
hepr
inci
ple
of t
err
it
ori
ali
ty(
Art 11)
. The pl
ace of
 798

commi
ssi
onoft
heof
fencei
sthepl
aceof
wher
etheof
fenderhadei
thercommi
tt
edor
omi
tt
edt
heactr
esul
ti
ngi
ntheof
fence(
Art
25)
.

Pet
tyof
fencescommi
tt
edont
het
err
it
oryof
Et
hiopi
ashal
lal
way
sbet
ri
edi
naccor
dance
wi
thEt
hiopi
anl
awswhent
heof
fenderi
sin
Et
hiopi
a.The f
oll
owi
ng r
ules r
elat
ing t
o
j
uri
sdi
cton do not appl
i yto t
he pet
ty
of
fences.
3.
Ther
eisnoquest
ionofei
therdel
egat
ionof
j
uri
sdi
cti
onorext
radi
ti
onoft
heof
fenderi
n
caseofpet
tyof
fences.Thus,
Art
icl
es12and
21hav
enoappl
i
cat
iont
opet
tyof
fences.
2. Pet
tyof
fences commi
tt
ed i
naf
orei
gn
count
ry by an Et
hiopi
an or agai
nst an
Et
hiopi
anshal
lnotbepuni
shedi
nEt
hiopi
a
 799

(
Art18)
.
5.
Pet
ty of
fences commi
tt
ed i
n af
orei
gn
count
rybyanEt
hiopi
anenj
oyi
ngi
mmuni
ty
shal
lnotbepuni
shedi
nEt
hiopi
a(Ar
t14)
.
Theonl
ypet
tyof
fencescommi
tt
edout
side
t
het
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
onbutar
est
il
ltr
iabl
e
i
n Et
hiopi
a ar
e‘pet
ty of
fences ofpur
ely
mi
l
itar
ychar
act
erpr
ovi
dedbyt
heEt
hiopi
an
Mi
l
itar
ylaw’9Ar
t792)
.Suchof
fencesshal
l
al
way
sbet
ri
edbyt
hemi
l
itar
yaut
hor
it
yand
puni
shed accor
ding t
o Et
hiopi
an l
aw
whet
hert
heywer
ecommi
tt
edi
nEt
hiopi
aor
i
naf
orei
gncount
ry(
Art738/
3).Howev
er,i
f
such of
fenderwas al
ready t
ri
ed f
ort
he
sameactbyt
hef
orei
gnCour
themaynotbe
puni
shedher
eagai
n.

Ef
fectofFor
eignSent
ences:Ar
t739
 800

I
ncaseofcr
imes,t
heCr
imi
nalCodeAr
t22
pr
ovi
des t
hatf
orei
gn sent
ences shal
lbe
t
akeni
nto consi
der
ati
onwhi
chamountt
o
ant
ecedent
sandaggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ances
andt
her
ebyenhanci
ngt
hepuni
shmentof
t
hecr
imi
nal
.Buti
nrel
ati
ont
opet
tyof
fences,
f
orei
gn sent
ences f
ailt
o pr
oduce any
consequent
ial ef
fect
s i
n Et
hiopi
a.
Conv
ict
ions or sent
ences passed by a
f
orei
gn Cour
t shal
l not be t
aken i
nto
consi
der
ati
on f
or t
he assessment of
sent
ence as r
egar
ds t
o cr
imes orpet
ty
of
fencest
ri
edbyEt
hiopi
anCour
ts.

1.
3.Gener
alPr
inci
plesofLi
abi
li
tyi
ncaseof
Pet
tyof
fences:

 Requi
rementoft
heMor
alI
ngr
edi
ent
s:
 801

I
tisev
identf
rom t
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
t741
t
hatt
hedoct
rneofmensr
i eai
sgener
all
y
appl
i
cabl
etopet
tyof
fencest
oo.Thel
att
er
par
toft
heAr
ti
cle741/
2,say
sthatev
enal
l
negl
i
gent pet
ty of
fences ar
e puni
shabl
e
exceptwher
ethel
aw cr
eat
ingt
heof
fence
expr
essl
y exempt
s f
rom l
i
abi
l
ity t
o
puni
shmenti
nrespectofanactcommi
tt
ed
bynegl
i
gence.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hepr
inci
ple
r
elat
ingt
othel
i
abi
l
ityf
ornegl
i
gentcr
imes
undert
hemai
nCodegoesexact
lyi
nthe
opposi
te di
rect
ion. Under Ar
t 59/
2 a
negl
i
gentcr
imei
snotgener
all
ypuni
shabl
e
butexcept
ional
l
ypuni
shabl
e.Thati
s,t
he
negl
i
gentcr
imesar
epuni
shabl
eonl
ywher
e
t
hel
awsoexpr
essl
ypr
ovi
dest
hatnegl
i
gent
commi
ssi
ons/
omi
ssi
onsofcer
tai
nspeci
fi
c
 802

cr
imes ar
e puni
shabl
e byr
eason oft
hei
r
nat
ure,gr
avi
tyort
hedangert
heyconst
it
ute
t
othesoci
ety
.Inot
herwor
ds,i
ncaseof
or
dinar
y cr
imes negl
i
gentcr
imes ar
e not
al
way
s puni
shabl
e unl
ess expr
essl
y
pr
ovi
dedwher
easi
ncaseofpet
tyof
fences
negl
i
gentof
fences ar
e al
way
s puni
shabl
e
except wher
e expr
essl
y exempt
ed f
rom
l
i
abi
l
ity
.

Theappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hepr
ovi
si
onsr
elat
ingt
o
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty(
Art48-
50)t
othePet
tyCode
(
Art741/
1)emphasi
zest
her
equi
rementof
mensr
eai
nthesecases.

Pr
inci
plesofLi
abi
li
tyt
hatDi
ff
erf
rom t
he
Cr
imi
nalCode:Ar
t740
I
ncaseofpet
tyof
fencesonl
ycompl
eted
 803

of
fences ar
e puni
shabl
e.The st
ages of
pr
epar
ati
onandat
tempt
sar
enotpuni
shabl
e.
I
nthesecasesonl
ypr
inci
palof
fender(
Art
32)i
spuni
shabl
e.I
nci
ter
s,co-
off
ender
s,and
accessor
iesaf
tert
hef
actar
enotpuni
shabl
e.
Eachof
fendershal
lbepuni
shedf
orhi
sown
act i
rr
espect
ive of t
he par
ti
ci
pat
ion of
anot
her
.Ar
t741/
3cl
ear
lyl
aysdownt
hatt
he
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyandl
i
abi
l
ityf
orpet
tyof
fences
shal
lal
way
sbei
ndi
vi
dual(
Art41and88)
.
Ther
eisno col
l
ect
iver
esponsi
bil
i
tyunder
t
hePet
tyCode.

Jur
idi
calper
sons ar
e al
so notl
i
abl
efor
i
nci
tementorcompl
i
cit
yrel
ati
ng t
o pet
ty
of
fences.A j
uri
dicalper
son i
spuni
shabl
e
onl
y when i
ts empl
oyee v
iol
ates l
aws,
r
egul
ati
onsordi
rect
ivesasapet
tyof
fender
 804

i
naccor
dancewi
thAr
t32oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.

The Quest
ion about Li
abi
li
ty of Young
Per
sons Under t
he Pet
ty Code: The
pr
ovi
sionsofAr
t740/
4cr
eat
eaconf
usi
on
r
egar
dingt
otheappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hedef
ence
of‘
i
nfancy
’tot
hePet
tyCode.Thear
ti
cl
e
r
unst
hus:
“
Thepr
ovi
sionsr
elat
ingt
opet
tyof
fences
shal
lappl
yal
sot
oyoungper
sonswi
thi
nthe
meani
ngoft
heCr
imi
nalCode(
Art
s52-
55)
.
Asi
tappear
sfr
om t
hispr
ovi
si
ont
hePet
ty
Codedoesnotseem t
oexemptt
hey
oung
per
sonsf
rom l
i
abi
l
ity
.Thi
ssub-
art
icl
esay
s
t
hatt
hePet
tyCodeshal
lal
soappl
ytot
he
y
oungper
sonsdescr
ibedunderAr
ti
cl
es52-
 805

55.Doesi
tmeant
hatani
nfant(
Art52)f
rom
t
het
imeofi
tsbi
rt
hbecomessubj
ectt
othe
pr
ovi
sionsoft
hePet
tyCode?Obv
iousl
ythi
s
cannotbe t
he case.Whi
l
e al
lthe ot
her
ar
ti
clesoft
hePet
tyCodet
hatspeakabout
t
heappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
heGener
alPar
toft
he
Cr
imi
nalCodear
efr
amedi
nawayt
hatt
ake
t
he Gener
alPar
tas t
he sour
ce of t
he
pr
inci
ple,
onl
ythi
sar
ti
cleput
sthei
deai
nthe
opposi
te di
rect
ion and say
s t The
hat “
pr
ovi
sionsr
elat
ing t
o pet
tyof
fencesshal
l
appl
yal
sot
oyoungper
sons…”Thi
sgi
ves
t
he meani
ng t
hatt
he y
oung per
sons ar
e
subj
ectt
othepr
ovi
sionsoft
hePet
tyCode
i
rr
espect
ive oft
hei
rnon-
age.Reasonabl
y
speaki
ng, t
he r
ule shoul
d hav
e been
expr
essedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngwor
ds:
 806

“
Thepr
ovi
sionsr
elat
ingt
oyoungper
sons
wi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
ts52-
55shal
lappl
y
al
sot
othePet
tyCode”
.Theni
twoul
dhav
e
r
ight
lymeantt
hat
:
I
nfant
s bel
ow t
he age of 9 y
ear
s ar
e
compl
etel
yimmunef
rom t
hepr
ovi
si
onsof
t
hePet
tyCode,
and
They
oungper
sonsbet
weent
heagesof9
and15y
ear
sar
eli
abl
ebutar
esubj
ectt
othe
speci
almeasur
est
hatar
epr
ovi
dedbyt
he
Ar
ti
cles157-
168.
The assessmentofpenal
ti
es i
n case of
t
hesey
oungof
fender
sshoul
dbeaccor
ding
t
other
ulesl
aiddowni
nthear
ti
cl
es54,and
55.
I
tisbet
tersayt
hatt
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heAr
t
740/
4ar
etober
evi
sedandputi
nther
ight
f
orm.
 807

Exper
t Ev
idence onl
y under Except
ional
Ci
rcumst
ances:Ar
t742
The gener
alpr
ovi
sions r
elat
ing t
o exper
t
ev
idenceunderAr
ts51and54shal
lnotbe
or
dinar
il
yresor
ted t
oin cases of pet
ty
of
fences.They shal
lbe or
der
ed onl
yif
quest
ions as t
o t
he pet
ty of
fender
’s
r
esponsi
bil
i
tycannotot
her
wisebedeci
ded
byt
heCour
t.

Appl
icabi
li
tyofAf
fi
rmat
ive Def
ences:Ar
t
743

The f
oll ng j
owi ust
if
icat
ions t
hatpr
ovi
ded
undert
heGener
alPar
toft
heCr
imi
nalCode
ar
eequal
l
yappl
i
cabl
etot
hepet
tyof
fence
 808

t
oo:
Lawf
ulact
s(Ar
t68)
Pr
ofessi
onal
dut
y(Ar
t69)
Consentoft
hev
ict
im(
Art70)
Necessi
ty(
Art75)
Legi
ti
mat
edef
ence(
Art78)
Thecasesofr
esi
sti
blecoer
cion,excessof
necessi
tyandexcessofl
egi
ti
mat
edef
ence
ar
e gener
all
ypuni
shabl
e butr
educt
ion of
sent
ence i
s possi
ble wi
thi
n t
he l
i
mit
s
aut
hor
izedbyl
aw(
Art766)
.
I
ncaseofsuper
ioror
der
sthesubor
dinat
e
shal
lnotbepuni
shabl
e,
oi
fheobey
ed aper
sonofhi
gherr
ankact
ing
wi
thi
nhi
saut
hor
it
y
oand t
he subor
dinat
e di
d notexceed t
he
or
derher
ecei
ved
Thesuper
iorgi
vi
ngt
heor
der
sshal
lbe
 809

f
ull
yresponsi
blef
or any undesi
rabl
e or
unl
awf
ulconsequences.
Thesubor
dinat
eshal
lber
esponsi
ble
f
oranyconsci
ousandi
ntent
ionalexcessi
n
t
heper
for
manceoft
heor
derr
ecei
ved.
I
gnor
anceofl
awormi
stakeast
ori
ghti
snot
j
ust
if
icat
iont
oapet
tyof
fenceaswel
l(Ar
ts.
744and81)
.
Mi
stakeoff
actwhi
chexcl
udesknowl
edge
ori
ntent
iont
ocommi
tanof
fencei
sav
ali
d
def
enceundert
hePet
tyCode(
Art
s744/
2
and80)
.

Appl
icabi
li
ty of t
he Ext
enuat
ing and
Aggr
avat
ingCi
rcumst
ances:
Ar
t745
Whi
l
edet
ermi
ningt
hepenal
ti
esundert
he
Pet
ty Code t
he Cour
t may t
ake i
nto
 810

consi
der
ati
on t
he ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances(
Art
s82and83)
,aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ances(
Art
s84and85)andev
en
t
hecombi
nat
ionoft
hebot
hasi
nthecase
oft
heor
dinar
ycr
imes.

Undert
hePet
tyCoder
educt
ionofpenal
tyor
al
ter
ati
onoft
henat
ureofpenal
tyduet
othe
ext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ancesshal
lbedoneas
pr
ovi
dedunderAr
t766.

The Cour
tshal
lincr
ease t
he penal
ti
es i
n
caseofpet
tyof
fencesaspert
hepr
ovi
si
ons
of Ar
ts 767-
770.Whi
l
e consi
der
ing t
he
combi
nat
ion of ci
rcumst
ances t
he cour
t
shal
lref
ert
oAr
t189oft
heGener
alPar
tof
t
heCr
imi
nal
Code.
 811

Sect
ion.
2.Ki
nds ofPenal
ti
es and ot
her
Measur
esundert
hePet
tyCode:

The key i
ssue t
hatmakes a r
emar
kabl
e
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hepet
tyof
fencesand
t
heor
dinar
ycr
imesi
stheki
ndsofpenal
ti
es.
Ar
t746decl
arest ,‘
hat Pet
tyof
fencesdi
ff
er
f
rom or
dinar
y cr
imes by r
eason of t
he
di
ff
erentpenal
ti
es t
hey mer
it
’.The mai
n
poi
ntsofdepar
tur
efr
om t
heor
dinar
ycr
imes
i
nthi
sregar
dar
ethef
oll
owi
ng:

Ar
t746/
1 cl
ear
lyexcl
udes i
mposi
ng of
or
dinar
y penal
ti
es i
nthe cases ofpet
ty
of
fences.Ther
efor
e,pet
tyof
fencesshal
lnot
be puni
shed wi
th r
igor
ous or si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentpr
escr
ibedf
oror
dinar
ycr
imes.
The onl
y puni
shment
s whi
ch may be
 812

i
mposed f
or pet
ty of
fences ar
e t
hose
speci
fi
edi
nAr
ts747-
775.Theexcept
ionst
o
t
hisgener
alr
ulear
e:
Speci
alf
ormsofpuni
shment
sappl
i
cabl
e
t
omi
l
itar
ypet
tyof
fender
s,and
 Speci
almeasur
es appl
i
cabl
etoy
oung
per
sons(
Art
s157-
168oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code)
 Pr
otect
ive or t
her
apeut
ic measur
es i
n
r
espectofi
rr
esponsi
bleper
sons(
Art
s130
and131oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code)
.
I
nthesecasesAr
t746/
3requi
rest
heCour
t
t
oinf
orm t
he mat
tert
othe compet
ent
aut
hor
it
y(Ar
t154)
.

2.
1.Pr
inci
palPenal
ti
esofAr
ts747-
755
 813

2.
1.1.Ar
rest
-Ar
t.747
a.Or
dinar
yorpol
i
cear
rest
-Ar
t.748
b. Home ar
rest or ar
rest i
n an
est
abl
i
shment
-Ar
t.749
c.Ar
resti
ncaseofmember
sofar
med
f
orcesandy
oungof
fender
s-Ar
t.
750
d.Compul
sor
ylabouri
nsubst
it
uti
onf
or
ar
rest
-Ar
t751

Ar
rest i
s t
he onl
y penal
ty i
nvol
vi
ng
depr
ivat
ionofl
i
ber
tywhi
chmaybei
mposed
i
ncaseofpet
tyof
fences.Thedur
ati
onof
t
hispenal
tyshal
lbeami
nimum ofoneday
andamaxi
mum of3mont
hs.I
ncasesof
r
eci
div
ism i
t may go up t
o a hi
gher
maxi
mum aspr
ovi
dedbyAr
t.769.
Ar
restmaybeanor
dinar
yonewhi
chshal
l
be under
gone i
n speci
al pr
emi
ses f
or
 814

det
ent
ionat
tachedt
oCour
tsori
nthehome
oft
heper
sonsent
encedori
nthehomeofa
r
eli
abl
e per
son ori
nal
ay or r
eli
gious
communi
tydesi
gnedf
ort
hispur
pose.

I
nthecaseofmi
l
itar
ypet
tyof
fender
sar
rest
shal
lbecar
ri
edoutundermi
l
itar
ydi
sci
pli
ne
andcont
roli
nthepr
emi
sesusedf
ort
his
pur
posei
nthei
rest
abl
i
shment
s.

Young per
sons sent
enced t
o ar
restshal
l
under
got
hei
rpuni
shmentei
therbyschool
orhomear
rest(
Art161)
.Ar
resti
ncaseof
y
oungof
fender
smaybeser
vedatdi
ff
erent
t
imes.Andper
iodofar
restshal
lbef
orl
ess
t
han3hour
sandt
het
otalper
iodofar
rest
shal
lnotexceed15day
s.
 815

2.
1.2.Fi
ne-
Art752
a.Or
dinar
ycase-
Art752/
1
b.Fi
nei
naddi
ti
ont
oar
rest
-Ar
t752/
2
c. Conv
ersi
on of sent
ence i
nto
compul
sor
ylabour
-Ar
t.753
d.Recov
eryoff
inei
n speci
alcases-
Art
754

 Member
sofar
medf
orces-
Art
.754/
1
 Youngper
sons-
Art
.754/
2
Thi
spenal
tymaybei
mposedi
naddi
ti
ont
o
ar
rest
,wher
eci
rcumst
ancesj
ust
if
ied.Thi
s
i
s par
ti
cul
arl
y f
oll
owed wher
e t
he l
aw
pr
ovi
des ar
rest and f
ine as al
ter
nat
ive
penal
ti
esorwher
ethepet
tyof
fenderact
ed
f
orunl
awf
ulgai
n(Ar
ts91and92)
.

Theamountoff
inemaybenor
mal
l
yfi
xed
 816

bet
ween 1Bi
rrand 300 Bi
rr
.In cases of
r
eci
div
ism (
Art769)
,howev
er,i
tmayext
end
t
oahi
ghermaxi
mum ast
hel
aw pr
ovi
des.
Par
ti
cul
arl
y,whent
heof
fenderhasact
edf
or
unl
awf
ulgai
nthef
inemaybei
ncr
easedt
o
500Bi
rr
,wi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
oaggr
avat
ioni
n
caseofr
eci
div
ism.Theamountoff
inemay
bef
ixedhav
ingr
egar
dst
othef
inanci
alst
ate
oft
hepet
tyof
fender
,thegr
avi
tyoft
hepet
ty
of
fenceandt
hedegr
eeofgui
l
t.

2.
1.3.Repar
ati
onoft
heDamage-Ar
t.755
Repar
ati
on i
s maki
ng good t
othe l
oss
suf
fer
ed by t
he i
njur
ed par
ty.Wher
ethe
pet
ty of
fence has caused consi
der
abl
e
damaget
othei
njur
edper
sonorhi
spr
oper
ty
ort
othose hav
ing r
ight
sfr
om hi
m t
he
of
fendermaybeor
der
edt
omakegoodt
o
 817

t
hel
osssuf
fer
edormaker
est
it
uti
onort
o
paydamagesbywayofcompensat
ion(
Art
s
101and102)
.

Thi
sor
dermaybegi
veni
rr
espect
iveoft
he
f
actt
hatanyot
hert
ypeort
ypesofpenal
ti
es
ar
eimposedonhi
m aswel
l
.

Secondar
yPenal
ti
esAr
ts.756

Secondar
ypenal
ti
esmaybesubst
it
utedf
or
pr
inci
palpenal
ti
es i
n case ofext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancesormi
norof
fences.War
ning,
r
epr
oof
,repr
imandormaki
ngofamendsas
pr
ovi
dedf
ori
nAr
t122oft
heCr
imi
nalCode
ar
etheki
ndsofsecondar
ypenal
ti
est
hatar
e
desi
gnedbyt
hePet
tyCode.Theymayal
so
bei
mposedbyt
heCour
tinaddi
ti
ont
othe
 818

penal
tyofar
rest
,orcompul
sor
ywor
korf
ine.

Excl
usi
onofFor
fei
tur
eofRi
ght
s:Ar
t757
Depr
ivat
ionoft
hecr
imi
nalofsomeoft
he
ci
vi
lri
ght
s,f
ami
l
yri
ght
sandt
her
ight
sto
di
schar
geanof
fi
cei
soneoft
hesecondar
y
penal
ti
esenv
isagedbyt
heCr
imi
nalCodei
n
caseofor
dinar
ycr
imesunderAr
t123.Such
af
orf
eit
ureofr
ight
smaynotbeor
der
edi
n
caseofpet
tyof
fences(
Art757/
1).
I
ncasesofmember
sofDef
enceFor
cest
oo
t
her
ear
esuch secondar
ypenal
ti
esunder
Ar
t127 oft
he Cr
imi
nalCode.They ar
e
r
educt
ioni
nther
ankandexcl
usi
onf
rom t
he
Def
enceFor
ces.Thesepenal
ti
escannotbe
appl
i
ed i
n case of pet
ty of
fences (
Art
.
757/
2).
 819

2.
3.Saf
etyMeasur
es:Ar
ts.758-
762
1.
Guar
ant
eeofgoodconduct
-Ar
t.758
2.
Conf
iscat
ionandf
orf
eit
uret
otheSt
ate-
Ar
t.759
3.
Prohi
bit
ion of under
taki
ngs and
suspensi
onofwor
kper
mit
s-Ar
t760
ofmat
eri
alnat
ure-
Art
.761
oft
hel
i
ber
tyaf
fect
ingper
sons-
Art
.762

A pet
tyof
fendermayber
equi
redt
oent
er
upon a guar
ant
ee f
or keepi
ng good
behav
iour(
Art
.134)onl
yont
hef
oll
owi
ng
ci
rcumst
ances:
I
ncasesofr
epeat
edpet
tyof
fencesagai
nst
publ
i
cor
derort
ranqui
l
ity
,ort
hesaf
etyof
per
sonsoft
hings,
and
Wher
ethecommi
ssi
onoff
urt
herof
fences
i
spr
obabl
e.
 820

Conf
iscat
ion of cer
tai
n obj
ect
s of t
he
of
fendermaybe or
der
ed asa pr
event
ive
measur
ewher
epubl
i
csaf
etysor
equi
res9
Ar
t.141)
.Theobj
ect
sormat
eri
almeans
endanger
ing secur
it
y, or
der
, heal
th or
decency
,ori
ntendedt
ofaci
l
itat
e,ort
obe
usedf
ort
hecommi
ssi
onoft
heof
fence(
Art
.
140)maybeconf
iscat
edbyt
heor
deroft
he
Cour
t.Al
lsuchobj
ect
sshal
lbef
orf
eit
edt
o
t
heSt
ate(
Art
.100)
.

I
n sui
tabl
e cases,t
he Cour
tmay or
der
wi
thdr
awalof l
i
cense (
Art
.142) of t
he
of
fender or cl
osi
ng down of an
est
abl
i
shmentorsuspensi
onofi
tsact
ivi
ty.
Forexampl
e,ar
ashdr
iver
’sdr
ivi
ngl
i
cense
maybewi
thdr
awnoraf
oodf
act
orywhi
ch
 821

doesnotmeett
hest
andar
dsofhy
gieneet
c.
may be or
der
ed t
o be cl
osed down
t
empor
ari
l
y(Ar
t.143)
.Whet
her t
otalor
par
ti
alt
hispenal
tymaybei
mposedonl
yas
at
empor
arymeasur
eincaseofr
epeat
ed
pet
tyof
fencesconnect
edwi
tht
heuseofa
l
i
cense or t
he management of an
est
abl
i
shment
.The maxi
mum dur
ati
on of
t
hispr
ohi
bit
ionshoul
dnotex
ceed6mont
hs.

Wher
eiti
sjust
if
ied,pr
ohi
bit
ionmayal
sobe
pl
acedont
heper
sonall
i
ber
tyoft
hepet
ty
of
fenderf
rom r
esor
ti
ng t
o cer
tai
n pl
aces
conduci
vet
othe commi
ssi
on off
urt
her
pet
tyof
fences(
Art
.145)
.Par
ti
cul
arl
ythi
s
penal
tyi
s appl
i
ed wher
ether
e has been
r
eci
div
ism orwher
ereci
div
ism i
sli
kel
y.The
dur
ati
onoft
hispr
ohi
bit
ionshal
lnotexceed
 822

6mont
hs.

Rest
ri
cti
ons t
hatcannotbe i
mposed i
n
CasesofPet
tyof
fences:Ar
t762/
2
The Gener
alPar
tof t
he Cr
imi
nalCode
env
isagescer
tai
not
herki
ndsofr
est
ri
cti
ons
ont
heper
sonall
i
ber
tyoft
hecr
imi
nalas
secondar
ypuni
shment
s.Howev
er,al
lsuch
r
est
ri
cti
ons (
Art
s 146-
150) ar
e not
appl
i
cabl
eincasesoft
hepet
tyof
fences.
ThePet
tyCodepr
ohi
bit
sthei
mposi
ti
onof
t
he f
oll
owi
ng r
est
ri
cti
ons on t
he per
sonal
l
i
ber
tyoft
heof
fender
:
Pr
ohi
bit
iont
oresi
dei
napl
ace
Obl
i
gat
ion t
oresi
dence i
n a speci
fi
ed
pl
aceorar
ea
Pl
aci
ngundersuper
visi
on
Wi
thdr
awalofof
fi
cialpaper
s(Passpor
t,
 823

et
c.)
Expul
sionf
rom t
het
err
it
oryofEt
hiopi
a.

2.
4. Measur
es f
or t
he Pur
poses of
I
nfor
mat
ion:Ar
ts.763,
764
1.
Not
ice t
o t
he aut
hor
it
y concer
ned
publ
i
cat
ion-Ar
t.763
2.
Ent
ryi
ntot
her
egi
sterofj
udgment
-Ar
t.
764
Thesemeasur
esar
eei
therf
ort
hesakeof
f
aci
l
itat
ingt
heenf
orcementoft
hedeci
si
ons
oft
heCour
tori
nthei
nter
estoft
hegener
al
publ
i
c.I
n ev
ery case wher
ethe Cour
t
pr
onounces a secondar
yorpr
otect
ive or
pr
event
ivemeasur
e,i
tshal
lnot
if
ywi
thout
del
ay t
he admi
nist
rat
ive,ci
vi
l,mi
l
itar
y or
pol
i
ce aut
hor
it
y concer
ned orany ot
her
compet
entpubl
i
caut
hor
it
ywi
thav
iew t
o
 824

t
he enf
orcementoft
he deci
si
on and t
he
cont
rol
ofi
tsobser
vat
ion(
Art
.154)
.

Publ
i
cat
ionoft
hej
udgmentorpar
tst
her
eof
i
sanot
heri
mpor
tantmeasur
ethatcanbe
appl
i
edwheni
tser
vest
hepubl
i
corpr
ivat
e
i
nter
est
s(Ar
t.155)
.Thepubl
i
cat
ionshal
lbe
ef
fect
edi
nthef
oll
owi
ngt
woi
nst
ances:
I
nthe i
nter
estoft
he publ
i
c,t
he Cour
t
or
der
sasamat
terofpr
ocedur
e
I
nthe i
nter
estofa pr
ivat
e par
ty,onl
y
based on t
he wr
it
ten r
equest by t
he
i
nter
est
edpar
ty.
Publ
i
cat
ionmaybeef
fect
edbymeansof
post
ersi
napubl
i
cpl
ace,ort
hroughot
her
massmedi
a.

Ar
t.764pr
ovi
dest
hat
,inor
dert
ofaci
l
itat
e
 825

t
he Cour
tto hav
eful
linf
ormat
ion oft
he
ant
ecedent
s oft
he accused per
son,t
he
j
udgment
swhi
char
efi
nalshal
lbeor
der
ed
t
o be ent
ered i
nthe j
udgment r
egi
ster
(
Art
.156)
.

Sect
ion.
3.Pr
osecut
ionandEnf
orcementof
Penal
ti
es:

3.
1. Pr
ocedur
al Requi
rement
s f
or
Pr
osecut
ioni
nCaseofPet
tyOf
fences:

Ar
ts.
771-
775 l
ay down t
he pr
ocedur
al
r
equi
rement
srel
ati
ngt
othepr
osecut
ionof
pet
ty of
fences.Pr
osecut
ion f
or a pet
ty
of
fence shal
lbe i
nst
it
uted as per t
he
 826

f
oll
owi
ngr
ules(
Art
.771)
:

 Pr
osecut
ionofPet
tyOf
fences:
Pet
tyof
fencesshal
lbenor
mal
l
ypr
osecut
ed
onl
yonacompl
aintbyt
heaggr
iev
edpar
ty.

 I
n cases of Pet
ty of
fences agai
nst
anot
herPer
sonAr
t.771/
1/a
Pr
osecut
ion shal
lbe i
nst
it
uted onl
yon a
compl
aintl
odgedby
:

o Thei
njur
edpar
ty,
or
o Ther
epr
esent
ati
veoft
hei
njur
edpar
ty
ort
hosehav
ingr
ight
sfr
om hi
m,af
terbei
ng
dul
yaut
hor
izedbyl
aw.
Thi
srequi
rement appl
i
es t
o t
he cases
i
nvol
vi
ng of
fences agai
nst
,the per
son
(
bodi
l
yinj
uri
es)
,hi
sfr
eedom,andhonoror
 827

agai
nsthi
spr
ivat
epr
oper
ty.

I
n cases of br
aches of l
aws,or
der
s,
r
egul
ati
ons,
etc.
:Ar
t.771/
1/b
I
nthesecasest
hecompl
aintshoul
dbef
il
ed
byt
heaut
hor
it
yconcer
ned.Forexampl
e,a
v
eget
abl
evendori
sfound t
o use f
alse
wei
ght
siti
stheaut
hor
it
yconcer
nedunder
t
he Wei
ght
s and Measur
es Pr
ocl
amat
ion,
1973,t
hathast
ofi
l
ethecompl
aintagai
nst
t
he of
fender
.Ifev
ery per
son who f
eel
s
aggr
iev
edbysuchof
fender
’sact
sist
ofi
l
ea
compl
aint t
her
e wi
l
l be hundr
eds of
compl
aint
sagai
nstt
hesameof
fenderandi
t
woul
d be v
ery di
ff
icul
tto dealwi
tht
he
mat
ter
.Ther
efor
e,t
heaggr
iev
edpar
ti
esar
e
supposed t
o r
epor
tthe mat
ter t
o t
he
aut
hor
it
yconcer
nedandhei
nret
urn,af
ter
 828

conduct
ingt
hepr
eli
minar
yinqui
ryi
ntot
he
mat
terf
il
est
hecompl
aintwi
tht
heCour
tto
pr
osecut
etheof
fender
.

I
ncasesofpur
elymi
li
tar
ypet
tyof
fences:
Ar
t771/
2
Thepr
osecut
ionoft
heseof
fencesshal
lbe
gov
ernedbyt
hemi
l
itar
ylaw.
Al
lot
herof
fences:Ar
t.771/
c
I
ncaseofal
lot
herof
fences,(
excl
udi
ngt
he
abov
ement
ionedones)
,shal
lbepr
osecut
ed
byt
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
or byv
irt
ueofhi
s
of
fi ex of
ce ( fi
cio) f
oll
owi
ng t
he r
ule of
pr
ocedur
e under t
he cr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
e
Code.
Condi
ti
onsast
oCompl
aint
:Ar
t.772

Al
lthegener
alpr
ovi
sionsundert
heGener
al
 829

Par
t of t
he Cr
imi
nal Code, gov
erni
ng
compl
aint
s(Ar
ts.211-
213)i
.e.r
elat
ing t
o
condi
ti
ons,
timel
i
mitandr
ightt
olodgesuch
a compl
aint ar
e appl
i
cabl
e t
o t
he
pr
osecut
ionsofpet
tyof
fencest
oo.

Li
mit
ati
onPer
iodsast
o Pr
osecut
ionand
Enf
orcementofSent
ence:
Ar
t.773
I
nal
lcasesoft
hepet
tyof
fencesofany
nat
urewhat
soev
ert
heper
iodsofl
i
mit
ati
on
ar
e pr
osecut
ion and enf
orcement of
sent
imi
gar
easf
oll
ows:
Oney
earf
ori
nit
iat
ingpr
osecut
ion
Twoy
ear
sfort
heexecut
ionoft
hesent
ence
passed.
The gener
al pr
ovi
sions r
elat
ing t
o t
he
begi
nni
ng, suspensi
on, i
nter
rupt
ion and
 830

absol
ute end of t
he l
i
mit
ati
on per
iods
accor
ding t
o Ar
ts.219-
222 and 225-
228
shal
lappl
ytot
he pr
oceedi
ngs ofpet
ty
of
fences.

Par
donandAmnest
y:
Theusualcondi
ti
onsofpar
donandamnest
y
(
Art
s229-
231)appl
ytopet
tyof
fencesas
wel
l
.The penal
ti
es i
nrespect of pet
ty
of
fencesmaybecancel
l
edbypar
donand
amnest
y.

3.
2.Enf
orcementofPenal
ti
esunderPet
ty
Code:

The r
ules of enf
orcement of penal
ti
es
 831

r
elat
ing t
o pet
ty of
fences show cer
tai
n
depar
tur
esf
rom t
her
ulesofenf
orcement
r
elat
ing t
otheor
dinar
ycr
imes.Themai
n
poi
ntofdi
ff
erence l
i
es on t
he mat
terof
suspensi
on of penal
ti
es and condi
ti
onal
r
elease.

Excl
usi
onofsuspensi
onofpenal
ti
esand
condi
ti
onal r
elease i
n case of Pet
ty
Of
fences,Ar
ti
cle 765: The pr
inci
ple of
condi
ti
onalsuspensi
onofpenal
ty(
Art199-
200)i
sfort
hepr
omot
ionoft
her
efor
m and
r
einst
atementoft
hecr
imi
nalbygi
vi
nghi
m
r
oom t
ohel
phi
msel
finhi
sownr
efor
mat
ion.
Suchanobj
ect
iveofpuni
shmenti
smor
e
r
elev
antt
otheor
dinar
ycr
imeswher
ethe
sent
ences ar
e puni
ti
vei
n nat
ure. The
penal
ti
esi
ncaseofpet
tyof
fencesar
emor
e
 832

f
ormali
nnat
ure.Fur
ther
,theuni
for
m and
r
api
denf
orcementpenal
ti
esi
nthesecases
ar
eofut
mosti
mpor
tancet
oindi
cat
ethe
st
ri
ctnessi
nappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hepr
ovi
si
ons
oft
hispar
taswel
last
hespeci
all
awsand
t
her
ebymaket
hosel
awsmor
eef
fect
ive
andmeani
ngf
ul.Thus,st
ri
ctenf
orcementof
penal
tyi
sver
yessent
ialf
ort
heat
tai
nment
of t
he obj
ect
ives of speci
al l
aws and
r
egul
ati
ons.Ther
efor
e,pol
i
cies r
elat
ing t
o
r
efor
mat
ion and r
ehabi
l
itat
ion hav
eli
tt
le
r
elev
ance i
n enf
orcement of penal
ti
es
i
mposedi
ncasesofpet
tyof
fences.

Ext
enuat
ion of Penal
ty,Ar
t766:Wher
e
t
her
e ar
e ext
enuat
ing ci
rcumst
ances
ment
ionedunderAr
t745/
1thecour
tmay
r
educe t
he puni
shment f
rom ar
rest t
o
 833

compul
sor
y wor
k off
ine. I
n cases of
of
fences oft
ri
vi
alnat
uret
he cour
tmay
r
est
ri
ctt
hepenal
ti
est
orepr
oof
,repr
imand
orawar
ningf
ort
hef
utur
e,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
he
casesi
nvol
vi
ng:
Fi
rstof
fences,
and
Mer
eimpr
udence

Aggr
avat
ionofPenal
ty,
Art
s.767-
770:
Or
dinar
yAggr
avat
ionAr
t767:Aggr
avat
ion
i
s donei
n casesofgener
alaggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ance ment
ioned i
n Ar
t 745/
2
subj
ect
stot
hel
i
mit
spr
o-v
idedbyAr
t180.
Aggr
avat
ion I
n casesofConcur
renceAr
t
768:
1.I
n case ofmat
eri
alconcur
rence,t
he
 834

aggr
egat
epenal
tyofaf
teraggr
avat
ionmay
exceedt
heor
dinar
ymaxi
mum penal
tyf
ixed
i
nAr
t747or752.Howev
er,
themaxi
mum on
suchaggr
avat
ionmaynotgo bey
ond t
he
f
oll
owi
ngl
i
mit
s:
oOney
earar
restandf
inemaynotexceed
1,
200Bi
rr
oFi
nemaynotexceed5,
000Bi
rri
ncaseofa
j
uri
dical
per
son
3.
In cases ofnot
ionalconcur
rence,t
he
aggr
avat
ionofpenal
tyi
saccor
dingt
othe
gener
alr
ulel
aiddowni
ntheAr
t187oft
he
Gener
alPar
toft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.
4.
Aggr
avat
ioni
nCasesofReci
div
ism Ar
t
769:
oRepet
it
ionofof
fenceaf
teroney
ear
:Ift
her
e
i
satl
eastoney
earoft
imegapbet
weent
he
i
mposi
ti
onofpenal
tyf
orapr
evi
ouspet
ty
 835

of
fenceandt
het
imeoft
ri
aloft
henewpet
ty
ofof
fencecommi
tt
edbyt
hesameof
fender
,
r
eci
div
ism shal
l not be t
aken i
nto
consi
der
ati
on.Whet
hersuchpenal
tyont
he
pr
evi
ousoccasi
onhadbeenenf
orcedi
npar
t
ori
n whol
e orr
emi
tt
ed bypar
don orby
l
i
mit
ati
on,doesnotmakeanydi
ff
erencef
or
t
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
hisr
ule.
oRepet
it
ionofof
fencewi
thi
noney
ear
:Ifa
newpet
tyof
fencei
scommi
tt
edbyt
hepet
ty
of
fenderwi
thi
naper
iodofoney
earf
rom t
he
i
mposi
ti
on of penal
ty on a pr
evi
ous
occasi
on,t
he cour
tis notbound byt
he
or
dinar
ymaxi
mum ofpenal
typr
escr
ibedf
or
t
henew of
fence.Thecour
tmaygoupt
o
doubl
ethel
egalmaxi
mum penal
typr
ovi
ded,
i
ftheci
rcumst
ancessoj
ust
if
y(Ar
t747and
752)
.
 836

oAggr
avat
ion i
n CasesofBot
h Reci
div
ism
andConcur
renceAr
t770:
I
n case ofa pet
tyof
fenderwho i
sa
r
eci
div
istwi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t769/
2i.
e.
onewhor
epeat
sthecommi
ssi
onofapet
ty
of
fence wi
thi
n a per
iod ofone y
ear
,and
commi
tsconcur
rentof
fences(
Art768)athe
same t
ime t
he aggr
avat
ion shal
lbe i
n
accor
dance wi
th bot
h Ar
ts 768 and 769.
Howev
ert
hef
oll
owi
ngupperl
i
mit
shav
eto
bef
oll
owed:
o2,
400Bi
rri
ncaseofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,and
o10,
000Bi
rri
ncaseofj
uri
dical
per
sons

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Pet
ty of
fences ar
e al
so r
efer
red t
o as
 837

‘
regul
ator
y of
fences’
, ‘
publ
i
c wel
far
e
of
fences’
etc.Whatdot
hesedi
ff
erentl
abel
s
si
gni
fyaboutt
henat
ureoft
heseof
fences?
2.Def
inepet
tyof
fence.Whatpenal
ti
esar
e
appl
i
cabl
etopet
tyof
fences?
3.Doal
lgener
alpr
inci
plesandr
ulesoft
he
Gener
alPar
toft
heCr
imi
nalCodeappl
yto
t
hepet
tyof
fencesbyv
irt
ueofAr
ts3oft
he
Cr
imi
nalCodeand734oft
hePet
tyCode?
St
atet
heexcept
ions,
ifany
.

CaseLaw:

TheFeder
alPr
osecut
orV.Li
sciSof
ia
Feder
alSupr
eme I
mper
ialCour
t,Feder
al
Cr
imi
nal Appeal No.
7/51 ( C.
1959 G. )
 838

Et
hiopi
a
Hedar3,
1953E.
C.(
November13,
1960)
Just
ices:Af
enegusTakel
leWol
deHawar
iat
,
Dr
.W.Buhagi
ar,At
o Ber
eket
-ab Habt
e
Sel
l
assi
e:

Thi
sisanappealbyt
heFeder
alPr
osecut
or
agai
nsta j
udgmentoft
he Feder
alHi
gh
Cour
tofAsmar
aacqui
tt
ingt
her
espondent
onv
ari
ouschar
gesi
nconnect
ionwi
tht
he
al
l
egedof
fenceconsi
sti
ngi
nthef
actt
hat
t
he r
espondent had i
mpor
ted i
nto t
he
Empi
reofEt
hiopi
aE$1,
060,i
naddi
ti
ont
o
E$150 per
mit
ted by l
aw, and t
hus
cont
rav
enedt
hepr
ovi
sionofAr
ti
cl
e8(
c)of
t
heCur
rencyAmendmentRegul
ati
ons,
1949,
publ
i
shedasLegalNot
iceNo.127of1949.
Ther
ewer
eal
soot
hercount
sincl
udedi
nthe
 839

char
gewhi
char
edependentont
hef
ir
stone.

TheFeder
alHi
ghCour
tinAsmar
aacqui
tt
ed
t
her
espondentont
hegr
oundt
hatAr
ti
cl
e
8(
c) of t
he Cur
rency Amendment
Regul
ati
ons,1949,wasnotv
ali
dlaw i
nthat
i
twasenact
edbyt
heMi
nist
erofFi
nance
beyondt
hepower
svest
edi
nhi
m byl
aw.

TheCur
rencyAmendmentRegul
ati
ons,
1949,
wer
eenact
edbyt
heMi
nist
erofFi
nanceby
v
irt
ue oft
he power
s conf
err
ed on i
tby
Ar
ti
cle3(
ii
i)oft
heCur
rencyPr
ocl
amat
ion,
1942 (
Proc.No.31)as amended byt
he
Cur
rencyAmendmentPr
ocl
amat
ionof1947
(
Proc.No.99)
.Itmaybeusef
ult
osetout
her
e br
ief
lyt
he pr
ovi
sions oft
hese t
wo
pr
ocl
amat
ions.Ar
ti
cle1i
sthet
it
leoft
he
 840

Pr
ocl
amat
ions;Ar
ti
cle2i
sthe def
ini
ti
on
cl
ause;Ar
ti
cle3pr
ovi
dest
hat
,exceptwi
th
t
heper
missi
onoft
heMi
nist
ryofFi
nance,
noper
son,exceptanaut
hor
izeddeal
er,i
s
al
l
owedt
obuyorbor
row,
orl
endorsel
l
,any
f
orei
gncur
rencyt
oanyper
sonwhoi
snotan
aut
hor
ized deal
er;Ar
ti
cle 4 pr
ohi
bit
sthe
t
ransf
eroutoft
heEmpi
reofanymoney
,
coi
n,banknot
esoranycheques,
bil
l
s,dr
aft
s,
negot
iabl
einst
rument
sorf
orei
gncur
rency
,
or bonds,shar
es,bear
er war
rant
s or
secur
it
iesexceptunderl
i
cense;sub-
art
icl
es
(
ii
)oft
hesai
d Ar
ti
cle4 pr
ovi
dest
hatno
v
aluabl
ethi
ngs may
,in any manner
,be
t
ranspor
ted or t
ransf
err
ed acr
oss t
he
cust
oms boundar
ies or f
ront
ier
s of t
he
Empi
reunl
esscer
tai
ncust
omsf
ormal
i
ties
ar
e compl
i
ed wi
th;sub-
art
icl
e(i
i
i)oft
he
 841

samear
ti
clegi
vest
heMi
nist
erofFi
nance
t
he powert
o make r
egul
ati
ons bynot
ice
publ
i
shedi
ntheNegar
itGazet
aasmaybe
necessar
ytoadmi
nist
ert
hePr
ocl
amat
ion;
sub-
art
icl
e(i
i
)oft
hesameAr
ti
cl
e4,
prov
ides
t
hat“
val
uabl
ethi
ngs”asusedi
nsub-
art
icl
e
(
ii
)incl
udes anyar
ti
cle ofv
alue and any
goodsormer
chandi
sebutdoesnoti
ncl
ude
money
,cheques,bi
l
ls dr
aft
s,negot
iabl
e
i
nst
rument
s orf
orei
gn cur
rency
,norany
bonds,
shar
es,
bear
erwar
rant
sorsecur
it
ies.
Ar
ti
cle5i
sapenal
tycl
ause.
I
tis abundant
ly cl
ear t
hat t
he sai
d
Pr
ocl
amat
ions cont
ain not
hing t
o pr
ohi
bit
t
hei
mpor
tat
ionwi
thi
ntheEmpi
reofmoney
(
not
es)
. The whol
e obj
ect of t
he
Pr
ocl
amat
ionsi
stopr
ohi
bitt
heexpor
tof
t
hemoney
,not
es,et
c.,t
her
ein ment
ioned
 842

and t
o ensur
ethatany f
orei
gn cur
rency
acqui
redbyt
heexpor
tofv
aluabl
ethi
ngsi
s
gi
venup t
otheaut
hor
ized deal
er.I
fiti
s
ar
gued t
hat t
he wor
ds “
transpor
ted or
t
ransf
err
ed acr
oss t
he cust
oms and
boundar
iesoft
heEmpi
re”asusedi
nAr
ti
cl
e
4(
ii
)appl
ytot
ranspor
tat
ionandt
ransf
eri
n
andoutoft
heEmpi
re,t
heni
tist
obenot
ed
t
hatt
hepr
ovi
sionappl
i
esonl
yto“
val
uabl
e
t
hings”whi
chaccor
dingt
oAr
ti
cl
e4(
iv)does
not i
ncl
ude money
,cheques,bi
l
ls,et
c.
Fur
ther
mor
e,i
tist
obenot
edt
hatf
rom t
he
cont
extofAr
ti
cle4(
ii
)ther
ecanbenodoubt
t
hatt
hewor
ds“
transpor
tedort
ransf
err
ed
acr
osst
hecust
oms,boundar
iesorf
ront
ier
s
oft
heEmpi
re”appl
yonl
ytot
heexpor
tof
v
aluabl
ethi
ngs;t
he whol
e pr
ovi
si
on i
s
i
ntendedt
oensur
ethatanyf
orei
gncur
rency
 843

acqui
redt
hrought
het
ranspor
tort
ransf
ers
t
o bepai
d orassi
gned t
otheaut
hor
ized
deal
er.

That bei
ng t
he posi
ti
on under t
he
Pr
ocl
amat
ions t
he next poi
nt t
o be
consi
der
edi
sthepoweroft
heMi
nist
erof
Fi
nance t
o make r
egul
ati
ons.The power
gi
venunderAr
ti
cle4(
ii
i)i
sli
mit
ed“
toi
ssue….
suchr
egul
ati
onsanddesi
gnat
ionsasi
tmay
det
ermi
net
obenecessar
ytoadmi
nist
ert
he
Cur
rencyPr
ocl
amat
ion”
.Thi
spowert
oissue
r
egul
ati
onsanddesi
gnat
ionst
oadmi
nist
er
t
he pr
ocl
amat
ion maybe exer
cised f
ora
v
ari
etyofpur
posesbutsuchpur
posesmust
be l
i
mit
ed t
othe admi
nist
rat
ion of t
he
Pr
ocl
amat
ion.Thi
spowerdoesnoti
ncl
ude
t
hepowert
ocr
eat
enewof
fenceswhi
char
e
 844

notcont
empl
ated i
nthe pr
ocl
amat
ion;t
o
exer
cisesuchpowergoesbey
ondt
hepower
of admi
nist
eri
ng t
he Pr
ocl
amat
ion. The
powert
omakel
awsi
sbyt
heConst
it
uti
on
v
est
ed i
nthe l
egi
slat
ive or
gan;and no
per
sonorof
fi
ceroraut
hor
it
yhast
hepower
t
o make any l
egi
slat
ion unl
ess he i
s
expr
essl
yaut
hor
izedsot
odobyt
hel
aws
enact
edbyt
hel
egi
slat
iveor
gan;andwhen
suchpoweri
sgi
vent
oaper
son,
aut
hor
it
yor
of
fi
cer such power must be exer
cised
st
ri
ctl
ywi
thi
nthe l
i
mit
s conf
err
ed.I
nthe
case of t
he Cur
rency Amendment
Regul
ati
ons,1949,(
LegalNot
iceNo.127of
1949)t
he Mi
nist
erofFi
nance i
n maki
ng
pr
ovi
sions r
egar
ding t
he pr
ohi
bit
ion of
i
mpor
ti
ng money
,cur
rency
,et
c.,exceeded
t
he power
s conf
err
ed on i
t. By t
he
 845

Pr
ocl
amat
ion such pr
ovi
sions cr
eat
e new
of
fenceswhi
char
ebey
ondt
hepower
sof
i
ssui
ng r
egul
ati
ons and desi
gnat
ions
necessar
ytoadmi
nist
ert
hePr
ocl
amat
ion.
Suchar
ethepr
ovi
sionscont
ainedi
nAr
ti
cl
e
8(
d)and8(
e)oft
hesai
dRegul
ati
ons;t
hey
ar
e,t
her
ef e,ul
or tr
a vi
rus and voi
d.Bei
ng
v
oid, t
hey ar
e of no ef
fect
, hav
e no
l
egi
slat
ivecoer
cionandar
enotbi
ndi
ngon
t
he subj
ect
;ther
e can,t
her
efor
e,be no
of
fence under t
hose pr
ovi
si
ons. The
r
espondentcannotbe f
ound gui
l
tyofan
of
fence i
nthatshe i
mpor
ted E$1,
060 i
n
excessofwhati
sal
l
egedt
obeal
l
owed,
that
i
s,E$150.Suchanof
fencecanbecr
eat
ed
onl
ybyt
hel
egi
slat
iveor
gan.Ther
espondent
wasal
sochar
gedwi
thsmuggl
i
ngagol
den
br
acel
et;
wit
hregar
dtot
hist
heFeder
alHi
gh
 846

cour
tofAsmar
ahel
dthathi
sbr
acel
etwasa
per
sonal
eff
ect
.Thi
sCour
tagr
eeswi
tht
his.

The j
udgment of t
he Feder
alCour
t of
Asmar
amustt
her
efor
ebeconf
ir
medand
t
heappeal
isdi
smi
ssed.

Gr
oupAssi
gnment
:
I
sitpossi
blef
orbodi
esorof
fi
ci
alsot
her
t
han t
he l
egi
sl
atur
eto pr
omul
gat
e penal
l
aws?Whati
stheposi
ti n Li
oni sciSof
ia’
s
case?Whatpower
sshoul
dal
egi
sl
atur
ebe
al
l
owedt
odel
egat
etoot
herbodi
es?
 847

Uni
tSummar
y:
Pet
tyof
fencescanbedescr
ibedas‘
publ
ic
wel
far
eof
fences’
.Thesear
eal
socal
l
edas
‘
the r
egul
ator
y of
fences’
. These ar
e
conduct
s decl
ared byspeci
alst
atut
es as
of
fensi
vet
othe soci
ali
nter
est
.Theyar
e
of
fencesofmi
norchar
act
eri
nvol
vi
ngmi
nor
puni
shment
.Theyar
eof
fencesconnect
ed
wi
thsal
eofadul
ter
atedf
oodordr
ugs,or
of
fences of possessi
on of pr
ohi
bit
ed
ar
ti
cles, of
fences connect
ed wi
th r
oad
t
raf
fi
c,orof
fencesagai
nstcust
om r
ulesand
f
orei
gnr
egul
ati
ons.

Byv
irt
ueofAr
t3par
a2andAr
t734t
he
pr
inci
plesl
aiddowni
ntheGener
alPar
tar
e
appl
i
cabl
etot
he Pet
ty Code t
oo except
 848

wher
eiti
s st
ated t
othe cont
rar
y.Pet
ty
of
fencesar
enotpuni
shabl
eret
rospect
ivel
y;
t
her
eisnoj
ointl
i
abi
l
ityi
ncasesofpet
ty
of
fences.Pet
tyof
fencesar
epuni
shabl
eonl
y
i
ftheyar
ecompl
eted.Theot
herst
agesof
t
heof
fencesar
enotpuni
shabl
e.

Ther
eisnoquest
ionofei
therdel
egat
ionof
j
uri
sdi
cti
onorext
radi
ti
onoft
heof
fenderi
n
case of pet
ty of
fences.Pet
ty of
fences
commi
tt
ed i
naf
orei
gn count
ry by an
Et
hiopi
anoragai
nstanEt
hiopi
anshal
lnot
bepuni
shedi
nEt
hiopi
a.

I
ncaseofor
dinar
ycr
imesnegl
i
gentcr
imes
ar
enotal
way
spuni
shabl
eunl
essexpr
essl
y
pr
ovi
dedwher
easi
ncaseofpet
tyof
fences
negl
i
gentof
fences ar
e al
way
s puni
shabl
e
 849

except wher
e expr
essl
y exempt
ed f
rom
l
i
abi
l
ity
.Just
if
icat
ions f
orcr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
ar
egener
all
yappl
i
cabl
etopet
tyof
fences.
I
gnor
ance ofl
aw i
s no excuse f
orpet
ty
of
fences. The pr
ovi
sions ofAr
t740/
4
cr
eat
e a conf
usi
on r
elat
ing t
o t
he
appl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hedef
enceof‘
i
nfancy
’tot
he
Pet
tyCode.I
tappear
sfr
om t
hewor
dingof
t
hepr
ovi
siont
hatt
hey
oungof
fender
sar
e
notexempt
edf
rom l
i
abi
l
ityundert
hePet
ty
Code.Thewor
dingoft
hear
ti
cl
esseemst
o
beer
roneous.

The key i
ssue t
hatmakes a r
emar
kabl
e
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hepet
tyof
fencesand
t
heor
dinar
ycr
imesi
stheki
ndsofpenal
ti
es.
Ar
t746decl
arest ,‘
hat Pet
tyof
fencesdi
ff
er
f
rom or
dinar
y cr
imes by r
eason of t
he
 850

di
ff
erentpenal
ti
es t
hey mer
it
’.Ar
t746/
1
cl
ear
ly excl
udes i
mposi
ng of or
dinar
y
penal
ti
es i
nthe cases ofpet
tyof
fences.
Ther
efor
e,pet
ty of
fences shal
l not be
puni
shed wi
th r
igor
ous or si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentpr
escr
ibedf
oror
dinar
ycr
imes.
The onl
y puni
shment
s whi
ch may be
i
mposed f
or pet
ty of
fences ar
e t
hose
speci
fi
ed i
n Ar
ts 747-
775. Pet
ty Code
appl
i
esonl
yint
heabsenceofmor
esev
ere
penal
ti
es el
sewher
e i
n t
he Code. The
penal
ti
esundert
hePet
tyCodear
ecl
assi
fi
ed
i
nto,
pri
nci
palpenal
ti
es,
secondar
ypenal
ti
es,
saf
ety measur
e and measur
es f
or t
he
pur
poseofi
nfor
mat
ion.Exper
tev
idencei
s
onl
ytakeni
nrel
ati
ont
opet
tyof
fencesunder
except
ion ci
rcumst
ances. For
eign
sent
encespr
oducenoef
fecti
nrel
ati
ont
o
 851

pet
tyof
fences.

Ref
erences:
Cases:
 The Feder
alPr
osecut
orV.Li
sciSof
ia
(
Ethi
opi
a)Feder
alSupr
emeI
mper
ialCour
t,
(
1959G.
C.)Et
hiopi
a
ReaderNot
e:
1. Ar
ti
cles734-
685oft
heCr
imi
nalCodeof
FDRE,
2005
2. St
evenLowenst
ein–“
Mat
eri
alsf
ort
he
st
udyoft
hePenalLaw ofEt
hiopi
a”(
1967)
,
HSI
U,Addi
sAbaba,
Ethi
opi
a.
3.
Say
re,
Publ
i
cWel
far
eOf
fenses,
33Col
umbi
a
L.
Rev
.67-
69(
1933)
 852

UNI
T-VI
CRI
MINALLAW I
NACHANGI
NGWORLD
 853

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
As expr
essed by an emi
nent Amer
ican
aut
hor
it
y(Wechsl
er)‘t
hepur
poseofpenal
l
awi
stoexpr
esst
hesoci
alcondemnat
ionof
f
orbi
ddenconduct
,but
tressedbysanct
ions
cal
cul
atedt
opr
eventi
t”
.Tounder
standt
his
expl
anat
ion ofPenall
aw t
hree quest
ions
hav
etobeanswer
ed:
1.
Whatki
ndofconducti
s‘f
orbi
dden’
?
2.
What ki
nd of ‘
for
mal soci
al
condemnat
ion’ i
s consi
der
ed
appr
opr
iat
etopr
eventsuchconduct
?
3.
Whatki
ndsof‘
sanct
ions'
areconsi
der
ed
asbestcal
cul
atedt
opr
eventof
fi
ci
all
y
outl
awedconduct
?

Theconceptoff
orbi
ddenconducti
snota
 854

st
ati
cone;i
tchangeswi
tht
hechangeof
soci
al nor
ms. The v
ery def
ini
ti
on and
conceptofcr
imei
tsel
fisnotonl
yaccor
ding
t
othe v
alues ofa par
ti
cul
argr
oup and
soci
ety
,such as,f
ait
h,r
eli
giousat
ti
tudes,
cust
oms,t
radi
ti
ons and t
aboos butal
so
accor
ding t
o t
he f
orm of gov
ernment
,
pol
i
ticalandeconomi
cst
ruct
ureofsoci
ety
andanumberofot
herf
act
ors.Att
hesame
t
imeweshoul
dremembert
hat‘
publ
i
cor
der
’
i
tsel
fisnotast
ati
cconcept
.Inat
heocr
ati
c
ort
otal
i
tar
iansoci
ety
-thel
aterexempl
i
fiedi
n
i
ts ext
reme f
orm by Or
wel
l
’s 1984-t
he
r
egul
ati
onofsexualpr
act
ices,
orf
reedom of
di
scussi
on,ev
eni
fhel
dinpr
ivat
e,i
tmay
becomev
erymuchamat
terof‘
publ
i
cor
der
’.
Thought
sar
epr
ivat
eexpr
essi
onsofopi
nion
t
hatmaybe‘
ungood’i
nthef
ramewor
kof
 855

t
otal
l
ycont
rol
l
edsoci
ety
.Themuchmor
e
l
i
mit
ed conceptofpubl
i
cor
derasi
thas
been expr
essed by Mi
l
l,Har
t and t
he
Wol
fendenRepor
t,i
saccept
abl
eonl
yint
he
cont
extofa l
i
ber
alsoci
ety
,whi
ch al
l
ows
i
ndi
vi
dual a maxi
mum of phy
sical
,
i
ntel
l
ect
ual and spi
ri
tual f
reedom, and
cor
respondi
ngl
y l
i
mit
s t
he f
unct
ion of
cr
imi
nall
aw.Thepr
otect
ionofj
uveni
l
es,or
t
hecondemnat
ionofpubl
i
cexposur
e,ar
e
among t
he mi
nimum el
ement
s ofpubl
i
c
or
derasconcei
vedi
nal
i
ber
alsoci
etywher
e
t
hebet
weent
heper
missi
blepr
ivat
econduct
and i
nter
est of t
he communi
ty i
n
mai
ntenanceofpubl
i
cor
deri
stobedr
awn,
cannotbeanswer
edi
nabsol
utet
erms.(
W.
Fr
iedmann,1972)
.The ev
idence oft
hese
obser
vat
ions i
s cl
ear
lyr
efl
ect
ed at al
l
 856

spher
esofsoci
all
i
fe.The ev
erchangi
ng
v
aluesofdi
ff
erentsoci
eti
eshav
edr
ast
ical
l
y
changedt
heconceptoft
hecr
imei
tsel
f.

Obj
ect
ives:
Byt
heendoft
hisuni
t,t
hest
udent
swi
llbe
abl
eto:
 Cl
ear
lyunder
standt
heconceptofsoci
al
changeandi
tsi
mpactont
heconceptof
cr
ime
 Hav
eawi
deper
spect
iveoft
hechanges
t
hatar
eoccur
ri
ngi
ndi
ff
erentl
egalsy
stems
oft
hewor
ldowi
ngt
othechangi
ngv
alues
 Under
standt
hei
ncr
easi
ngsi
gni
fi
canceof
t
hecr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityofcor
por
ati
onsi
nthe
cont
ext of an i
ncr
easi
ngl
y compl
ex
cor
por
atewor
ld
 Know t
he i
mpact of t
he moder
n
 857

adv
ancement
sofpsy
chol
ogyandpsy
chi
atr
y
ont
hepr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nal
responsi
bil
i
ty
 I
dent
if
y t
he changi
ng pur
poses of
puni
shment
s
 Appr
eci
atet
heneedf
orf
indi
ngal
ter
nat
ive
penal
ti
es t
oincr
ease t
he ef
fi
cacy oft
he
penal
syst
em

Sect
ion.
1.I
mpactofSoci
alChangeOnt
he
Cr
imi
nalLaw

1.
1.Soci
alVal
uesandt
heAmbi
tofCr
imi
nal
Law:

Obv
iousl
y,t
he t
ype of conduct t
hat a
par
ti
cul
arsoci
etyconsi
der
sassuf
fi
ci
ent
ly
wor
thyofcondemnat
ion t
o pr
ohi
biti
tby
cr
imi
nalsanct
ionsi
sdeepl
yinf
luencedby
 858

t
he v
alues gov
erni
ng t
hat soci
ety
.It
t
her
efor
evar
iesgr
eat
ly,f
rom onecount
ryt
o
anot
herandf
rom oneper
iodofhi
stor
yto
anot
her
.

I
t may suf
fi
ce her
e t
o i
l
lust
rat
e t
he
dependence of t
he scope of pr
ohi
bit
ed
conductonchangi
ngv
aluesandcanonsof
soci
alpol
i
cy,
bypr
esent
ingt
woexampl
es:
TheAr
eaofEconomi
cCr
ime:I
nthi
sar
ea,
t
he t
ransi
ti
on f
rom a l
aissez-
fai
rto a
r
egul
atedand,i
nvar
yingdegr
ees,publ
i
cly
cont
rol
l
ed economy has l
ed t
o t
he
condemnat
ionandcr
imi
nal
i
tyofact
ionsi
n
whi
ch,asy
stem ofeconomi
cindi
vi
dual
i
sm
wer
elegi
ti
mat
eandper
hapspr
aisewor
thy
.

TheAr
eaofSexualBehav
ior
:Thechange
 859

i
stheot
herwayr
oundi
nthecaseofsexual
behav
ior
,wher
e changi
ng at
ti
tudes and
soci
alcondi
ti
onshav
eincr
easi
ngl
yled t
o
t
heabol
i
tionofcr
imi
nal
i
tyf
oract
ionst
hat
wer
efor
mer
lyandsev
erel
ycondemnedand
subj
ectt
ocr
imi
nal
sanct
ions.(
W.Fr
iedmann)

1.
2.Economi
cCr
imesagai
nstt
he
Communi
ty:

nal
I aissez-
fai
r economy,t
he wast
e of
pr
oper
tyi
s,l
i
kei
tsaccumul
ati
on,
amat
terof
pr
ivat
e concer
n.The r
ape oft
he ear
th,
t
hroughdef
orest
ati
on,
over
grazi
ng,
wast
eof
wat
er,dust
-bowlf
armi
ng,i
samat
terf
ort
he
i
ndi
vi
dualowner
,whoi
spr
esumedt
osuf
fer
t
he appr
opr
iat
e penal
ty t
hrough t
he
di
minut
ionofhi
scr
opsandf
inanci
alr
etur
ns.
 860

Thesameappl
i
est
othenegl
ectornon-
use
ofmachi
ner
y,suchaspowerpl
ant
s,t
ract
ors,
orofmi
ner
alr
esour
ces,ev
eni
fsuchabuse
shoul
d l
ead t
o scar
cit
y and t
he
i
mpov
eri
shmentoft
hecommuni
ty.Sucha
phi
l
osophyi
snol
ongerhel
d,exceptbya
di
mini
shi
ngbandofpassi
onat
ebel
i
ever
sin
t
he absol
ute sacr
osanci
ty of pr
oper
ty,
i
mmune f
rom any of
fi
ciali
nter
fer
ence or
r
egul
ati
on.Amaj
orcauseofchangei
nthe
publ
i
cphi
l
osophyhasbeent
hei
nci
denceof
t
otal
wari
nthet
went
iet
hcent
ury
.Scar
cit
yof
f
oodhasmadet
hecar
efuluseofl
andav
ital
necessi
ty,i
nbl
ockadedcount
ri
es,suchas
Ger
manyi
ntheFi
rstWor
ldWar
,ordensel
y
popul
ated,ent
ir
elyi
ndust
ri
ali
zed count
ri
es,
dependent l
argel
y on sea suppl
i
es,l
i
ke
Engl
andi
nbot
hwor
ldwar
s.Thi
shasmeant
 861

atl
eastt
empor
arychangei
nlegalv
alues.
Si
mil
arl
y,wast
e or unaut
hor
ized use of
pr
eci
ous r
esour
ces becomes, i
n such
si
tuat
ions,acr
imi
nalandsoci
alof
fence(
W.
Fr
iedmann)
.

Out
sidet
heemer
genci
esofwarcondi
ti
ons,
t
he gr
owi
ng r
ecogni
ti
on of t
he soci
al
f
unct
ionanduseofpr
oper
tyhasl
edt
omor
e
per
manentchanges i
nlegalv
alues.The
changed ev
aluat
ion of t
he r
elat
ion of
pr
oper
ty and i
ndi
vi
dualhas gone t
othe
gr
eat
estext
enti
nsoci
ali
zedl
egalsy
stems.
Fol
l
owi
ng t
he const
it
uti
onal
l
y enshr
ined
conceptof‘
publ
i
c,soci
ali
stpr
oper
tyast
he
sacr
ed and i
nvi
olabl
efoundat
ion of t
he
soci
ali
st sy
stem….
’
, i
n t
he Sov
iet
Const
it
uti
ont
hedest
ruct
ion,t
het
hef
tand
 862

t
he mi
suse of st
ate-
owned pr
oper
ty-
that
embr
aces t
he bul
k of t
he i
ndust
ri
al,
commer
cialandagr
icul
tur
alasset
soft
he
nat
ion-i
sat
tendedwi
thcr
imi
nalsanct
ions.
To a l
arge degr
ee,penalsanct
ions i
na
soci
ali
zed sy
stem must ser
ve as a
subst
it
ute f
or t
he r
egul
ator
y ef
fect of
f
inanci
ali
ncent
ives,t
he‘
prof
itmot
ive’
.But
t
he phi
l
osophy of penal
i
zing wast
e and
mi
suseofpubl
i
cpr
oper
tyhasdeeperr
oot
s.
Wher
e t
he nat
ional phi
l
osophy i
s t
he
dev
elopmentoft
henat
ionaleconomyt
othe
gener
albenef
it by t
he pl
anned use of
r
esour
ces,t
hei
ntent
ionalorcar
elesswast
e
of nat
ional asset
s acqui
res basi
c
i
mpor
tance(
W.Fr
iedmann)
.

Thegr
owi
ngconsci
ousnessoft
heneedt
o
 863

pr
eser
vev
italasset
sfort
hecommuni
ty,
and
t
o pr
otecti
tfr
om t
he r
apaci
ousness of
negl
ectoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,goesf
arbey
ond
t
hesoci
ali
zedsy
stemsoft
heSov
ietpat
ter
n.
I
nsomewest
ernpar
tsoft
heUni
tedSt
ates,
scar
cit
yofwat
erhaspr
oduced r
est
ri
cti
ve
l
egi
slat
ionnotonl
yont
heuseofwat
er,but
al
soont
heowner
shi
pofl
and.I
f,asmany
demogr
apher
s and ecol
ogi
sts bel
i
eve,t
he
gr
owt
h of t
he wor
ld’
s popul
ati
on wi
l
l
i
ncr
easi
ngl
yout
str
ipav
ail
abl
eresour
ces,
the
conser
vat
ion ofagr
icul
tur
al,mi
ner
aland
ot
her nat
ural asset
s wi
l
l become an
i
ncr
easi
ngl
yvi
talsoci
aland l
egalv
alue,
st
rengt
hened byhar
sh cr
imi
nalsanct
ions.
(
W.Fr
iedmann)

Meanwhi
l
e,t
hepr
otect
ionofv
italr
esour
ces
 864

andcommodi
ti
es,i
nnon-
soci
ali
stsoci
eti
es,
has mai
nly dev
eloped t
hrough r
egul
ator
y
measur
es,at
tended wi
th penalsanct
ions.
Her
e,t
he mostnot
abl
e dev
elopmenthas
pr
obabl
ybeen i
n Ger
man Law,wher
ethe
out
comeofscar
cit
ysi
tuat
ionspr
oducedby
t
wowor
ldwar
s,wi
thi
nter
veni
ngi
nfl
ati
ons,
r
awmat
eri
al,
andcur
rencyshor
tages.Outof
t
he mul
ti
tude of st
atues and decr
ees,
cont
rol
l
ing and r
egul
ati
ng t
he suppl
y of
scar
ce commodi
ti
es, and especi
all
y
t
ransact
ions i
n f
orei
gn exchange, hav
e
dev
eloped a whol
e body of l
aw cal
l
ed
Wi
rt
schaf
ts-
str
afr
echt
. Af
ter t
he Second
Wor
ld War
,the Feder
alGer
man Republ
i
c
consol
i
dat
ed t
he concept
s and of
fences
gr
adual
l
ydev
elopedi
ntoacompr
ehensi
ve
l
aw r
efer
r oasWi
edt rt
schaf
ts-
str
afr
geset
z.
 865

The l
aw di
sti
ngui
shes a gr
avert
ype of
economi
c of
f ed st
ence cal
l raf
tat and a
l
essert
ype,cal
l
edOr
dnungswi
dri
gkei
t.(
W.
Fr
iedmann)

The mosti
nter
est
ing aspectoft
his new
cl
assi
fi
cat
ion ofeconomi
cof
fencesi
sit
s
di
ff
erent
iat
ionbet
weenwhatwemi
ghtcal
l
t
heol
d-st
ylet
ypeofcr
imi
nalof
fenceandt
he
new t
ype ofadmi
nist
rat
ive of
fence.The
y
ardst
icki
sbot
hthegr
avi
tyoft
hei
nter
est
t
hathasbeeni
njur hemensr
ed,andt eaof
t
heof
fender
.Ther
ear
enewt
ypesofi
nter
est
deser
vingpr
otect
ionbyt
hest
atet
hatar
e
unknownt
otheol
dercr
imi
nal
law,
butnotal
l
oft
hesecanbemeasur
edi
nter
msofol
der
concept
soft
hecr
imi
nal
law.
 866

Longbef
oret
hedev
elopmentoft
hesenew
concept
sofeconomi
ccr
imei
ntheSov
iet
Uni
on,Ger
manyandsomeot
hercount
ri
es,
f
oll
owi
ng t
heeconomi
cdi
sl
ocat
ionoft
he
pr
esentcent
ury
,Canada (
ini
ts Cr
imi
nal
Codeof1889)andt
heUni
tedSt
ates(
ini
ts
Ant
i-
tr
ust Legi
slat
ion of 1890) had
at
tempt
ed t
o ut
il
ize t
he cr
imi
nall
aw f
or
anot
hert
ype ofeconomi
c of
fence,whi
ch
mar
ks an equal
l
y si
gni
fi
cant
, t
hough
di
ff
erent
ly based on,depar
tur
efr
om t
he
t
radi
ti
onal scope and pur
poses of t
he
cr
imi
nall
aw.Bymaki
ngi
tami
sdemeanort
o
cont
ractorengagei
nanycombi
nat
ionor
conspi
racyi
nrest
rai
ntoft
radeorcommer
ce
among t
hesev
eralSt
atesorwi
thf
orei
gn
nat
ions,ort
o monopol
i
ze such t
rade or
commer
ce,t
heSher
manActof1890cl
ear
ly
 867

r
ecogni
zed t t was t
hat i he f
unct
ion of
cr
imi
nall
aw notonl
yto pr
otectpr
ivat
e
pr
oper
tyagai
nstunl
awf
uli
nter
fer
ence,but
al
sot
opr
otectt
hebasi
ceconomi
cor
derof
t
he nat
ion, and t
he condi
ti
ons of i
ts
exi
stence,agai
nstunl
awf
uli
nter
fer
enceby
pr
ivat
esubj
ect
soft
hel
aw.Thi
swas,
indeed,
a r
evol
uti
onar
y depar
tur
e f
rom t
he
est
abl
i
shed concept
s.I
twas,ofcour
se,
basedonaneconomi
cphi
l
osophyr
adi
cal
l
y
di
ff
erentf
rom t
hatl
aterembodi
ed i
nthe
Sov
ietConst
it
uti
on,orev
eni
nthatoft
he
manWi
Ger rst
chaf
tsst
raf
geset
z.Thei
nter
est
t
obepr
otect
edwast
hemai
ntenanceofa
compet
it
ive economy based on pr
ivat
e
ent
erpr
ise.The st
ate di
d not mean t
o
becomeownerorent
repr
eneur
,buti
tfel
t
compel
l
ed t
o use i
ts l
egi
sl
ati
ve,
 868

admi
nist
rat
iveandj
udi
cialmachi
ner
yfort
he
pr
otect
ionoft
heeconomi
cwel
l
-bei
ngoft
he
communi
tyasawhol
e–asconcei
vedbya
l
i
ber
aleconomi
cphi
l
osophy–andt
odef
end
i
t agai
nst power
ful i
ndust
ri
al and
commer
ciali
nter
est
.Thi
sis notl
ess a
r
evol
uti
on i
n l
egal t
hinki
ng t
han t
he
est
abl
i
shmentofeconomi
c cr
imes i
nthe
Sov
ietl
aw,despi
tet
her
adi
caldi
ff
erencei
n
t
he economi
c phi
l
osophi
es under
lyi
ng
Amer
icanandSov
ietl
aw.Uni
tedSt
atesant
i-
t
rustl
egi
slat
ion,l
atersuppl
ement
edbyt
he
est
abl
i
shment of t
he Feder
al Tr
ade
Commi
ssi
on,wi
thpower
slar
gel
ypar
all
elt
o
t
hose of t
he Depar
tment of Just
ice,
env
isagesnotonl
ycr
imi
nalact
ion,butal
so
aci
vi
lsui
tbyt
heDepar
tmentofJust
ice,
ei
therasan al
ter
nat
iveoran addi
ti
on t
o
 869

cr
imi
nal
act
ion.(
W.Fr
iedmann)

The r
ealef
fect
iveness ofl
egalsanct
ions
depends,ofcour
se,abov
eal
l
,ont
hedegr
ee
and met
hods of t
hei
r pr
act
ical
i
mpl
ement
ati
on. I
n Canada, cr
imi
nal
sanct
ionsar
ecompar
abl
etot
hoseoft
he
Sher
man Actr
emai
ned pr
act
ical
l
ya dead
l
ett
erunt
ilt
he r
einv
igor
ati
on ofant
i-
tr
ust
enf
orcementaf
tert
heSecondWor
ldWar
.

I
nthe Uni
ted St
ates,a f
ew y
ear
s ago,
cr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngswer
einst
it
utedagai
nst
asmal
lnumberofmi
ddl
eseni
orexecut
ives
ofsomemaj
orcor
por
ati
ons,i
ncl
udi
ngt
he
Gener
al El
ect
ri
c Company and
West
inghouse,f
orv
iol
ati
onoft
heant
i-
tr
ust
l
aw pr
ovi
sionspr
ohi
bit
ingpr
ice-
fi
xi
ng.The
 870

t
op execut
ives of t
he cor
por
ati
ons
concer
ned wer
e per
mit
ted t
o al
l
ege
i
gnor
ance,whi
l
ethei
rsubor
dinat
esser
ved
shor
tsent
encesofi
mpr
isonment
.Whet
her
t
hiski
ndofpr
ocedur
eact
ual
l
yser
vedt
he
endofj
ust
ice,i
tmustr
emai
namat
terof
doubt
.Thi
suseoft
hecr
imi
nalsanct
ionhas
r
emai
nedexcept
ional
.

Ont
hewhol
e,i
tmustbeconcl
udedt
hat
,in
so f
ar as t
he ant
i-
tr
ust l
aw has been
ef
fect
ivei
nther
est
rai
ntorel
i
minat
ionof
monopol
i
sti
c condi
ti
ons,i
thas been due
pr
edomi
nant
lyt
o admi
nist
rat
ive and ci
vi
l
measur
es,orj
ustt
othegener
alsenseof
awar
enesscausedbyt
heexi
stenceoft
he
l
egi
slat
ion and t
he possi
bil
i
ty of i
ts
i
nter
fer
encewi
thbusi
nessoper
ati
ons.I
tis
 871

si
gni
fi
cantt
hatt
hev
ari
ousr
ecentant
i-
tr
ust
l
awsofot
hercount
ri
es– wi
tht
hel
i
mit
ed
except
ion of t
he Ger
man
Wet
tbewer
bsgeset
z – have di
scar
ded t
he
cr
imi
nalsanct
ionandr
eli
edonmeasur
esof
publ
i
cit
yandadmi
nist
rat
iver
egul
ati
onr
ather
t
hanont
hedet
err
enceofcr
imi
nalof
fence.
(
W.Fr
iedmann)

1.
3.Env
ironment
alPol
lut
ionandt
he
Cr
imi
nalLaw:

Ani
ncr
easi
nguseoft
hecr
imi
nalsanct
ion–
of
ten compl
ement
ary t
o damages and
admi
nist
rat
ivesanct
ions–i
sli
kel
ytor
esul
t
f
rom t
hebel
atedbutt
raumat
icr
ecogni
ti
on
i
nthei
ndust
ri
all
ydev
elopednat
ionst
hata
massi
ve pol
l
uti
on of t
he env
ironment
,
 872

t
hroughdespol
i
ati
onofl
and,wat
erandt
he
ai
r,byi
ndust
ri
alwast
e,chemi
cal
,oi
l
,the
dumpi
ngofgar
bage,t
hei
ndi
scr
imi
nat
euse
ofpest
ici
des and bymanyot
hermeans,
t
hreat
ens t
he v
ery condi
ti
ons of soci
al
sur
viv
al.Thus,an ar
ea,whi
ch unt
ilv
ery
r
ecent
ly, has r
emai
ned out
side l
egal
r
egul
ati
onal
toget
her–aconcomi
tantoft
he
pr
ofi
t-
and-
consumer
-or
ient
ed soci
ety– i
s
l
i
kel
ytobecomeamaj
orobj
ectofsoci
al
condemnat
ion but
tressed by cr
imi
nal
sanct
ions.Al
readysev
eralcount
ri
es hav
e
pr
ohi
bit
edorsev
erel
yrest
ri
ctedt
heuseof
DDT.Thepol
l
uti
onofwat
erandai
rthr
ough
sul
fur
-l
adenoi
landmot
or-
carexhaust
s,t
he
ov
erheat
ing of seas and r
iver
sthr
ough
t
her
mal pr
ocesses, t
he di
schar
ge of
i
ndust
ri
alsol
i
dsi
ntot
her
iver
sandl
akesof
 873

Nor
th Amer
ica and West
ern Eur
ope,hav
e
api
dlybecomi
ngt
hreat
sofsuchmagni
tude
t
o t
he cont
inued suppl
y of t
he basi
c
el
ement
sofl
i
fet
hatt
hesev
erestf
orm of
pr
ohi
bit
ion, i
.e. cr
imi
nal sanct
ions, i
n
addi
ti
ont
omonet
arychar
ges,damagesand
admi
nist
rat
ivei
njunct
ions,wi
l
lbecomean
absol
utenecessi
ty.(
W.Fr
iedmann)

1.
4.SexualPer
missi
venessandt
he
Cr
imi
nalLaw:

I
n cont
rast t
othe i
ncr
easi
ng need f
or
cr
imi
nalsanct
ions t
o combat economi
c
r
isks and soci
al of
fences, not
abl
ythe
pol
l
uti
onoft
heenv
ironment
,cer
tai
nty
pes
of i
ndi
vi
dual behav
ior
, once sev
erel
y
 874

condemned by pr
eval
ent concept
s of
mor
ali
ty and publ
i
c or
der
,hav
e become
wi
del
ytol
erat
ed and mor
e accept
abl
eto
soci
ety
.Thi
sisnot
abl
yso i
nthear
eaof
sexualbehav
ior
,asshownbyt
hespr
eadi
ng
abol
i
tion of cr
imi
nal
i
ty of homosexual
conductbet
ween consent
ingadul
tmal
es
whocar
ri
esouti
npr
ivat
e,andt
her
api
dly
gr
owi
ngnumberofj
uri
sdi
cti
onst
hathav
e
abol
i
shed,orgr
eat
lyl
i
mit
ed,t
hecr
imi
nal
i
ty
ofabor
ti
on.

The gr
eat
er per
missi
veness t
owar
ds
homosexual
i
tyi
s essent
ial
l
ya pr
oductof
changedi
deasofsoci
almor
ali
ty.I
nmost
west
ern soci
eti
es,homosexualconduct
,if
l
i
mit
edt
oadul
tsandcar
ri
edouti
npr
ivat
e,i
s
no l
onger r
egar
ded as mor
all
y so
 875

bl
amewor
thyt
hati
tdeser
vest
heat
tent
ion
oft
he cr
imi
nall
aw.I
n Br
it
ain,wher
ea
st
atut
eof1967abol
i
shedt
hecr
imi
nal
i
tyof
t
hist
ype of homosexualbehav
ior
s,t
he
mat
terwasf
ull
ydi
scussedi
ntheRepor
tof
t
he Wol
fenden Commi
tt
ee, whi
ch
r
ecommendst
heabol
i
tionoft
heof
fenceby
amaj
ori
tyoft
wel
vet
oone.I
tsphi
l
osophyi
s
summedupasf
oll
owspassage:

“
Unl
ess a del
i
ber
ate at
tempti
s made by
soci
etyact
ingt
hrought
heagencyoft
hel
aw
t
oequat
ethi
sspher
eofcr
imewi
tht
hatof
si
n,t
her
emustr
emai
nar
eal
m ofpr
ivat
e
mor
ali
tyandi
mmor
ali
tywhi
ch i
s,i
nbr
ief
andcr
udet
erms,
nott
hel
aw’
sbusi
ness”
.

Wher
eas t
he gr
owi
ng t
oler
ance ofmal
e
 876

homosexual
i
tyi
sessent
ial
l
ytheexpr
essi
on
of a changi
ng soci
al mor
ali
ty,i
.e. of
changi
ngi
deasont
her
angeofper
missi
ble
i
ndi
vi
dualbehav
iori
nthef
iel
dofsex,t
he
r
api
dly spr
eadi
ng mov
ementt
owar
ds t
he
abol
i
tion or modi
fi
cat
ion of cr
imi
nal
sanct
ionsf
orabor
ti
onsi
smai
nlyapr
oduct
ofsoci
alchange,i
.e.oft
hegr
owi
ngneedt
o
per
mitav
ari
etyofway
stosl
ow downor
count
ert
hewor
ld-
widegr
owt
hofpopul
ati
on
– now per
cei
ved as one of t
he maj
or
danger
stot
heci
vi
li
zedsur
viv
alofmanki
nd.
Combi
nedwi
thi
tist
her
eal
i
zat
ionoft
he
f
act–l
argel
yapr
oductoft
hesamesoci
al
f
orces-t
hatmi
l
li
onsofi
l
legalabor
ti
onshav
e
l
ongmadeamocker
yoft
hel
aw,andt
hat
t
hegr
owi
ngpr
essur
etowar
dsabor
ti
onwi
l
l
make t
he l
egal sanct
ions i
ncr
easi
ngl
y
 877

i
nef
fect
ive.Wher
eas,unt
ilv
eryr
ecent
ly,t
he
gr
eat maj
ori
ty of cr
imi
nal l
aws i
n t
he
west
ernwor
ldl
egal
i
zedabor
ti
ononl
ywher
e
t
hel
i
fe(
and,mor
edubi
ousl
y,t
heheal
th)of
t
hemot
herwer
eindanger(
Wil
l
iams,1957,
ch.5)
,ar
api
dlygr
owi
ngnumberofl
awsnow
gr
eat
lywi
denst
hegr
oundsofper
missi
ble
abor
ti
ons, or abol
i
shes i
ts cr
imi
nal
i
ty
al
toget
her
.(W.Fr
iedmann)

Br
ainSt
ormi
ng!
1. Can cr
imi
nal sanct
ions cont
rol t
he
massi
vepol
l
uti
onofenv
ironmentwhi
cht
he
hugeamount
soff
inescoul
dnotdo?
2.How do y
ou r
econci
l
ethe r
ight t
o
dev
elopment and t
he r
ight t
o heal
thy
env
ironment
?
 878

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng!
‘
The gr
eat
er per
missi
veness t
owar
ds
homosexual
i
tyi
s essent
ial
l
ya pr
oductof
changed i
deas ofsoci
almor
ali
ty’
.Shoul
d
suchconduct
sbel
egal
i
zedhav
ingr
egar
dto
t
hechangi
ngi
deol
ogy
?

Sect
ion.
2.Cr
imi
nalLawi
ntheWel
far
eSt
ate:

1. MensReaandt
4. hePubl
icWel
far
e
Of
fence:
A whol
e new ar
ea ofcr
imi
nall
aw has
dev
eloped outoft
he st
eadi
l
yincr
easi
ng
r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesoft
hemoder
nst
atef
ort
he
 879

mai
ntenance ofcer
tai
n cr
uci
alst
andar
ds
demanded byt
hepr
operf
unct
ioni
ng ofa
moder
nindust
ri
ali
zedandur
bani
zedsoci
ety
.
Thesest
andar
dsar
eembodi
edi
nagr
eat
v
ari
ety of st
atut
ory r
egul
ati
ons. They
concer
n saf
ety appl
i
ances and sani
tar
y
st
andar
dsi
nfact
ori
esandmi
nes,mi
nimum
st
andar
dsi
nhousi
ngaccommodat
ion,
pur
it
y
andmi
nimum qual
i
tyoff
oodst
uff
s,dr
ugs
and medi
calpr
epar
ati
on of
fer
ed t
othe
publ
i
c,compl
i
ancewi
thst
atut
oryobl
i
gat
ions,
unempl
oymenti
nsur
anceandot
herf
ormsof
soci
alsecur
it
y,r
egi
str
ati
onofpr
ofessi
onal
andt
radequal
i
ficat
ions,andamul
ti
tudeof
ot
her mat
ter
s whi
ch hav
e become t
he
accept
ed r
esponsi
bil
i
ty of a pr
oper
ly
gov
erned cont
empor
ary st
ate. Al
most
i
nvar
iabl
y,t
hest
atuespr
ovi
desanct
ionsf
or
 880

t
hef
ulf
il
lmentofsuchobl
i
gat
ions,mai
nlyi
n
t
he f
orm off
ines.These f
ines ar
e of
ten
i
mposed byadmi
nist
rat
ivepr
ocessi
nthe
f
ir
stpl
ace,
butsubj
ectt
oat
ri
al,
ifcont
est
ed
byt
hedef
endant
.In1902,aGer
manl
egal
schol
ar,JamesGol
dschmi
dt,char
act
eri
zed
t
his whol
e ar
ea of cr
imi
nal l
aw as
‘
admi
nist
rat
ive penal l
aw’
(
Ver
wal
tungsst
raf
recht
). Much mor
e
r
ecent
ly,common l
awy
ers hav
e di
rect
ed
t
hei
r at
tent
ion t
othi
sty
pe of cr
imi
nal
of
fence,andchar
act
eri
zedt
hewhol
egr
oup
as‘
publ
i
c-wel
far
eof
fences’
.(W.Fr
iedmann)

Thi
sty
peofof
fence,whi
l
egoi
ngundert
he
gener
all
abelof cr
imi
nall
aw,i
s of an
essent
ial
l
y di
ff
erent char
act
er f
rom t
he
cr
imi
nal of
fences based on i
ndi
vi
dual
 881

wr
ongdoi
ng.Li
ke al
llaw,t
he condi
ti
ons
underwhi
ch cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityi
simposed
dependuponabal
anceofval
uesi
nagi
ven
soci
ety.Event
hei
nnocentki
l
li
ngofaman
har
ms t
he soci
ety
,butt
he l
aw gener
all
y
consi
der
sthatasev
erepenal
tyf
ormur
der
ormansl
aught
ershoul
d notbe i
mposed,
exceptonpr
oofofi
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
t.Publ
i
c-
wel
far
eof
fencesar
e,bycont
rast
,essent
ial
l
y
st
andar
dized.I
nthebal
anceofv
alues,i
tis
gener
all
y consi
der
ed mor
e essent
ialt
han
v
iol
ati
onsoft
raf
fi
crul
esorf
oodl
awst
hatd
best
ri
ctl shed,i
ypuni nthei
nter
est
soft
he
publ
i
c,r
ather t
han t
hat t
he degr
ee of
i
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
tshoul
dbemeasur
edi
neach
case.Mor
eov
er,av
astpr
opor
ti
onoft
hese
of
fences ar
e nowaday
s i
mput
abl
e t
o
cor
por
ati
onsr
athert
hani
ndi
vi
dual
sinsuch
 882

ar
easassoci
al-
insur
anceobl
i
gat
ions,
saf
ety
and heal
th st
andar
ds,and t
he l
i
ke.I
tis
ent
ir
ely soci
all
y desi
rabl
e t
hat t
he
cor
por
ati
on, under whose name t
he
busi
nessi
sconduct
ed,shoul
dbet
hecar
ri
er
ofr
esponsi
bil
i
tyr
athert
hant
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,
al
though t
he per
son i
mmedi
atel
y
r
esponsi
blemay
,ofcour
se,besubj
ectt
oa
concur
rent l
i
abi
l
ity
.Gi
ven t
he enor
mous
number of of
fences f
all
i
ng under t
hese
cat
egor
ies,such as v
iol
ati
ons of t
raf
fi
c
r
egul
ati
ons,t
her
eisal
sot
hesheerpr
act
ical
di
ff
icul
tyi
nvol
vedi
nthel
i
mit
lessnumberof
t
ri
als,i
nwhi
chi
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
twoul
dhav
eto
be measur
ed. On a bal
ance of soci
al
i
nter
est
s,t
hewi
despr
ead – t
houghbyno
means uni
ver
sal– t
endency ofmoder
n
st
atut
est
oimposest
ri
ctl
i
abi
l
ityf
orv
iol
ati
on
 883

ofpubl
i
c-wel
far
elawsi
sther
efor
ejust
if
iabl
e.
Ther
e shoul
d al
so be suppor
tfor t
he
pr
inci
plepr
oposedbyt
heModelPenalCode
of t
he Amer
ican Law I
nst
it
ute(
sect
ion
2.
07(
2),t
hat st
ates absol
utel
i
abi
l
ityi
s
i
mposedf
ort
hecommi
ssi
onofanof
fence,
al
egi
slat
ivepur
poset
oimposel
i
abi
l
ityona
cor
por
ati
on shal
lbeassumed,unl
esst
he
cont
rar
ypl
ainl
yappear
s’.
Such a f
ormul
ati
on l
eav
es r
oom f
or
cont
rar
yint
erpr
etat
ionswher
etheymustbe
r
easonabl
yinf
err
ed f
rom t
hewor
ding and
spi
ri
t of a st
atut
e.At
tacks agai
nst t
he
spr
eadoft
hest
ri
ctl
i
abi
l
itypr
inci
plef
ort
his
t
ypeofof
fencehav
eof
tenbeenbasedon
t
hegr
oundt
hatt
hei
mposi
ti
onofar
elat
ivel
y
smal
lfi
ne, e.
g. f
or t
he oper
ati
on of
danger
ousmachi
ner
yort
hesal
eofi
njur
ious
 884

dr
ugs,i
sinanycasenotnqui
tesanct
ion
(
Hal
l
,1947,
p.331)
.Suchcr
it
ici
sm seemst
o
mi
sconcei
ve t
he essent
ial
l
y di
ff
erent
char
act
eroft
hesanct
ioni
mposedi
nthese
cases.The pur
pose i
stoi
mpose cer
tai
n
st
andar
dsofconducti
nthei
nter
estoft
he
communi
tyatl
arge,
andt
hemai
ntenanceof
t
hesest
andar
dswoul
dbeser
iousl
yimpai
red
i
fthe i
ndi
vi
dualdef
ense of mi
stake or
bl
amel
essness wer
e gener
all
y admi
tt
ed.
Thi
swasbr
oughtoutcl
ear
lyi
nadeci
si
onof
t
heEngl
i
shCour
tofCr
imi
nalAppeali
nthe
caseofR.v
.St
.Mar
gar
et’
sTr
ustLt
d(1958)
2Al
lE.R.289.
Acompanywhosebusi
nesscompr
ised
t
hef
inanci
ngofhi
repur
chaset
ransact
ions
hadi
nnocent
lyof
fendedonsev
enoccasi
ons
agai
nst a st
atut
ory or
der whi
ch, t
o
 885

saf
eguar
dthecur
rency
,hadf
ixedmi
nimum
cashpay
mentof50percentf
orpur
chases
ofmot
orcar
s.Thef
inancecompanyhad
beendecei
vedbyt
hecardeal
erwhohad
st
atedani
nfl
atedpr
iceandal
readypai
dthe
r
equi
red 50 per cent
. Yet t
he f
inance
company was conv
ict
ed (
though t
he
nomi
nal
finet
ookaccountofi
tsbonaf
ides)
.

Thecour
tpoi
nted outt
hat
,“I
fPar
li
ament
enact
sthatacer
tai
nthi
ngshal
lnotbedone
i
tisnotnecessar
il
yanexcuset
osay
:‘Icar
ry
onmybusi
nessi
nsuchawayt
hatImaydo
t
hist
hingunwi
tt
ingl
yandt
her
efor
eshoul
d
suf
fernopenal
tyi
fIt
ransgr
ess.
’Theanswer
i
nsomecasesi
sthatt
hei
mpor
tanceofnot
doi
ng whati
spr
ohi
bit
ed i
ssucht
hatt
he
met
hodofbusi
nessmustber
ear
rangedso
 886

ast
ogi
vet
henecessar
yknowl
edge”
.

Thel
ast
-quot
edsent
encepoi
ntst
other
eal
r
ati
onal
eoft
heappar
entst
ri
ctnessoft
his
t
ypeofof
fence.

Thef
inancecompanywasgui
l
tlessi
nthe
senseoft
het
radi
ti
onalcr
imi
nall
aw.Buti
t
wasnotent
ir
elybl
amel
essi
nthesenseof
manager
ialst
andar
dsr
equi
redbyt
hist
ype
ofpubl
i
c-wel
far
e or
der
.The f
raud oft
he
mot
or-
cardeal
erwasnotbey
onddet
ect
ion.
swasnotacaseoff
Thi orcemaj
eur
e.The
f
inancecompanycoul
deasi
l
yhav
eobt
ained
v
eri
fi
edst
atement
s,r
ecei
pts,
oraf
fi
dav
itson
t
her
elev
antaspect
soft
het
ransact
ion.(
For
ar
ecentj
udi
cialdi
scussi
onofpubl
i
cwel
far
e
of
fences see Li
n Chi
n Ai
k v.The Queen
 887

[
1963]A.
C.160,[
1963]1Al R.223;Sweet
lE.
v.Par
sley[
1969]1Al
lE.
R.347)
.

Whati
s emer
ging i
nthi
sty
pe ofpubl
i
c-
wel
far
e of
fence i
s a ki
nd of‘
negl
i
gence
wi
thoutf
aul
t’asi
tdev
elopedi
nthel
aw of
t
ortwi
thi
ntheconcept
ual
framewor
koff
aul
t
l
i
abi
l
ity
.It
spur
posei
stocompelbusi
nesst
o
appl
y st
ri
cter st
andar
ds of i
nqui
ry and
cont
rolt
otr
ansact
ionswhi
chmayendanger
publ
i
csecur
it
y.Thi
sisal
ogi
calandsensi
ble
dev
elopment
,pr
ovi
ded we r
ecogni
ze t
he
i
mpor
tanceofpubl
i
cint
eresti
nthi
sty
peof
cont
rav
ent
ion.

What
evert
hespeci
fi
csol
uti
onmaybet
o
r
ecogni
zet
hatawhol
enewar
eaofl
awhas
dev
eloped,asaconcomi
tantt
othesoci
al
 888

r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesoft
hemoder
nst
ate,anar
ea
t
owhi
cht
hepr
inci
plesandpr
ocedur
esof
t
radi
ti
onalcr
imi
nall
awar
eonl
yappl
i
cabl
eto
av
eryl
i
mit
edext
ent
.W hav
etoacceptt
hat
casi
onali
njust
icet
othei
ndi
vi
duali
spar
tof
t
hepr
icewehav
etopayf
orl
i
vingi
nahi
ghl
y
mechani
zed and cl
osel
y set
tl
ed ki
nd of
soci
ety
,inwhi
cht
heheal
th,
saf
ety
,andwel
l
-
bei
ng ofeachmemberoft
hecommuni
ty
depends upon a v
ast number of ot
her
per
sonsandi
nst
it
uti
ons.(
W.Fr
iedmann)

 TheCor
por
ati
onandCr
imi
nalLi
abi
li
ty:
Today
,thecor
por
ati
oni
sthepr
edomi
nant
uni
t.Ther
efor
e,t
he nor
maldef
endant
,in
act
ionsofeconomi
candsoci
ali
mpacthas
a pr
ofound ef
fecton t
his br
anch oft
he
cr
imi
nall
aw.Acor
por
atebodyi
s,byt
hel
aw,
 889

equat
edt
oaphy
sicali
ndi
vi
dual
,buti
tisnot
an i
ndi
vi
dual
.The char
act
eri
zat
ion oft
he
cor
por
atebodyasa l
i
ving or
gani
sm i
sa
sy
mbol
i
cgest
ure,
evenwher
eiti
snotsi
mpl
y
a di
sgui
se f
or t
he l
egi
ti
mat
ing of
omni
pot
enceoft
hest
ateov
ert
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
Except f
or t
he pur
ely admi
nist
rat
ive or
wel
far
eof
fence-wi
thwhi
chwehav
edeal
tin
t
hepr
ecedi
ngsect
ions– t
hecr
imi
nall
aw
appeal
stot
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Itcandi
recti
tsel
f
t
othe cor
por
ate body onl
y by a f
urt
her
pr
ocess of i
mput
ati
on. Accor
dingl
y,t
he
pr
obl
em oft
he cr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
ty of
cor
por
ati
ons di
vi
des i
tsel
fint
o sev
eral
aspect
s:

Fi
rst
,a cl
ear di
sti
nct
ion shoul
d be made
bet
weenv
icar
iousl
i
abi
l
ityoft
hemast
erf
or
 890

act
s oft
he ser
vant
,and i
mput
ati
on oft
he
act
ionsofa per
son i
nthe empl
oyment
,or
act
ingonbehal
f,oft
hecor
por
ati
onwhi
char
e
pr
oper
lyi
mput
abl
etot
he l
att
er.I
mput
ed
l
i
abi
l
ityi
snotv
icar
ious,butor
igi
nal
,li
abi
l
ity
.
Thepr
inci
pleofv
icar
iousr
esponsi
bil
i
tyhas
beendev
elopedi
nthel
aw oft
ort
,becausei
t
has seemed soci
all
y and economi
cal
l
y
necessar
ytohol
dthemast
er-andt
hati
sin
manycasesa cor
por
ati
on – l
i
abl
evi
s-à-
vis
t
hir
d par
ti
es f
oract
s commi
tt
ed wi
thi
n hi
s
spher
eofoper
ati
ons.Thehel
dmast
eri
sabl
e
t
orecov
eragai
nsthi
sser
vant
.Thel
awoft
ort
i
s,howev
er,concer
ned wi
tht
he economi
c
adj
ust
mentof bur
den and r
isks,and t
he
pr
inci
pleofv
icar
iousl
i
abi
l
ityi
sappl
i
cabl
eto
t
hecr
imi
nall
aw onl
yinsof
arast
hecr
imi
nal
l
aw i
sappr
oxi
mat
edt
otheobj
ect
ivesoft
he
 891

l
aw oft
ort
,i.
e.wher
ethel
aw i
sessent
ial
l
y
concer
ned wi
tht
he enf
orcementofcer
tai
n
obj
ect
ivest
andar
dsofconduct
,thr
ought
he
i
mposi
ti
on of f
ines,r
ather t
han wi
tht
he
i
ndi
vi
dualgui
l
tofaper
son.Thesepoi
ntst
o
t
hear
eaofst
ri
ctr
esponsi
bil
i
tywhi
chi
slar
gel
y,
t
houghnotent
ir
ely
,coext
ensi
vewi
tht
hear
ea
oft
heal
l
edpubl
i
c-wel
far
eof
fences.Fort
his
r
eason,
ther
ehasbeenj
ust
if
iedcr
it
ici
sm ofan
Engl
i
sh deci
sion wher
e a company was
conv
ict
ed ofmaki
ng f
alse t
ax r
etur
ns wi
th
i
ntent t
o decei
ve, t
he manager
s of t
he
companyhav
ingembezzl
edt
hepr
oceedsof
sal
esoft
hecompany
’sst
ockandt
henmade
f
alser
etur
nsi
nrespectoft
hepur
chasedt
ax.
Si
ncet
hemanager
swer
eact
ingi
nthecour
se
oft
hei
rempl
oyment
,vi
car
iousl
i
abi
l
ityi
ntor
t
woul
dhav
ebeenent
ir
elyj
ust
if
iedi
nthi
scase,
 892

buthar
dlyt
hecr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tywhi
cht
he
cour
timposed.

Secondl
y,t
he nat
ure ofcr
imi
nalsanct
ions
i
mposes cer
tai
n obv
ious l
i
mit
ati
ons on t
he
cat
egor
iesofcr
imeswhi
chmaybei
mput
edt
o
a cor
por
ati
on. Cor
por
ati
ons cannot be
ex
ecut
edori
mpr
isoned.Thi
swoul
dseem t
o
ex
clude cer
tai
nint
ensel
yper
sonalof
fences,
suchasmur
der
,rapeandbi
gamy
,andnei
ther
pr
act
ice nordoct
ri
ne hashi
ther
to ext
ended
t
hecr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyofcor
por
ati
onst
o
t
heseof
fences.Thi
sleav
esasapr
inci
palf
iel
d
of of
fences (
other t
han publ
i
c-wel
far
e
of
fences)cr
imest
hatar
iseoutofeconomi
c
deal
i
ngs.Conv
ict
ions f
orcr
imi
nalof
fences
t
hati
nvol
vemensr
eahave,bot
hinEngl
and
andt
heUni
tedSt
ates,occur
redmai
nlyi
nthe
 893

spher
e of t
hef
ts,f
raudul
entdeal
i
ngs,and
conspi
raci
es(
thel
att
err
elat
ingt
othemost
par
tofconspi
raci
est
odef
raudort
oact
sin
r
est
rai
ntoft
radeundert
heant
i-
tr
ustl
aws)
.
Fur
ther l
i
mit
ati
ons ar
e i
ndi
cat
ed by t
he
pur
poseofpuni
shment
.Int
hecaseofatl
east
t
he l
argercor
por
ati
ons,st
atut
oryf
ines ar
e
sel
dom ofamagni
tudewhi
chwoul
dactasan
ef
fect
ive det
err
entt
hrough t
he suf
fer
ing of
ser
iousf
inanci
ali
njur
y.Andt
heshar
ehol
der
s
ar
eusual
l
ytoof
arr
emov
ed,bot
hfi
nanci
all
y
and per
sonal
l
y,t
o suf
feref
fect
ive per
sonal
det
ri
ment
.A shar
ehol
derofGener
alMot
ors
doesnotf
eelper
sonal
l
yaf
fect
edbyev
ena
heav
yfi
nei
mposedupont
hecor
por
ati
on.Nor
i
shef
inanci
all
yhi
t,si
ncehi
spar
ti
ci
pat
ioni
s
l
i
mit
ed t
o hi
s shar
ehol
ding (
Wechsl
er,i
n
Mi
chaelandWechsl
er,
1956,
p,159)
.Themai
n
 894

ef
fectandusef
ulnessofacr
imi
nalconv
ict
ion
i
mposeduponacor
por
ati
oncannotbeseen
ei
theri
nanyper
sonali
njur
yor
,inmostcases,
i
nthef
inanci
aldet
ri
ment
,buti
nthepubl
i
c
cont
emptand st
igma t
hatat
tached t
oa
cr
imi
nal conv
ict
ions of cor
por
ati
ons, f
or
of
fences ot
her t
han t
hose whi
ch ar
e
essent
ial
l
yofanadmi
nist
rat
ivechar
act
er,t
o
t
hoseof
fencest
hatcan pr
oper
tyand f
air
ly
ex
poset
hecor
por
ati
ont
oamor
alcont
empt
.

Thi
rd,t
he r
eject
ion ofv
icar
ious,as di
sti
nct
f
rom i
mput
ed,l
i
abi
l
ityi
nthef
iel
dofcr
imi
nal
l
aw makesi
tnecessar
ytodef
inet
het
ypeof
r
elat
ionshi
pwhi
chmakesi
tpr
opert
oimput
e
t
he cr
imi
nalact
ion ofan i
ndi
vi
dualt
othe
cor
por
ati
on.Thebasi
ccr
it
eri
onf
ort
hiswas
l
aid down many y
ear
s ago by Vi
scount
 895

Hal
daneL.
C.i
nacl
assi
cal
passage:
“Thef
aul
torpr
ivi
ty(
oft
hecompanywi
thi
n
t
hemeani
ng ofast
atut
e)i
sthef
aul
tor
pr
ivi
tyofsomebodywho i
snotmer
elya
ser
vantoragentf
orwhom t
hecompanyi
s
l
i
abl
eupont
hef
oot
ingr
espondeatsuper
ior
,
butsomebodyf
orwhom t
hecompanyi
s
l
i
abl
ebecausehi
sact
ioni
sthever
yact
ion
oft
hecompanyi
tsel
f”
.
WhatLor
dHal
danehaschar
act
eri
zedi
nthi
s
heal
wayast terego oft
hecor
por
ati
oni
s
essent
ial
l
ydescr
ibedi
nthedef
ini
ti
onoft
he
Model Penal Code suggest
ed by t
he
Amer
icanLaw I
nst
it
ute,byt
het
erm ‘
hi
gh
manager
ialagent
’.Thi
sisdef
inedas,“
An
of
fi
cerofacor
por
ati
onoranuni
ncor
por
ated
associ
ati
on,or
,int
hecaseofapar
tner
shi
p,
a par
tner
, or any ot
her agent of a
 896

cor
por
ati
onorassoci
ati
onhav
ingdut
iesof
such r
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
hathi
s conductmay
f
air
lybeassumedt
orepr
esentt
hepol
i
cyof
t
he cor
por
ati
on orassoci
ati
on (
Proposed
Of
fi
cial
Draf
t,$2.
07(
4)(
c)(
1962)
).

Howev
erpr
eci
set
hedef
ini
ti
oni
s,ameasur
e
ofdi
scr
eti
onwi
l
lal
way
shav
etobel
eftt
o
t
he i
ndi
vi
dualcour
tint
he deci
si
on of
whet
hera gi
ven hi
gh of
fi
cerorgr
oup of
of
fi
cer
sormember
sofacor
por
ati
onmust
,
i
nanyi
ndi
vi
dualcase,bedeemedt
ohav
e
r
epr
esent
edt
hecor
por
ati
onassuch.

Li
abi
li
tyofGov
ernmentoraGov
ernment
-
Cont
rol
ledCor
por
ati
ons:
Speci
alquest
ionsar
isewher
etheof
fendi
ng
body i
s a gov
ernmentora gov
ernment
-
 897

cont
rol
l
edcor
por
ati
on.Canagov
ernmentbe
hel
dcapabl
eofacr
imi
nalof
fence?I
fiti
s,
cani
tbepuni
shed byaf
ine,whi
ch,i
na
sense,
thegov
ernmentpay
stoi
tsel
f?

These pr
obl
ems ar
ose di
rect
ly i
n an
i
nter
est
ingAust
ral
i
andeci
sioni
nthecaseof
Cai
nv.Doyl
e72Cr
im.L.Rev
.409.Undert
he
Aust
ral
i
anCommonweal
thRe-
est
abl
i
shment
andEmpl
oymentAct1945,empl
oyer
sar
e
underadut
ytor
einst
ateper
sonswhohav
e
compl
etedacer
tai
nper
iodofwarser
vicei
n
t
hei
rfor
merempl
oyment
.Af
urt
hersect
ion
pr
ovi
des t
hat t
hey shal
l not wi
thout
r
easonabl
e cause t
ermi
nat
e orv
arysuch
empl
oyment
. Of
fender
s ar
e l
i
abl
e t
o a
penal
tyof$100,
tobei
mposedbyacour
tof
summar
yjur
isdi
cti
on.Ot
hersect
ionsoft
he
 898

Act pr
ovi
de,f
or cer
tai
n ot
her of
fences,
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng si
x mont
hs,
al
ter
nat
ivel
yori
naddi
ti
ont
openal
ty.The
whol
eActi
sspeci
fi
cal
l
ydecl
ared bi
ndi
ng
upont
heCr
own.

The def
endant
,who was a mangerofa
Commonweal
th muni
ti
ons f
act
ory
, was
pr
osecut
edbef
oreacour
tofpet
tysessi
ons
i
nVi
ctor
iaf
orunl
awf
ult
ermi
nat
ionoft
he
pl
aint
if
f’
s empl
oyment
. Conv
ict
ion was
possi
ble onl
y under sect
ion 5 of t
he
Commonweal
thCr
imesAct
,whi
chpr
ovi
des
t
hat‘
anyper
sonwhopr
ocur
esorbyanyact
ofcommi
ssi
on i
sin anywaydi
rect
lyor
i
ndi
rect
lyknowi
ngl
yconcer
nedi
norpar
tyt
o
any of
fence agai
nst any l
aw of t
he
Commonweal
th,shal
lbedeemed t
o hav
e
 899

commi
tt
ed t
hat of
fence, and shal
l be
puni
shabl
eaccor
dingl
y’
.

Theconv
ict
ionoft
hemanager
,aser
vant
,
wasdependentuponhi
sbei
nganaccessor
y
t
o an of
fence commi
tt
ed by t
he Cr
own.
Al
thought
heHi
ghCour
tdeci
dedbyabar
e
maj
ori
ty t
o conf
ir
m t
he or
der of t
he
magi
str
atedi
smi
ssi
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ion,t
he
maj
ori
tyoft
he j
udges di
d notr
ejectt
he
possi
bil
i
tyoft
heCr
ownbei
ngconv
ict
edf
or
acr
imi
nal
off
ence.

Onl
y t
he Chi
ef Just
ice (
Lat
ham C.
J.)
di
smi
ssed t
hei
dea t
hatt
heCr
own mi
ght
commi
tacr
imi
nalof
fenceasunaccept
abl
e
i
npr
inci
ple.Hi
sobj
ect
ionswer
e,f
ir
st,t
hat
t
hef
undament
ali
deaoft
hecr
imi
nall
awi
sa
 900

pr
osecut
ionofof
fencesagai
nstt
heKi
ng’
s
peace;secondl
y,t
hatt
heCr
owni
tsel
fwoul
d
hav
eto be a pr
osecut
ori
nthe case of
ser
ious of
fences; t
hir
dly
, t
hat t
he
Commonweal
thwoul
dhav
etopayaf
inet
o
i
tsel
f;andf
our
thl
y,t
hatwher
eimpr
isonment
was atl
eastan al
ter
nat
ive penal
ty,t
he
Cr
owncoul
dnotbei
ncl
udedasi
tcoul
dnot
bei
mpr
isoned.Theot
herj
udgesconsi
der
ed
t
hecr
imi
nalconv
ict
ionoft
heCr
ownatl
east
t
heor
eti
cal
l
ypossi
ble,t
hought
wooft
hem
f
ormedt
hemaj
ori
tywi
tht
heChi
efJust
icei
n
r
eject
ing t
his conv
ict
ion i
nthe par
ti
cul
ar
case.

Ata t
ime when gov
ernmentdepar
tment
s
andmanyi
ndependentcor
por
ati
ons,
dir
ect
ly
ori
ndi
rect
lycont
rol
l
edbyt
hegov
ernment
,
 901

assumeani
ncr
easi
ngv
ari
etyoff
unct
ions
and r
esponsi
bil
i
ties i
n t
he soci
al and
economi
cli
feofnat
ions,t
heexempt
ionof
ei
ther gov
ernment or gov
ernment
cor
por
ati
onsf
rom cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
itygener
all
y
i
snei
thermor
all
ynort
echni
cal
l
yjust
if
ied.As
wehav
eseen,t
hemai
npur
poseofaf
inei
s
not pr
imar
il
y t
o hur
t t
he def
endant
f
inanci
all
y.

I
tist
o at
tach a st
igma-
pronounced by
i
ndependentl
aw cour
tson t
he br
each of
l
egalobl
i
gat
ionswhi
chhav
ebeeni
mposed
i
nthei
nter
estoft
hecommuni
ty.I
famoder
n
gi
ant i
ndust
ri
alconcer
n i
sfi
ned f
or a
st
atut
oryof
fence,t
his does notnor
mal
l
y
hur
tani
ndi
vi
dual
.Butanaccumul
ati
onof
suchconv
ict
ionswi
l
ldeser
vedl
yimpai
rthe
 902

st
andi
ngandr
eput
ati
onofsuchaconcer
n.

I
nthecaseoft
heBr
it
ishst
atut
orypubl
i
c
cor
por
ati
ons f
ormed i
nthe pr
ocess of
nat
ional
i
zat
ionofbasi
cindust
ri
esaf
tert
he
SecondWor
ldWart
her
eisi
nfactnodoubt
t
hatt
heyar
eli
abl
etobef
inedf
orst
atut
ory
of
fences.

Mor
eov
er,pr
ivat
ecor
por
ati
onshav
ebeen
qui
tef
requent
lyconv
ict
edofof
fences,f
or
whi
ch i
mpr
isonment i
s pr
ovi
ded, ev
en
t
hough i
t cannot be i
nfl
ict
ed on a
cor
por
ati
on.(
W.Fr
iedmann)

Moder
nSci
enceandt
heResponsi
bil
it
yof
t
heI
ndi
vi
dual
:
 903

Sof
arwehav
eout
li
nedsomeoft
hei
mpact
s
oft
hechangi
ngst
ruct
uresofcont
empor
ary
soci
ety
,ont
heambi
tofcr
imi
nall
aw,t
he
pur
poses ofpuni
shment
,and t
he par
ti
al
di acementofmensr
spl eabyst
ri
ctl
i
abi
l
ity
f
or cer
tai
n t
ypes of of
fences of an
essent
ial
l
yregul
ator
y and admi
nist
rat
ive
char
act
er.Thesear
e,asi
twer
e,changes
f
rom wi
thout
.

I
tremai
nst
oexami
nesomeoft
hesubt
ler
but no l
ess i
mpor
tant changes br
ought
about or adumbr
ated by cont
empor
ary
sci
ent
if
icr
esear
chi
ntot
hest
ruct
ureoft
he
human bei
ng. Moder
n psy
chol
ogy has
expl
oredt
hecompl
exwebofi
nst
inct
sand
t
hear
eaoft
heunconsci
ous,andi
tsi
mpact
on human behav
iour
.Thi
s has l
ed t
oa
 904

r
eexami
nat
ion oft
he causes ofcr
imi
nal
behav
iour
,and t
he v
ari
ous degr
ees of
ment
al abnor
mal
i
ty. Mor
e r
ecent
ly,
bi
ologi
calr
esear
ch and mor
e par
ti
cul
arl
y
moder
ngenet
ics–hasl
edt
othedi
scov
ery
and i
sol
ati
on ofman’
s genet
ic st
ruct
ure,
whi
ch det
ermi
nes hi
s char
act
er and
behav
iour
.Fr
om t
his,wear
eaboutt
opass
t
othe nextphase,descr
ibed as ‘
genet
ic
engi
neer
ing’
. Thi
s compr
ises v
ari
ous
met
hodsbywhi
chi
tmaybepossi
blet
oal
ter
ordet
ermi
net
hegenet
icst
ruct
ureofhuman
bei
ngs,so ast
o el
i
minat
eoradd cer
tai
n
char
act
eri
sti
cs.These dev
elopment
s may
pr
ofoundl
yaf
fectt
he t
radi
ti
onalbases of
mor
al and l
egal r
esponsi
bil
i
ty. (
W.
Fr
iedmann)
 905

2.
2Moder
nPsy
chol
ogy
,Cont
rolov
er
Behav
iourandt
heCr
imi
nalLaw:

I
ntheappr
oacht
oagener
all
ycondemned
act
,suchasmur
der
,rapeorar
son,t
hel
egal
sy
stem maygo f
rom t
heoneext
remeof
penal
i
zingt
heactassuch,
wit
houtr
egar
dto
subj
ect
ivef
act
orsi
nthei
ndi
vi
dualof
fender
,
t
o t
he ot
her ext
reme of compl
ete
i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ion,i
.e.t
aki
ngeachi
ndi
vi
dual
as a composi
te ofmor
aland i
ntel
l
ect
ual
f
acul
ti
es, genet
ic f
act
ors, soci
al
env
ironment
.Ul
ti
mat
ely
,thi
sisaquest
ionof
v
alues,
oft
hebal
anci
ngbet
weent
hei
nter
est
i
nthesaf
etyandv
igoroft
hecommuni
ty,
andt
heconsi
der
ati
onoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualasa
per
son.I
nnof
iel
dhast
heconf
li
ctoft
hese
v
aluesbeen mor
edr
amat
ical
l
y,and of
ten
 906

t
ragi
cal
l
y,t
est
ed t
han i
nthet
reat
mentof
i
nsani
tyorment
aldef
ici
ency
.Thusper
sons
af
fl
ict
edar
eunquest
ionabl
ybur
dent
othe
soci
ety
.Andj
ustast
heSpar
tans(
Anci
ent
Gr
eek Town)ki
l
led chi
l
dren by exposur
e
weakl
i
ng so asnott
oimpai
rthe mar
ti
al
v
igoroft
hei
rst
ate,soi
nrecentt
imes‘
the
suggest
ionhassomet
imesbeenmadet
hat
t
he i
nsane mur
der
ershoul
d be puni
shed
equal
l
ywi
tht
hesane,ort
hat
,al
thoughhe
oughtnott
obeexecut
edasapuni
shment
,
heshoul
dbepai
nlessl
yext
ermi
nat
edasa
measur
eofsoci
alhy
giene’
.Suchdoct
ri
nes
commended t
hemsel
ves t
o Nat
ional
i
st
Soci
ali
st Ger
many
, whi
ch pr
act
iced t
he
ext
ermi
nat
ion,conf
inementorst
eri
l
izat
ion
ofwhol
egr
oupsofpeopl
e,consi
der
edas
i
nfer
ior
,obj
ect
ionabl
eorusel
ess,onal
arge
 907

scal
e. Ov
erwhel
mingl
y,t
he t
radi
ti
on of
ci
vi
li
zednat
ions,
andoft
hecr
imi
nall
aw,
has
beent
otakeaccountofweaknessesoft
he
i
ndi
vi
dualas a def
ence agai
nstcr
imi
nal
pr
osecut
ion,oratl
easti
n mi
ti
gat
ion of
puni
shment
.Butwhi
l
esomemoder
nlegal
sy
stems hav
e gone a l
ong way t
owar
ds
subst
it
uti
ngal
ter
nat
ivesoci
alsanct
ionsf
or
puni
shment
,in t
he case of i
nsane or
ment
all
ydef
ici
entper
sons as wel
las of
j
uveni
l
es,f
ir
stof
fender
s,andot
herspeci
al
cat
egor
ies,none has hel
ditpossi
blet
o
abol
i
sht
hecr
imi
nall
awasamaj
orandv
ital
i
nst
rumentofpr
otect
ionofsoci
ety
.Hence,
t
he quest
ion i
sthatatwhatpoi
ntt
he
bor
der
li
neshoul
dbedr
awn,bywhatcr
it
eri
a
cr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyshoul
dbemeasur
ed.
(
W.Fr
iedmann)
 908

Formor
ethanacent
ury
,thebasi
ctesti
nthe
common-
lawj
uri
sdi
cti
onshasbeensuppl
i
ed
byt
he“
M’Naght
enRul
es”
,lai
ddownbyt
he
House of Lor
ds i
nthe case of Dani
el
M’
Naght
en.Theessenceoft
hedi
rect
ions
gi
venbyt
hej
udgesi
nthatcaset
ojur
iesand
f
orcaseswher
ethedef
enceofi
nsani
tyi
s
r
aisedi
scont
ainedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngpassage:
Thej
uryoughtt
obet
oldi
nal
lcasest
hat
ev
erymani
spr
esumedt
obesane,andt
o
possesasuf
fi
ci
entdegr
eeofr
easont
obe
r
esponsi
blef
ort
hiscr
imes,
unt
ilt
hecont
rar
y
bepr
ovedt
othei
rsat
isf
act
ion;andt
hat
,to
est
abl
i
sh a def
ence on t
he gr
ound of
i
nsani
ty,
itmustbecl
ear
lypr
ovedt
hat
,att
he
t
imeoft
hecommi
tt
ingoft
heact
,thepar
ty
accusedwasl
abour
ingundersuchadef
ect
 909

ofr
eason,f
rom di
seaseoft
hemi
nd,asnot
t
oknowt
henat
ureandqual
i
tyoft
heacthe
wasdoi
ng,or
,ifhedi
dknowni
tthathedi
d
notknowhewasdoi
ngwhatwaswr
ong.
Thi
stest– adopt
ed t
hroughoutt
he
Br
it
ish Commonweal
th and al
most
uni
ver
sal
l
yint
heUni
tedSt
ates– r
est
son
t
hecr
it
eri
onofknowl
edge.I
tassumest
hata
per
son who i
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
y appr
ehends t
he
di
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
her
ightandwr
ongofa
gi
ven conduct must be hel
d cr
imi
nal
l
y
r
esponsi
ble.Assuch,i
twassoonat
tacked,
abov
e al
lby member
s of t
he medi
cal
pr
ofessi
on,but al
so by some emi
nent
l
awy
ers(
Stephen,1883,v
ol.2,p.157)
,on
t
hegr
oundt
hat‘
i
nsani
tydoesnotonl
y,or
pr
imar
il
y,af
fectt
hecogni
ti
veori
ntel
l
ect
ual
f
acul
ti
es,butaf
fect
sthewhol
eper
sonal
i
ty
 910

oft
hepat
ient
,incl
udi
ngbot
hthewi
l
landt
he
emot
ions’(
Repor
t,p.80)
.Asl
ongagoas
1870,i
twasabandonedi
nthest
ateofNew
Hampshi
re,i
nfav
oroft
het
estwhet
hert
he
accused ‘
had t
he capaci
tyt
o ent
ert
aina
cr
imi
nali
ntent–whet
her
,inpoi
ntoff
act
,he
di
d ent
ert
ain such i
ntent
’.I
nthe l
i
ghtof
moder
n psy
chi
atr
ic dev
elopment
s,
cr
imi
nol
ogi
cal sci
ence and changi
ng
concept
ions of gui
l
t,t
he cr
it
ici
sm has
assumed ov
erwhel
ming pr
opor
ti
ons i
n
r
ecenty
ear
s,bot
hinEngl
andandt
heUni
ted
St
ates.Thesubst
anceoft
hesecr
it
ici
sms
can be summed up i
n t
he f
oll
owi
ng
f
ormul
ati
on of an emi
nent Amer
ican
cr
imi
nol
ogi
st:
These t
est
s pr
oceed upon t
he f
oll
owi
ng
quest
ionabl
e assumpt
ions ofan out
wor
n
 911

er
ainpsy
chi
atr
y:
(
1)Thatl
ackofknowl
edgeoft
he‘
nat
ureor
qual
i
ty’ofanact(
assumi
ngt
hemeani
ngof
such t
ermst
o be cl
ear
),ori
ncapaci
tyt
o
di
sti
ngui
shr
ightf
rom wr
ong,i
sthesol
eor
ev
en t
he most i
mpor
tant sy
mpt
om of
ment
aldi
sor
der
;
(
2) That such knowl
edge i
s t
he sol
e
i
nst
igat
orandgui
deofconduct
,oratl
east
t
he mosti
mpor
tantel
ementt
her
ein,and
consequent
lyshoul
d bet
hesol
ecr
it
eri
onof
r
esponsi
bil
i
tywheni
nsani
tyi
sinv
olv
ed;
and
(
3)Thatt
hecapaci
tyofknowi
ngr
ightf
rom
wr
ong can be compl
etel
y i
ntact and
f
unct
ioni
ng per
fect
ly ev
en t
hough a
def
endant i
s ot
her
wise demonst
rabl
y of
di
sor
der
edmi
nd.
 912

I
not
herwor
ds,
‘aper
sonmustbeseeni
nhi
s
ent
ir
ety,andt
hef
acul
tyofr
eason,whi
chi
s
onl
yoneel
ementi
nthatper
sonal
i
ty,i
snot
t
he sol
e det
ermi
nant of hi
s conduct
’
(
Shel
donGl
uek,‘
Psy
chi
atr
yandt
heCr
imi
nal
Law,12ment
alHy
giene575,580(
1928)as
quot
edi
nDur
ham v
.U.
S.,36214F.2dD.
C.
Ci
r.
1954)
.

Ther
e i
s f
ar l
ess agr
eement on t
he
al
ter
nat
ive.I
tisal
mostuni
ver
sal
l
yconceded
t
hat some per
sons, who ar
e per
fect
ly
capabl
e of i
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
y di
sti
ngui
shi
ng
bet
weenr
ightandwr
ong,ar
eyetdr
ivent
o
commi
tacr
imi
nal
actbyf
orcesout
sidet
hei
r
cont
rol
.Thi
smakesi
timpr
opert
ohol
dthem
cr
imi
nal
l
yaccount
abl
einal
egalsy
stem t
hat
bases cr
imi
nal l
i
abi
l
ity on per
sonal
 913

r
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Awi
del
yaccept
edal
ter
nat
ive,
atl
eastasasuppl
ementt
otheM’
Naght
en
Rul
es,has been t estof ‘
he t i
rresi
sti
ble
i
mpul
se’
.Butar
ecentt
hor
oughi
nvest
igat
ion
of t
he pr
obl
em by a Br
it
ish Roy
al
Commi
ssi
on,whi
ch,by a l
arge maj
ori
ty,
f
avor
edt
heabol
i
tionormodi
fi
cat
ionoft
he
M’
Naght
enRul
es,
hasdescr
ibedt
heconcept
of t
he ‘
i
rresi
sti
ble i
mpul
se’ as ‘
l
argel
y
di
scr
edi
ted’and as ‘
i
nher
ent
lyi
nadequat
e
andunsat
isf
act
ory
’.

Ther
ealobj
ect
iont
othet
erm ‘
i
rresi
sti
ble
i
mpul
se’i
sthati
tist
oonar
row,andcar
ri
es
anunf
ort
unat
eandmi
sleadi
ngi
mpl
i
cat
ion
t
hat
,wher
eacr
imei
scommi
tt
edasar
esul
t
ofemot
ionaldi
sor
derdue t
oinsani
ty,i
t
musthav
ebeensuddenl
yandi
mpul
si
vel
y
 914

commi
tt
edaf
terashar
pint
ernalconf
li
ct.I
n
hoseofmel
manycases,suchast anchol
i
a,
t
hisi
snott
rueatal
l
.Thesuf
fer
erf
rom t
his
di
sease exper
iences a change ofmood
whi
chal
ter
sthewhol
eofhi
sexi
stence.He
maybel
i
eve,f
ori
nst
ance,t
hataf
utur
eof
such degr
adat
ion and mi
ser
yawai
tsbot
h
hi
m andhi
sfami
l
ythatdeat
hforal
lisal
ess
dr
eadf
ulal
ter
nat
ive.Ev
ent
het
houghtt
hat
t
heact
shecont
empl
atesar
emur
derand
sui
cidepal
esi
ntoi
nsi
gni
fi
cancei
ncont
rast
wi
th what he ot
her
wi s. The
se expect
cr
imi
nalact
,insuchci
rcumst
ances,maybe
t
her
ever
seofi
mpul
sive.I
tmaybecool
l
y
andcar
eful
l
ypr
epar
ed;
yeti
tisst
il
ltheactof
amadman(
TheBr
it
ishRoy
alCommi
ssi
on
Repor
t,sect
ion314)
.
 915

I
nst
ead, a power
ful t
rend i
n moder
n
psy
chi
atr
ic and l
egalopi
nion f
avor
sthe
adopt
ionofabr
oadert
est
,whi
chcor
rel
ates
cr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity wi
tht
he capaci
ty oft
he
i
ndi
vi
dual t
o cont
rol hi
s conduct i
n
conf
ormi
tywi
tht
her
equi
rement
soft
hel
aw.
Thus,a wi
del
ydi
scussed deci
si
on oft
he
Uni
ted St
ates Cour
tofAppeal
sfort
he
Di
str
ictofCol
umbi
ahasf
ormul
atedt
her
ule
‘
that an accused i
s not cr
imi
nal
l
y
r
esponsi
blei
fhi
s unl
awf
ulactwas t
he
pr
oduct of ment
al di
sease or ment
al
def
ect
’(
Dur
ham v
.U.
S.,36214F.2dD.
C.
Ci
r.
1954).

The maj
ori
tyr
epor
toft
he Br
it
ish Roy
al
Commi
ssi
onsuggest
sthat
:
Thej
urymustbesat
isf
iedt
hatatt
het
imeof
 916

commi
tt
ingt
heact
,theaccused,asar
esul
t
ofdi
seaseoft
hemi
ndorment
aldef
ici
ency
,
(
a)di
dnotknow t
henat
ureandqual
i
tyof
t
heactor(
b)di
dnotknowt
hati
twaswr
ong
or(
c)wasi
ncapabl
eofpr
event
inghi
msel
f
f
rom commi
tt
ing i
t(The Br
it
ish Roy
al
Commi
ssi
onRepor
t,Par
a.317)
.A smal
l
er
maj
ori
typr
efer
redt
oabol
i
sht
heM’
Naght
en
Rul
es al
toget
her ‘
and l
eav
ethe j
uryt
o
det
ermi
newhet
heratt
het
imeoft
heactt
he
accusedwassuf
fer
ingf
rom di
seaseoft
he
mi
ndorment
aldef
ici
encyt
osuchadegr
ee
t
hatheoughtnott
obehel
dresponsi
ble’
.
A ModelPenalCode,pr
epar
ed by t
he
Amer
ican Law I
nst
it
ute, suggest
s t
he
f
oll
owi
ngf
ormul
ati
on:
1.Aper
soni
snotr
esponsi
blef
orcr
imi
nal
conducti
fatt
het
imeofsuchconductasa
 917

r
esul
tofment
aldi
seaseordef
ecthel
acks
subst
ant
ialcapaci
tyei
thert
oappr
eci
atet
he
cr
imi
nal
i
ty[
wrongf
ulness]ofhi
sconductor
t
oconf
orm hi
sconductt
other
equi
rement
s
ofl
aw.
2.Asusedi
nthi
sAr
ti
cle,t
het
erms‘
ment
al
di
sease or def
ect
’ do not i
ncl
ude an
abnor
mal
i
ty mani
fest
ed onl
y by r
epeat
ed
cr
imi
nal
orot
her
wiseant
i-
soci
alconduct
.

I
t shoul
d be not
ed t
hat al
l t
hese
f
ormul
ati
onsnotonl
ysuppl
ementt
hepur
ely
i
ntel
l
ect
ualappr
eci
ati
onofr
ightandwr
ong
oft
heM’
Naght
enRul
esbyat
estofcont
rol
ov
er conduct as a gui
de f
or cr
imi
nal
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty,butt
hatt
heyal
soacceptt
he
f
indi
ng ofmoder
npsy
chi
atr
yinr
egar
dto
ment
al‘
disease’
or‘
def
ici
ency
’,i
naddi
ti
ont
o
 918

i
nsani
ty. Ment
al def
ici
ency gener
all
y
connot
esan‘
i
ntel
l
ect
ualdef
ectordef
ectof
under
standi
ng,exi
sti
ngf
rom bi
rt
horf
rom
anear
lyage’(
TheBr
it
ishRoy
alCommi
ssi
on
Repor
t,p.
117)
.Ment
alabnor
mal
i
tyi
samor
e
compr
ehensi
ve concept
,buti
tis mai
nly
concer
nedwi
tht
wocat
egor
iesofabnor
mal
per
sonswhoar
enei
theri
nsanenorment
all
y
def
ici
ent
, namel
y, epi
l
ept
ics and
psychopat
hs.I
tist
hel
att
ercat
egor
ythat
f
ormspr
obabl
ythemai
npr
eoccupat
ionof
moder
npsy
chi
atr
ist
s,andi
sal
sot
hemost
di
ff
icul
ttodef
ine.I
tcompr
isesav
astv
ari
ety
ofper
sons who,f
oremot
ionalr
easons,
st
and,per
manent
ly or t
empor
all
y,t
o a
gr
eat
erorl
esserext
entapar
tfr
om t
he
‘
nor
mal
’memberofsoci
ety
.
 919

Theal
mosti
nfi
nit
evar
iet
yofpsy
chopat
hic
di
stur
bances and t
he st
il
lcont
inui
ng and
wi
deni
ng scope of psy
chi
atr
ic st
udy of
ment
aldi
stur
bancesaddt
othecompl
exi
ty
oft
hepr
obl
em.TheM’
Naght
enRul
esnot
onl
y gr
eat
ly ov
ersi
mpl
i
fyt
he pr
obl
em of
cr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
ty by t
he ‘
ri
ght and
wr
ong’t
est
,butt
hey al
so l
eav
e not
hing
bet
weenbl
ackandwhi
te,no i
nter
medi
ate
st
age bet
ween r
esponsi
bil
i
ty and
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty (
The Br
it
ish Roy
al
Commi
ssi
on Repor
t,appendi
x 9,p.413)
.
The doct
ri
ne ofdi
mini
shed r
esponsi
bil
i
ty
was uni
ver
sal
l
yrej
ect
ed i
nthe l
aw of
Engl
and and i
n t
he common-
law
j
uri
sdi
cti
ons oft
he Commonweal
th,unt
il
Engl
andaccept
edi
tforhomi
ci
dei
nar
ecent
st
atut
oryr
efor
m.I
ntheUni
tedSt
atest
he
 920

posi
ti
oni
ssomewhatobscur
e.Ont
heot
her
hand,t
he l
aws ofScot
land,i
nregar
dto
mur
der
,andanumberofCont
inent
all
egal
sy
stems,
hav
elongaccept
edt
hedoct
ri
neof
di
mini
shed r
esponsi
bil
i
ty as enabl
i
ng t
he
cour
tst
omi
ti
gat
ethepenal
ty.Per
haps,t
he
mostr
epr
esent
ati
vef
ormul
ati
oni
sthatof
t
hePenal
CodeofSwi
tzer
land(
Art
icl
e17)
:

1.
Theadmi
nist
rat
iveaut
hor
it
yoft
heCant
on
wi
l
lputi
nto ef
fectt
he j
udge’
s deci
si
on
or
der
ingdet
ent
ion,t
reat
mentorr
emov
alt
o
hospi
talofof
fender
snotr
esponsi
bleoronl
y
par
ti
all
yresponsi
blef
ort
hei
ract
ions.

2.
The compet
entaut
hor
it
y wi
l
lor
dert
he
t
ermi
nat
ion of det
ent
ion, t
reat
ment or
conf
inementt
o hospi
talas soon as t
he
 921

r
easonf
ori
tnol
ongerexi
sts.

Thej
udgewi
l
ldeci
dei
fandt
owhatext
ent
t
hesent
encepasseson an of
fenderonl
y
par
ti
all
yresponsi
blef
orhi
sact
ionsi
sthen
t
obecar
ri
edout
.

Cl
ear
ly, t
he devel
opment i
n moder
n
psychi
atr
ywhi
ch,bet
weent
hef
ull
ynor
mal
andt
hef
ull
yabnor
malper
son,r
ecogni
zes
ani
nfi
nit
evar
iet
yofshadesofdi
stur
bances
l
esseni
ng,t
oavar
yingdegr
ee,t
heemot
ional
power
sandcapaci
ti
esofsel
f-
cont
rolr
ather
t
han i
ntel
l
ect
ualdi
scer
nment
,cal
l
sfora
cor
respondi
ng el
ast
ici
ty i
n t
he l
egal
appr
oacht
othepr
obl
em ofr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.
Butt
hisv
erydev
elopmentmakes i
tver
y
di
ff
icul
ttodev
isepr
eci
sel
egalf
ormul
as,by
 922

ei
therst
atut
oryorj
udi
ciall
egi
sl
ati
on.Any
at
tempt t
o el
abor
ate a ser
ies of new
addi
ti
onalcr
it
eri
a,super
imposed on t
he
M’
Naght
ent
est
,incor
respondencewi
tht
he
many t
ypes and gr
ades of ment
al
di
stur
bance,woul
dlead t
o mi
sl
eadi
ngl
y
subt
le r
easoni
ng and a mul
ti
tude of
i
nter
pret
ati
onsbydi
ff
erentj
udgesandj
uri
es.
Hence,t
heabov
e-quot
edr
efor
m pr
oposal
s
of t
he Br
it
ish Roy
alCommi
ssi
on,of
ten
Amer
ican ModelPenalCode,and ot
her
s,
suggest br
oad f
ormul
ae cor
rel
ati
ng
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
ocont
rol
.Itwoul
dseem not
onl
ylogi
calbuti
ndi
spensabl
etoext
endt
his
appr
oach t
othe conceptof‘
dimi
nished
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty’asi
thas,bygener
alconsent
,
oper
atedt
ogener
alsat
isf
act
ioni
nScot
land
andi
nmanyCont
inent
alcount
ri
es(
wher
eit
 923

i
s ext
ended f
rom mur
dert
o anycr
imi
nal
of
fence)
.Int
heev
idencepr
esent
edt
othe
Roy
alcommi
ssi
on,
prepar
ator
ytoi
tsRepor
t,
t
heBr
it
ishMedi
calAssoci
ati
onsuggest
eda
r
efor
mtot
heef
fectt
hat
:

“
Whenaj
uryf
indt
hatanaccusedper
son,
at
t
het
imeofcommi
tt
ingt
heact
,wasl
abor
ing,
asar
esul
tofdi
seaseoft
hemi
nd,undera
def
ectofr
easonoradi
sor
derofemot
iont
o
suchanext
entasnott
obef
ull
yaccount
abl
e
f
orhi
sact
ions,t
heyshal
lret
urnav
erdi
ctof
gui
l
tywi
thdi
mini
shedr
esponsi
bil
i
ty”(The
Br
it
ish Roy
alCommi
ssi
on Repor
t,p.93,
sect
ion264)
.

Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofsuchaf
lexi
blest
andar
d
woul
daddt
othei
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionofeach
 924

case,i
nthel
i
ghtoft
hemedi
calev
idence
pr
esent
ed,and t
he est
imat
e gi
ven i
nthe
j
udge’
sdi
rect
ionandt
hej
ury
’sv
erdi
ct.I
tis
cl
ear t
hat any sol
uti
on compat
ibl
e wi
th
moder
nthi
nki
ngwi
l
lpl
aceawi
demeasur
e
of di
scr
eti
on, and a gr
eat bur
den of
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty,ont
hecour
t.Buti
thashar
dly
beendi
ff
erentundert
heM’
Naght
enRul
es,
f
ort
hedeci
sionwhet
heraper
soni
scapabl
e
ofdi
sti
ngui
shi
ngbet
weenr
ightandwr
ongi
s
nol
essar
duousanddi
ff
icul
tat
askf
ora
cour
tthant
hepr
oposedmor
egener
alt
est
s
ofcont
rolandr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.I
tis,howev
er,
aswehav
eseen,ent
ir
elyoutoft
unewi
th
moder
nsci
ent
if
icandsoci
alt .The
hought
moder
nfor
mul
ati
onsgi
vegr
eat
erscopeand
pr
operwei
ghtt
oexper
tevi
denceonmat
ers
whi
chcal
lforsci
ent
if
icscr
uti
ny.
 925

Becauseoft
hei
nher
entdi
ff
icul
tyoff
indi
ng
any t
estt
hati
twi
l
lnotl
eav
e a gr
eat
measur
e of i
ndi
vi
dualdi
scr
eti
on i
nthe
handsoft
hecour
t;agoodmanycr
it
icshav
e
suggest
ed t
he abandonment of t
he
M’
Naght
en Rul
es al
toget
her
,wi
thoutt
he
subst
it
uti
onofanal
ter
nat
ivel
egalf
ormul
a,
sot
hatt
hej
urywoul
dbel
eftt
odet
ermi
nei
n
any i
ndi
vi
dualcase whet
hert
he accused
oughtt
obehel
dresponsi
bleornot
.Thi
sisa
r
eal
i
sti
crecogni
ti
onoft
hef
actt
hat
,under
t
hegui
seofadi
rect
ingf
ormul
a,j
udgesand
j
uri
es hav
e,i
nfact
,gi
ven wi
del
yvar
ying
i
nter
pret
ati
onst
other
ule.

Theset
est
sdonot
,ofcour
se,pr
etendt
o
gi
ve any
thi
ng buta br
oad gui
de f
oran
 926

i
ndi
vi
dualdeci
sionofacour
tor
,ast
hecase
maybe,ofanadmi
nist
rat
iveaut
hor
it
y.As
t
heRepor
toft
heBr
it
ishRoy
alCommi
ssi
on
obser
vedwi
sel
y,

“
Thatacr
it
eri
onofcr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
s
notnecessar
il
ytober
eject
edbecausei
tis
i
mper
fectand cannotbe guar
ant
eed t
o
cov
erev
erycasewhi
chi
toughtt
ocov
er.Al
l
l
egal def
ini
ti
ons necessar
il
y i
nvol
ve an
el
ementofabst
ract
ionandappr
oxi
mat
ion,
whi
chmaymaket
hei
rappl
i
cat
iondi
ff
icul
tin
mar
ginalcasesandmayr
easonabl
yexcl
ude
caseswhi
choughtt
obei
ncl
uded;t
hisi
s
i
nev
itabl
e,si
ncei
tispr
eci
sel
ythef
unct
ion
oft
hel
aw t
odr
aw cl
earl
i
nesf
or gener
al
gui
dance wher
ether
eis no cl
earl
i
ne i
n
nat
ure,andt
odealwi
tht
hedi
ff
icul
ti
esand
 927

anomal
i
esi
nher
enti
nbor
der
li
necasesby
pr
eser
ving a r
easonabl
e f
lexi
bil
i
ty of
i
nter
pret
ati
on”(
Repor
t,sect
ion325)
.

Moder
nlegalt
heor
yhas l
ong r
ecogni
zed
t
hatgener
all
egalf
ormul
ae coul
d notor
shoul
d not t
ry t
o di
spense wi
th t
he
i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zingappl
i
cat
ionofj
ust
icet
othe
case athand.I
tis nev
ert
hel
ess ofv
ital
i
mpor
tancet
hatt
hegener
aldi
rect
iveshoul
d
be i
n br
oad har
mony wi
th cont
empor
ary
r
athert
han out
dat
ed phi
l
osophy
,mor
ali
ty
andsoci
alt
hought
.

Yet
,at
ransl
ati
onofmoder
nmedi
cali
nsi
ght
i
ntol
aw,t
heaccept
anceoft
hecompl
exi
ty
oft
hehumanbei
ng,t
heunder
standi
ngof
t
hemanyf
orcesandemot
ionst
hatst
ruggl
e
 928

i
nthebr
eastofahumanbei
ngandpr
oduce
anal
mosti
nfi
nit
escal
eofv
ari
ati
ons,f
rom
‘
nor
mal
i
ty’t
o‘abnor
mal
i
ty’
,int
urnr
aises
ser
ious pr
obl
ems. Somewher
e,soci
ety
mustdr
awt
hebor
der
li
neandhol
daper
son
gui
l
tyofacr
ime,ev
ent
houghpsy
chi
atr
ist
s
mayr
egar
dtheof
fenderasav
erydi
stur
bed
humanbei
ng,andphi
l
osopher
smaydeny
t
he‘
fr
eewi
l
l’t
ochoosebet
weenr
ightand
wr
ong.Manyoft
hosewhowoul
dbehel
d
notr
esponsi
blef
ort
hei
ract
ionsundert
he
amended M’
Naght
en Rul
e ar
e
unquest
ionabl
yindi
vi
dual
s who ar
e hi
ghl
y
danger
oust
o soci
ety
,usual
l
ywi
th al
ong
r
ecor
dofdanger
ousact
ions.Theal
ter
nat
ive
i
s i
nev
itabl
y bet
ween puni
shment and
compul
sor
yconf
inementt
oani
nst
it
uti
onf
or
t
he car
e of ment
all
y di
stur
bed peopl
e.
 929

Wher
eexecut
ioni
srul
edout
,ei
therbecause
oft
hef
actt
hatcapi
talpuni
shmenthasbeen
abol
i
shedori
snotappl
i
ed,orbecauseof
t
hef
actt
hatt
hedef
endanthasbeenf
ound
‘
gui
l
tybuti
nsane’
,thechoi
cei
sbet
weent
he
ov
ercr
owdi
ng oft
wo set
s ofi
nst
it
uti
ons,
bot
hoft
hem i
nadequat
e,quant
it
ati
vel
yand
qual
i
tat
ivel
y,i
nthegr
eatmaj
ori
tyofmoder
n
st
ates.Abov
eal
l
,iti
sst
il
ltheov
erwhel
ming
opi
nion of moder
n cr
imi
nol
ogi
sts and
soci
ologi
sts t
hat puni
shment f
or t
he
cr
imi
nali
sanessent
ialout
leti
nmoder
n,as
i
n ear
li
er,soci
eti
es (
Flugel
,1945,p.
168;
Rei
wal
d,1950)
.Theseneedsoft
hesoci
ety
mi
ghtbet
hreat
enedbey
onddangerpoi
nti
f
t
heconceptof‘
ment
aldef
ect
’or‘
ment
al
di
sease’wer
est
ret
chedt
oof
ar–i
fitwer
e,
f
orexampl
e,ext
endedt
othecaseofMr
.
 930

Dal
l
asO’
Wil
l
i NewYor
ams( ker
,19Apr
il1958,
p.
85)
,who,bet
ween 1932 and 1958,was
ar
rest
ed mor
e t
han a hundr
ed t
imes,
conv
ict
edofel
evenmaj
orcr
imes,r
angi
ng
f
rom assaul
tto homi
cide.He had been
j
udged cr
imi
nal
l
y i
nsane, but when
commi
tt
ed t
o a ment
al i
nst
it
uti
on,t
he
psy
chi
atr
ist
s wer
e unabl
e t
o f
ind any
ev
idenceofment
aldi
seaseordef
ect
,ot
her
t
hanpr
opensi
tyf
orcr
imesofv
iol
ence.Buti
f
pr
opensi
ty f
or cr
ime comes t
o be
r
ecogni
zed asa ment
aldi
seaseassuch,
wi
thoutany addi
ti
onalel
ementi
ndi
cat
ing
i
ncapaci
ty of t
he mi
nimum degr
ee of
r
easoni
ngorcont
rolsuf
fi
cientt
opr
eventt
he
commi
ssi
onofacr
ime,t
hewayi
sopennot
onl
yfora f
ar-
reachi
ng f
rust
rat
ion oft
he
pr
ocess of cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice,butf
ort
he
 931

obl
i
ter
ati
on oft
he bor
der
li
nes ofcr
imi
nal
l
awal
toget
her
.(W.Fr
iedmann)
Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Can cr
imi
nalsanct
ions cont
rolt
he ev
er
gr
owi
ng cor
por
ate cr
imi
nal
i
ty? Can t
ax
ev
asi
on, mi
sleadi
ng adv
ert
isement
s,
embezzl
ementofpubl
i
cfundset
c.canbe
ot
hercheckedef
fect
ivel
ybyt
hecr
imi
nal
law?
2.I
nthe l
i
ght of t
he adv
ancement
s of
psy
chi
atr
yandt
her
ecentcasel
aw doy
ou
t
hinkt
hatt
her
eisanymor
ecl
ari
tybr
ought
about i
n t
he t
est
s t
o be appl
i
ed i
n
est
abl
i
shi
ngt
hedef
enceofi
nsani
ty?

Sect
ion.
3.Changi
ngPhi
losophyUnder
lyi
ng
Cr
imi
nalLaws
 932

3.
1Pur
posesofPuni
shment
:

Gener
all
y,t
hephi
l
osophyofdet
err
encest
il
l
pr
evai
l
sinmoder
ncr
imi
nol
ogy
.Wecont
inue
t
o be concer
ned wi
th pr
event
ing, by
appr
opr
iat
e puni
ti
ve sanct
ions,bot
hthe
i
ndi
vi
dualof
fenderandot
hermember
sof
t
hesoci
etyf
rom t
her
epet
it
ionoft
hecr
ime,
ort
hei
mit
ati
on on t
hepar
tofot
her
sby
si
mil
ar act
ions. But t
he cont
empor
ary
appr
oacht
othebestwayofachi
evi
ngt
his
gener
alobj
ect
ivehasunder
goneapr
ofound
t
ransf
ormat
ion.We ar
e no l
ongercer
tai
n
t
hatt
hehar
shestpuni
shmenti
snecessar
il
y
t
hebestwayofpr
event
ingr
epet
it
ionoft
he
of
fence.Wher
ewehav
etoconcedet
hatt
he
sev
erestpossi
blepuni
shment–execut
ion–
 933

wi
l
lcer
tai
nlypr
eventt
hepar
ti
cul
arcr
imi
nal
f
rom commi
tt
ingt
his,oranyot
her
,of
fence
agai
n,we ar
e no l
ongersur
ethatt
his
spezi
‘ alpr
avent
ion’(
speci
fi
cpr
event
ion)wi
l
l
al
sohav
etheef
fectof‘
Gener
alpr
avent
ion’
(
gener
alpr
event
ion)
,i.
e.t
hati
twi
l
lreduce
t
he pr
opor
ti
on ofcapi
talof
fences i
nthe
bodypol
i
tic.I
nthecont
inui
ngcont
rov
ersy
aboutcapi
talpuni
shment
,oneoft
hemost
power
fular
gument
soft
hosewhoadv
ocat
e
t
heabol
i
tion oft
hedeat
h penal
tyi
sthat
‘
ther
e i
s no cl
ear ev
idence… t
hat t
he
abol
i
tionofcapi
talpuni
shmenthasl
edt
oan
i
ncr
ease i
nthe homi
cide r
ate,ort
hati
ts
r
eint
roduct
ionhasl
edt
oaf
all
’(Repor
ton
t
he Roy
al Commi
ssi
on on Capi
tal
Puni
shment1953,
sect
ion65)
.
 934

When,asi
tisgener
all
yaccept
edi
nthel
i
ght
of r
ecent t
hor
ough i
nvest
igat
ions, t
he
st
ati
sti
calev
idence does notsuppor
t,f
or
exampl
e,capi
talpuni
shmentont
hegr
ound
ofdet
err
ence;t
hepr
obl
em comesbackt
o
oneoft
hebasi
ctheoi
es.Her
e,t
heol
der
phi
l
osophi
es of r
etr
ibut
ion-
ini
tsv
ari
ous
shades (
Repor
t, sect
ion 50-
61) ar
e
i
ncr
easi
ngl
y i
nadequat
e al
though t
hey
cont
inuet
obesuppor
tedbysomeemi
nent
t
heol
ogi
ans,j
uri
sts and ot
her
s. Moder
n
ci
vi
li
zed soci
ety has,i
n gener
al,r
eceded
mor
eandmor
efr
om t
hisphi
l
osophyof‘
an
ey
eforan ey
e,at
oot
hforat
oot
h’.The
r
easoni
sforsome,butonl
yami
nor
it
y,a
r
evul
sionagai
nstt
hear
rogat
ionbysoci
ety
oft
her
ightt
otaket
hel
i
feofahumanbei
ng,
av
iewwhi
chcoul
dbehel
dconsi
stent
lyonl
y
 935

byr
adi
calpaci
fi
sts,andhar
dlybyt
hegr
eat
maj
ori
tywhoj
ust
if
yki
l
lng enmasse(
i ina
gr
oup)i
ncaseofwarbyor
deroft
hest
ate.A
mor
epr
act
icalr
easoni
sthedangerofan
i
rr
etr
iev
abl
e er
rorof j
ust
ice.Bot
hthese
ar
gument
s appl
y,ofcour
se,onl
ytot
he
capi
talpuni
shment
,andnott
othet
heor
yof
puni
shmenti
ngener
al.Whati
soff
argr
eat
er
i
mpor
tancet
othet
heor
yofpuni
shmentas
appl
i
cabl
eto al
lmaj
orof
fences i
s,t
he
pr
ogr
ess ofsoci
alsci
ence i
n a manner
par
all
elt
othatoft
hemoder
npsy
chol
ogy
andpsy
chi
atr
y.Wear
efarf
rom hav
ingan
exactest
imat
eoft
hef
act
swhi
chmoder
n
ur
bani
zat
ion and i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion,wi
th al
l
t
hesoci
aldi
srupt
iont
heyent
ail
,hav
eont
he
r
ateofcr
ime.Wedo,
howev
er,
knowbey
ond
r
easonabl
e doubt t
hat such f
act
ors as
 936

congr
egat
ion of l
arge f
ami
l
ies and,
especi
all
y,j
uveni
l
esi
nov
ercr
owdedsl
ums
hav
eaconsi
der
abl
eef
fectondel
i
nquency
,
ashav
ethedi
ver
sionofv
astnumber
sof
mar
ri
ed women i
n moder
nindust
ri
ali
zed
soci
eti
es f
rom domest
ic car
e t
o pai
d
empl
oyment
,ort
hedi
srupt
ionoff
ami
l
yti
es
i
nest
rangedf
ami
l
ies.I
ndi
vi
dualandsoci
al
psychol
ogyt
oucheachot
her
,wheni
tcomes
t
o anappr
eci
ati
onoft
heef
fectofsoci
al
envi
ronmentoremot
ionalupset
s,i
nfami
l
y,
school
,orel
sewher
e,ont
hement
albal
ance
andheal
thofani
ndi
vi
dual
.Themor
ewe
under
stand of t
he compl
ex web of
condi
ti
ons t
hatgo i
ntot
he makeup ofa
per
son,t
hel
esswecanacceptt
hesi
mpl
e
equat
ionsofsi
nandexpi
ati
on,of
fenceand
r
etr
ibut
ion,and t
he l
i
ke.Butwe ar
e al
so
 937

f
acedagai
n,asi
nthemor
especi
ali
zedcase
oft
hement
all
ydi
stur
bedi
ndi
vi
dual
,wi
tht
he
pr
obl
em of t
he pr
oper bal
ance. (
W.
Fr
iedmann)

Gener
all
y speaki
ng, t
he i
ncr
easi
ng
under
standi
ng of t
he soci
al and
psy
chol
ogi
calcausesofcr
imehasl
edt
oa
gr
owi s on r
ng emphasi efor
mat
ion r
ather
t
handet
err
encei
ntheol
dersense,ast
he
bestway t
o pr
otectbot
hthe i
ndi
vi
dual
cr
imi
nalf
rom hi
msel
f,andt
hesoci
etyf
rom
t
hei
nci
denceofcr
ime.I
npr
act
icalt
erms,
t
his has meant t
he i
ncr
easi
ng use of
cor
rect
iveandeducat
ionalmeasur
es,ei
ther
i
n addi
ti
on t
o, or i
n subst
it
uti
on f
or,
puni
shmentpr
oper
.The consi
der
ati
on of
suchal
ter
nat
iveshasgr
adual
l
yspr
eadf
rom
 938

speci
ali
zed cat
egor
ies of of
fender
s t
o
cr
imi
nal
off
ender
singener
al.

I
nthe case ofper
sons adj
udged i
nsane-
whet
herbef
oret
ri
al,att
hebegi
nni
ngoft
he
t
ri
al(
insaneonar
rai
gnment
),ast
her
esul
tof
ev
idence dur
ing t
ri
al(
speci
alv
erdi
ct)
,or
af
tersent
ence–i
tisobv
ioust
hatal
ter
nat
ive
det
ent
ionorcar
emustbepr
ovi
dedf
or,f
or
t
he i
nter
est of bot
hthe i
ndi
vi
dualand
soci
ety
.Thi
s mustbe ext
ended,as t
he
cat
egor
iesoft
hese per
sonswi
densf
rom
t
he ‘
i
nsane’i
nthe ol
dersense t
o ot
her
s
adj
udged‘
ment
all
ydi
str
ibut
ed’or‘
ment
all
y
def
ici
ent
’.Var
iouspr
ocedur
esf
orcar
ingf
or
t
hement
all
yil
lpr
isonerar
epr
ovi
dedi
nthe
Engl
i
sh Ment
alHeal
th Act 1959(
Wal
ker
,
1965,
pp.
263-
94)
.
 939

Ar
evol
uti
onoff
argr
eat
erpr
opor
ti
onhas,
dur
ingt
hel
astgener
ati
on,
takenpl
acei
nthe
t
reat
ment of j
uveni
l
e of
fender
s. Al
most
uni
ver
sal
l
ytoday
,in ci
vi
li
zedcount
ri
es,t
he
j
uveni
l
eof
fender(
usual
l
yaper
sonbet
ween
t
heagesofei
ghtandei
ght
een)
,whonotso
l
ong ago used t
o be subj
ect
ed t
othe
har
shestpenal
ti
esandt
hrownt
oget
herwi
th
har
denedcr
imi
nal
s–i
snow subj
ect
edt
oa
speci
alpr
ocedur
e.Thepr
edomi
nantpat
ter
n
i
sthatoft
hej
uveni
l
ecour
t–asi
ntr
oduced,
dur
ing t
he l
asthal
fcent
uryi
n Engl
and,
Ger
many
,in t
he gr
eat maj
ori
ty of t
he
Amer
ican St
ates and i
n many ot
her
count
ri
es – a cour
tdi
ff
ersr
adi
cal
l
y,i
n
pr
ocedur
eandt
het
ypeofsanct
ionst
obe
i
mposed upon t
he of
fender
,fr
om t
he
 940

or
dinar
y cr
imi
nal cour
t. Pr
obat
ion and
appr
oved school
s hav
e become t
he
subst
it
utef
ori
mpr
isonment
.A numberof
moder
n l
egal sy
stems ( Not
abl
y,t
he
Scandi
nav
ian count
ri
es and,f
oll
owi
ng t
he
Amer
ican l
aw I
nst
it
ute 1940,Cal
i
for
nia,
Wi
sconsi
n, and Mi
nnesot
a) hav
e gone
f
urt
herand r
emov
ed t
he sanct
ion power
al
toget
herf
rom t
hecour
ts,
put
ti
ngi
tinst
ead
i
nto t
he hands of t
he chi
l
d-wel
far
e
aut
hor
it
ies.I
nCal
i
for
niat
hepower
soft
he
y
out
haut
hor
it
yhav
ebeenex
tendedf
urt
her
.
Thi
saut
hor
it
yhaspowernow t
odealwi
th
chi
l
drenbel
owt
heageofj
uveni
l
ecr
imi
nal
i
ty,
andt
o met
eoutt
reat
menti
naccor
dance
wi
tht
hedi
agnosi
soft
hei
rposi
ti
on.

Thesubst
it
uti
onofcor
rect
ivemeasur
esf
or
 941

puni
shmentpr
operhas spr
ead f
rom t
he
j
uveni
l
eof
fendert
otheadul
tof
fender
.The
pr
inci
palemphasi
sisonpr
obat
ionoff
ir
st
of
fender
s,as a condi
ti
onalal
ter
nat
ivet
o
puni
shment
.(W.Fr
iedmann)

Butemphasi
s on t
he need f
orcor
rect
ive
measur
es i
s not conf
ined t
o t
he f
ir
st
of
fender
.Att
heot
herendoft
hescal
e,t
he
r
eci
div
ist
,thehabi
tualof
fender
,isbecomi
ng
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ythe obj
ect of at
tent
ion of
moder
n penol
ogy
.Int
he case ofa f
ir
st
of
fender
,iti
sfel
tthatcor
rect
ivemeasur
es
of an educat
ional and t
he r
efor
mat
ive
char
act
er wi
l
lser
vet
o det
er hi
m f
rom
f
urt
herof
fences.Thi
sappr
oachi
sfol
l
owed
i
nthe f
oot
steps oft
he pi
oneerwor
k of
Shel
don and El
eanorGl
ueck on j
uveni
l
e
 942

del
i
nquency
,whi
ch has i
ncl
uded a soci
al
pr
edi
cti
on scal
e f
or pr
oneness t
o
del
i
nquency
.

I
tisnotourpur
poset
oanal
yzeandcompar
e
i
n det
ailt
he mul
ti
tude of educat
ional
,
cor
rect
iveandpr
event
ivemeasur
est
hat
,in
a gr
owi
ng numberofcount
ri
es ar
e now
appl
i
ed not onl
yto ment
all
y di
stur
bed
per
son,j
uveni
l
es,f
ir
stof
fender
s,butt
oal
l
cr
imi
nal
. What emer
ges as a hi
ghl
y
si
gni
fi
cantandcr
it
icalf
acti
sthei
ncr
easi
ng
i
nter
mingl
i
ng of t
he cr
imi
nal and t
he
admi
nist
rat
ive pr
ocesses i
nthe moder
n
sci
ence and pr
act
ice oft
he cr
imi
nall
aw.
Thatt
hecr
imi
nalof
fenderi
snol
ongerseen
asani
sol
atedandgui
l
tyi
ndi
vi
dualwho,ata
gi
ven moment
,isbr
oughtbef
oreacour
t,
 943

dul
ysent
encedbywhat
evert
erm appear
s
appr
opr
iat
etot
he cour
twi
thi
nthe of
ten
f
ant
ast
ical
l
ywi
der
angeofmaxi
mum and
mi
nimum penal
ti
esandt
hendi
sappear
sfor
ev
erf
rom t
hesi
ghtoft
hej
udi
ci
alaut
hor
it
ies,
r
epr
esent
s and ev
olut
ion i
n t
he l
egal
t
hinki
ngoncr
imef
rom whi
cht
her
ecanbe
nor
etr
eat
.Inapr
oper
lyadmi
nist
eredand
enl
i
ght
ened moder
n l
egal sy
stem, t
he
pr
ocess,i
n whi
ch wel
far
e,admi
nist
rat
ive
andcr
imi
nalpr
ocessel
ement
sar
emi
xed,
st
art
swhen t
hewel
far
eoft
hechi
l
dthat
l
ackspr
operf
ami
l
ycar
eandat
tent
ion,or
ot
her
wiseshowssy
mpt
omst
hatmi
ght
,in
t
hef
utur
e,t
urnhi
mint
oacr
imi
nal
,ist
aken
ov
erbyt
heappr
opr
iat
epubl
i
caut
hor
it
y.I
t
cont
inues when – ei
ther despi
te such
measur
esori
nthei
rabsence– aj
uveni
l
e
 944

of
fendercomesbef
oreaspeci
alcor
rect
ive
aut
hor
it
ywi
thj
udi
cialat
tri
but
es.Fr
om t
her
e,
admi
nist
rat
iveandwel
far
eaut
hor
it
iest
ake
ov
eragai
n,i
ntheshapeoft
hepr
obat
ion
of
fi
cer
,chi
l
d-wel
far
eboar
d,y
out
haut
hor
it
y
and oft
he v
ari
ous of
fi
ciali
nst
it
uti
ons t
o
whi
cht
hej
uveni
l
eof
fenderi
sremandedi
n
l
i
euofpuni
shment.Tot
hesemustbeadded
av
ari
etyofmedi
cal
,soci
alandeducat
ional
exper
ts who ent
ert
he pr
ocess atsome
st
age.Obv
iousl
y,t
he ol
d bor
der
li
nes ar
e
becomi
ng l
ess di
sti
nct
,and i
tis of
ten
uncer
tai
natwhatst
aget
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocess
st
opsandt
headmi
nist
rat
ivepr
ocessbegi
ns.
(
W.Fr
iedmann)

Thi
s v
ital and needed change causes,
howev
er,
ini
tst
urn,
somegr
avepr
obl
ems:
 945

1. Ther
emustbeadegr
eeofcoor
dinat
ion
bet
weent
hej
udi
cialaut
hor
it
iespr
oper
,i.
e.
t
hej
udgeandj
ury
,ort
hej
udgeal
one,l
and
t
he v
ari
ous wel
far
e and admi
nist
rat
ive
aut
hor
it
ies,whi
chi
sst
il
lof
tenl
acki
ng.Thi
s
appear
stobepar
ti
cul
arl
ytr
ueoft
hel
engt
h
ofpr
isonsent
ences,whi
chof
tenbear
sno
r
elat
ionei
thert
othesoci
alusef
ulnessoft
he
sent
encei
mposed,ort
otheadmi
nist
rat
ive
f
aci
l
iti
es av
ail
abl
e ei
theri
n pr
isons ori
n
ot
heri
nst
it
uti
ons.I
tispr
obabl
yst
il
ltr
ue–as
i
twascer
tai
nlynotsol
ongago–t
hatt
he
maj
ori
tyoft
hej
udgeshav
enev
erv
isi
teda
pr
isonoroneoft
heot
heri
nst
it
uti
onsnow
f
igur
ingi
nthepuni
ti
vepr
ocess.
2. Thedi
str
ibut
ion off
unct
ionsbet
ween
j
udi
cial aut
hor
it
ies and v
ari
ous
admi
nist
rat
ive and wel
far
e of
fi
cer
s
 946

emphasi
zest
heneedf
oradequat
etr
aini
ng
andsoci
alandpr
ofessi
onalst
atusoft
he
l
att
er,especi
all
yoft
hepr
obat
ionser
vice,a
r
elat
ivel
y r
ecent but v
ital
l
y i
mpor
tant
i
nst
it
uti
on. The change f
rom a pur
ely
r
epr
essi
vet
o an educat
ivef
unct
ion al
so
emphasi
zest
he need f
orpr
oper
lyt
rai
ned
pr
isonof
fi
cer
s,whosear
duousl
otmustbe
bal
anced by adequat
erecogni
ti
on i
nthe
soci
alandf
inanci
alscal
e.Thi
s,t
oo,i
sfar
f
rom bei
ngt
hecase.
3. Last
ly,andper
haps,t
hemosti
mpor
tant
i
sthat t
he bl
urr
ing of t
he bor
der
li
nes
bet
weent
hecr
imi
nalandt
headmi
nist
rat
ive
pr
ocedur
ethathol
dsnotonl
ybenef
it
s,but
al
sodanger
sfort
heef
fectont
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
Theadmi
nist
rat
ivepr
ocessi
sini
tsessence
di
scr
eti
onar
y,wher
eas cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e
 947

has,atl
easti
nthedemocr
ati
cschemeof
v
alues,been sur
rounded wi
th saf
eguar
ds
agai
nstar
bit
rar
iness.
As cor
rect
ive and educat
ionalpr
ocedur
es
hav
ebecomei
nter
mingl
edwi
thcr
imi
nalor
quasi
-cr
imi
nalpr
ocesses,so t
he f
earhas
gr
own t
hat benev
olent but aut
ocr
ati
c
aut
hor
it
ymaybeabl
eto depr
iveper
sons
f
all
i
ng underi
tsj
uri
sdi
cti
on ofl
i
ber
ty,f
or
i
ndef
ini
te per
iods, wi
thout t
he j
udi
ci
al
saf
eguar
dsat
tendi
ngcr
imi
nalt
rai
l
.Cr
it
ici
sm
has been par
ti
cul
arl
yvoci
fer
ous i
nst
ates
whi
ch,l
i
kecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
esi
nregar
dto
j
uveni
l
eof
fender
s.Thet
it
leofanar
ti
cl
eis:
‘
Weneednotdenyj
ust
icet
oourchi
l
dren’
,
whi
l
eaCal
i
for
niaj
udgehaswr
it
tent
hatt
he
j
uveni
l
e cour
tis‘
fastdev
elopi
ng i
ntoa
compl
etesy
stem ofFasci
sm,asdanger
ous
 948

t
o ouri
nst
it
uti
ons as Communi
sm’
.Such
compl
aint
sar
ebasedont
hev
aguenessor
el
ast
ici
tyi
nthepr
ocedur
eofaj
uveni
l
ecour
t
i
nregar
dtosuchessent
ialsaf
eguar
dsas
t
he power
s oft
he pol
i
ce t
o ar
rest
,the
pr
eci
sef
ormul
ati
onoft
heof
fence,t
her
ight
oft
ri
albyj
ury
,ther
ightt
oref
uset
est
imony
,
t
heaccept
anceofhear
sayev
idence,ort
he
r
ightt
ocounsel
.(W.Fr
iedmann)

3.
2Al
ter
nat
ivest
otheCr
imi
nal
Sanct
ions:

To t
hosewho consi
derr
etr
ibut
ion ast
he
pr
inci
ple or excl
usi
ve pur
pose of
puni
shment
,ther
ecanbenoal
ter
nat
ivet
o
t
he cr
imi
nalsanct
ion f
or of
fensi
ve and
pr
ohi
bit
edconduct
.Butf
ort
headher
ent
sof
aut
il
it
ari
anphi
l
osophyt
her
ear
eal
ter
nat
ives.
 949

I
nar
ecentdi
scussi
on oft
his quest
ion
Pr
ofessorPackerpr
oposedacl
assi
fi
cat
ion
ofsanct
ionsi
ntof
ourcat
egor
ies(
1978,pp.
: compensat
23, 205) ion, r
egul
ati
on,
puni
shmentand t
reat
ment
.Compensat
ion
i
nvol
ves t
he exact
ion of money or
per
for
mancet
orecompenseani
dent
if
iabl
e
benef
ici
ary or cl
ass of benef
ici
ari
es f
or
damagedoneort
hreat
enedbyt
heact
ions
of anot
her
. Regul
ati
on embr
aces a
const
ell
ati
onofdev
icesusedt
obr
ingt
he
i
mpactofpubl
i
caut
hor
it
ydi
rect
lyt
obearon
pr
ivat
econduct
,bot
hbef
oreandaf
tert
he
f
act
. The gr
ant
ing and wi
thdr
awal of
l
i
censes i
s a pr
omi
nent exampl
e of
r
egul
ati
on. Tr
eat
ment i
s essent
ial
l
y a
di
agnost
icr
esponse.I
timpl
i
est
heappr
aisal
ofsoci
all
ycondemnedconductasadi
sease
 950

r
athert
hanacr
ime.Awi
del
yusedf
orm of
t
reat
ment
,as a sanct
ion al
ter
nat
ivet
o
puni
shment
, i
s compul
sor
y ci
vi
l
commi
tment
.Thi
srai
ses t
he quest
ion of
how i
fatal
lsuchameasur
eofdepr
ivat
ion
ofl
i
ber
tydi
ff
ersi
nanyt
hingbutnamef
rom
i
mpr
isonment
.Butt
her
ear
eofcour
semany
l
esserf
ormsoft
reat
menti
nresponset
o
cr
imi
nalconduct
.A cont
empor
ary Br
it
ish
soci
ologi
st(
Woot
ton,
1963)ar
guesi
nfav
our
of a sent
enci
ng pol
i
cy pr
imar
il
y as a
pr
event
ion of cr
ime. Thi
s means, f
or
exampl
e‘t
hatcust
odi
alsent
encesshoul
dbe
i
n det
ermi
nat
einr
espectt
othe t
ype of
i
nst
it
uti
ont
owhi
chanof
fendershoul
dbe
commi
tt
ed,
andi
ndeedt
hatt
her
igi
ddi
vi
si
on
ofi
nst
it
uti
onsi
ntot
hemedi
calandt
hepenal
shoul
dbeobl
i
ter
ated’
.Essent
ial
l
y‘deci
si
ons
 951

ast
othet
reat
mentofof
fendershoul
dbe
commonadmi
nist
rat
ive,
inst
eadofaj
udi
ci
al,
mat
ter
’(Woot
ton,1963,p.112)
.Pr
ofessor
Packergoesl
essf
ar m,“
.Forhi thecr
imi
nal
sanct
ion i
sthe bestavai
l
abl
e devi
ce we
havef
ordeal
i
ngwi
thgr
ossandi
mmedi
ate
har
msandt
hreat
sofhar
m.I
tbecomesl
ess
usef
ulast
hehar
msbecomel
essgr
ossand
i
mmedi
ate.I
tbecomesl
argel
yinef
fi
caci
ous
wheni
tisusedt
oenf
orcemor
ali
tyr
ather
t
hant
odealwi
thconductt
hati
sgener
all
y
seenashar
mful
”(1968,
p.365)
.
Thecr
imi
nalsanct
ion,i
not
herwor
ds,i
snot
soci
ety
’si
nev
itabl
eresponset
oev
il
,buthe
mostser
ousofv
ari
ouski
ndsofr
emedi
es.
(
W.Fr
iedmann)
 952

3.
3WhatFut
uref
orCr
imi
nall
aw?

As a l
eadi
ng cr
imi
nol
ogi
sthas obser
ved,
“
thest
udyofcr
imemustbebr
oughti
ntoa
cl
oser connect
ion wi
th psy
chi
atr
y,
psy
chol
ogyandsoci
alsci
ence.Ther
ehas
beenv
eryl
i
ttl
echangesi
ncet
heni
net
eent
h
cent
uryi
nthebasi
cconcept
sofsubst
ant
ive
cr
imi
nall
aw,apar
tfr
om t
he accr
eti
on of
whatmaybedescr
ibed as‘
admi
nist
rat
ive
cr
imi
nal
i
ty’
, a pr
oduct of t
he gr
owi
ng
compl
exi
tyofmoder
nli
feandoft
henew
pr
otect
ive and r
emedi
alf
unct
ions oft
he
wel
far
e st
ate. But t
her
e has been a
sweepi
ngt
ransf
ormat
ioni
nthepenal
spher
e.
A Vi
ctor
ianl
awy
erwoul
dst
il
lfeelqui
teat
homewi
thourbasi
cof
fences,buthewoul
d
bepuzzl
edandbewi
l
der
edbyourmet
hods
 953

ofpuni
shmentandt
reat
mentandi
ndeedby
our whol
e at
ti
tude.
”(Radzi
nowi
cz,1962,
p.
181)
.

I
tis,notas we hav
e seen,no l
onger
suf
fi
cientt
oconcent
rat
eont
heal
ter
nat
ive
pur
posesandsanct
ionsofcr
imi
nall
aw as
such.We hav
etot
hink i
ncr
easi
ngl
y of
cr
imi
nall
aw asonl
yoneoft
hev
ari
eti
esof
i
nst
rument
ali
ti
es,bywhi
chpubl
i
caut
hor
it
y
deal
s wi
th t
he compl
ex and mani
fol
d
pr
obl
ems of or
der i
n cont
empor
ary
i
ndust
ri
alsoci
ety
.Thatacr
imi
nalsanct
ion-
ev
enwi
tht
hegr
eat
erv
ari
etyandf
lexi
bil
i
tyof
met
hodsofpuni
shmentusedt
oday–i
sbut
one ofa numberofdev
ices bywhi
ch a
moder
n st
ate seeks t
o exer
cise aut
hor
it
y
ov
erpr
ivat
econduct
,ist
hegi
stofPr
ofessor
 954

Packer
’si
mpor
tantbook,andpar
ti
cul
arl
yof
hi
s j
uxt
aposi
ti
on of compensat
ion, i
.e.
monet
ary adj
ust
ment
,and r
egul
ati
on,i
.e.
admi
nist
rat
ive sanct
ioni
ng, wi
th t
he
sanct
ions of puni
shment and t
reat
ment
whi
chmayber
egar
dedaswi
thi
ntheambi
t
of cr
imi
nall
aw pr
oper
.Int
he moder
n
‘
posi
ti
ve’st
ate,r
egul
ati
on i
sa par
ti
cul
arl
y
power
fulmeansofdeal
i
ngoutr
ewar
dsand
puni
shment
, out
side t
he pur
views of
cr
imi
nal l
aw. The gr
ant
ing, r
efusal
, or
wi
thdr
awal of an occupat
ional or
pr
ofessi
onal l
i
cense, or t
he r
efusal of
secur
it
ycl
ear
ancef
orani
ndi
vi
dual
,whi
ch
makeshi
m unempl
oyabl
e,ar
eint
hei
rmor
al
and economi
c ef
fect
, mor
e power
ful
sanct
ionst
hanmostoft
hepuni
shment
s.To
t
hiswemayaddanot
herf
act
ort
hati
snot
 955

st
ressedbyPr
ofessorPacker
:Thepowerof
quasi
-publ
i
c or
gani
zat
ions t
hat enj
oy an
ef
fect
ivemonopol
yint
hei
rpr
ofessi
onalor
occupat
ionalar
ea,t
omakeorbr
eakt
hei
r
member
sbyadmi
ssi
ont
o,orexcl
usi
onf
rom
member
shi
p.A doct
or st
ruck f
rom t
he
medi
call
i
st,abr
ickl
ayerexcl
udedf
rom hi
s
uni
onmayi
nef
fectsuf
ferpuni
shmentf
or
l
i
fe.Butt
his occur
s ent
ir
ely out
side t
he
ambi
t of cr
imi
nall
aw and t
he cr
imi
nal
pr
ocess.I
tinv
olv
est
hecompl
exr
elat
ionshi
p
bet
ween publ
i
c aut
hor
it
y and pr
ivat
e or
quasi
-publ
i
cinst
it
uti
ons.

Whi
l
e,ont
heonehand,cr
imi
nall
awandt
he
cr
imi
nal pr
ocesses must become
i
ncr
easi
ngl
y mor
e f
lexi
ble so as t
o
accommodat
eav
ari
etyofsanct
ionst
hat
 956

ar
enotnecessar
il
ypuni
ti
vei
nthet
radi
ti
onal
senseoft
hewor
d,i
tisequal
l
ynecessar
yto
compar
ethe mor
al,soci
aland economi
c
i
mpactofnon-
cri
minal
sanct
ions–i
ncl
udi
ng
t
hepowerofnon-
publ
i
cbodi
est
oimpose
sanct
ions on t
hei
rmember
s – wi
tht
he
i
mpactoft
hecr
imi
nal
sanct
ion.
Ther
emustbeamuchcl
osercoor
dinat
ion
of cr
imi
nal
, admi
nist
rat
ive and ci
vi
l
pr
ocedur
es,wi
thr
espectt
otheef
fectt
hat
t
heyhav
eont
hest
atusoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
Whi
l
ethe cr
imi
nall
aw pr
oper maywel
l
comet
ooccupyamor
eli
mit
edpl
acei
nthe
publ
i
c sanct
ioni
ng pr
ocess t
han i
t has
t
radi
ti
onal
l
ydone,i
tisi
mper
ati
vet
hatt
he
t
echni
cal
l
y non-
cri
minal sanct
ions be
subj
ect
ed t
o adequat
e pr
ocedur
al
saf
eguar
ds,
soast
opr
otectt
hebasi
cri
ght
s
 957

oft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.(W.Fr
iedmann)

Rev
iewQuest
ions:

1.Whati
syouropi
nionont
hecl
assesof
sanct
ions pr
oposed by Pr
ofessorPacker
:
compensat
ion,r
egul
ati
on,puni
shmentand
t
reat
ment
?
Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ng!
“
Thei
ncr
easi
ngunder
standi
ngoft
hesoci
al
andpsy
chol
ogi
calcausesofcr
imehasl
ed
t
o a gr
owi s on r
ng emphasi efor
mat
ion
r
at handet
hert err
encei
ntheol
dersense,
as
t
hebestwayt
opr
otectbot
hthei
ndi
vi
dual
cr
imi
nalf
rom hi
msel
f,andsoci
etyf
rom t
he
i
nci
denceofcr
ime”
.How?

Br
ainSt
ormi
ng!
Fr
om t
hef
oregoi
ngdi
scussi
oni
tbecomes
 958

cl
eart
hatont
heonehandi
tisbei
ngf
eltt
hat
ev
encor
por
ati
onsshoul
dbebr
oughtunder
mor
e and mor
e cr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
o
ensur
edet
err
entef
fectwhi
l
eont
heot
her
hand t
her
e ar
e ar
gument
sinf
avour of
al
ter
nat
ivepuni
shment
swhi
chmor
einl
i
ne
wi
th r
efor
mat
ive j
ust
ice. How do y
ou
r
econci
l
etheset
woopposi
tet
rends?

Uni
tSummar
y:

Thet
ypeofconductt
hatapar
ti
cul
arsoci
ety
consi
der
s as suf
fi
cient
ly wor
thy of
condemnat
ion t
o pr
ohi
biti
t by cr
imi
nal
sanct
ionsi
sdeepl
yinf
luencedbyt
hev
alues
gov
erni
ngt
hatsoci
ety
. Thev
erydef
ini
ti
on
andconceptofcr
imei
snotonl
yaccor
ding
 959

t
othe v
alues ofa par
ti
cul
argr
oup and
soci
ety and i
deal
s wi
th f
ait
h,r
eli
gious
at
ti
tudes,cust
oms,t
radi
ti
ons and t
aboos
but al
so accor
ding t
o t
he f
orm of
gov
ernment
, pol
i
tical and economi
c
st
ruct
ureofsoci
etyandanumberofot
her
f
act
ors.Fori
nst
ance,whati
sasexcr
imei
n
I
ndi
aandEast
erncount
ri
esmaybeasweet
hear
tvi
rt
ue i
n West and Scandi
nav
ian
count
ri
es. Whati
s an of
fence agai
nst
pr
oper
tyi
n a capi
tal
i
stcul
tur
e maybe a
l
awf
ulwayofl
i
vingi
nasoci
ali
stsoci
ety
.
Whati
sper
missi
blei
naf
reeandaf
fl
uent
soci
ety may be a per
nici
ous v
ice i
na
conser
vat
ivesetup.Thenot
ionaboutcr
ime
al
sochangeswi
tht
ime.Whati
sanof
fence
t
odaymaynotbeanof
fencet
omor
rowand
whathasnotbeenanof
fencet
il
lyest
erday
 960

maybedecl
aredacr
imet
oday
.Inshor
t,t
he
conceptofcr
imechangeswi
tht
hechange
ofi
deol
ogyandot
herf
act
orsi
nthesoci
ety
.
The soci
o-economi
c cr
imes,t
he sexual
per
missi
venesset
car
egl
ari
ngexampl
esof
t
hist
rut
h.

The pr
inci
ples of v
icar
ious l
i
abi
l
ity and
cor
por
atel
i
abi
l
ityar
eunder
goi
ngpr
ofound
changes.Opi
nionsar
einf
avourofext
ensi
ve
appl
i
cat
ioncr
imi
nalsanct
ionst
ocor
por
ate
cr
imesf
ort
hesakeofdet
err
entef
fect
.At
t
he same t
ime ar
gument
s suppor
ti
ng
r
efor
mat
ivej
ust
icei
nthepl
aceofser
ious
det
err
entsanct
ionsar
eont
her
aise.Ci
vi
l
r
emedi
es and admi
nist
rat
ive sanct
ions
l
i
mit
ing t
he scope and appl
i
cat
ion of
subst
ant
ive cr
imi
nall
aws ar
e becomi
ng
 961

appar
ent
.Thus,t
hechangesi
ncr
imi
nall
aw
consequentt
oa cl
earshi
fti
nthesoci
al
i
deol
ogi
esandv
aluesar
econspi
cuousev
ery
wher
e,i
nev
eryl
egal
syst
em.

Ref
erences:
Readernot
e:
1.
W.Fr
iedmann,“
Law i
n Changi
ng Soci
ety
’,
(
Second Edi
ti
on, 2001) Uni
ver
sal l
aw
Publ
i
shi
ng Co. Pv
t. Lt
d under speci
al
ar
rangementwi
thSweet&Maxwel
lLt
d.,
U.K.
2.Pet
erDeCr
uz,
“Compar
ati
veLawi
na
Changi
ngWor
ld”
,(Thi
rdEdi
ti
on2007)
Rout
ledge-
Cav
endi
shPubl
i
cat
ions

AnnexI
.ModelExam Wi
thModelAnswer
s
 962

CASE ONE
40POI
NTS
Addi
sandDi
anahadbeenmar
ri
edf
or10
y
ear
s.Att
imest
hemar
ri
agewasst
ormy
,
most
lybecauseoft
hef
actt
hatbot
hwer
e
i
nsanel
yjeal
ousandsuspi
cious.Towar
dthe
endof2005,howev
er,t
hingswentwel
lfor
t
hem;
themar
ri
agewascal
mforacoupl
eof
mont
hs.Theydeci
dedt
ocel
ebr
atewi
than
ev
eni
ngoutf
orNewYear
'sEv
e.
Unf
ort
unat
ely
,Addi
sdi
dnotwor
kont
hel
ast
dayoft
hey
ear
.Hej
oinedsomef
ri
endsear
ly
i
nthemor
ningandst
art
eddr
inki
ng.Hegot
homel
atert
hanschedul
edandt
hismade
Di
anaf
uri
ous.Theygotr
eadyt
ogot
othe
New Year
'sEv
ePar
ty,butar
guedf
uri
ousl
y
f
ormor
ethananhour
.Byt
het
imet
heyl
eft
 963

f
ort
hepar
tybot
hwer
efumi
ngmad.Addi
s
hadcont
inuedt
odr
ink,whi
chdi
dnothel
p
t
hemat
ter
.

Att
hepar
ty,Addi
sandDi
anar
ani
ntosome
peopl
ewi
thwhom Di
anawor
ked.Atsome
poi
ntDi
anawasaskedt
odancebyaman
f
rom wor
kandsheconsent
ed.Addi
ssai
d
not
hing,
buti
twasappar
entt
oDi
anat
hathe
wasbur
ning.Shedancedwi
tht
hemant
hree
t
imesbef
oreAddi
ssai
dany
thi
ngabouti
t.
Thenhecal
l
edhera"
slut
"andt
hreat
enedt
o
knockhert
eet
hout
.Hecont
inuedt
odr
ink.
Di
ana cont
inued t
o dancewi
th herf
ri
end
f
rom wor
k.

Addi
slef
tthehal
lwher
ethepar
tywasbei
ng
hel
dandwentt
ohi
scar
.Hekeptaguni
n
 964

t
he gl
ove compar
tment
.He gott
he gun,
r
etur
nedt
othedancef
loor
,andf
oundDi
ana
ont
hedancef
loorst
il
lcont
inui
ngherdance
wi
thherf
ri
enddanci
ngst
andi
ngv
erycl
ose
t
ohi
m.Addi
sranacr
osst
hef
loorshout
ing
andshoot
ing.Heempt
iedt
hegun;Heput
t
hreeshot
sinhi
swi
feandt
hreei
nherf
ri
end.
Bot
hdi
edi
nst
ant
ly.

Ther
ewassuf
fi
cientev
idencet
opr
ovet
hat
al
ltheabov
esai
dfact
s.Lat
er,i
nhi
sown
st
atementt
othepol
i
ceAddi
ssai
dhel
oved
hi
swi
fe,i
ntendedhernohar
m,andwasso
dr
unkont
heoccasi
oni
nquest
iont
hathe
coul
dnotr
ememberany
thi
ngt
hathappened.
1.
Supposet
haty
ouar
ethePubl
i
cPr
osecut
or
i
nthi
s case.Pr
epar
e a pr
osecut
ion case
agai
nstAddi
suf
orcausi
ngt
hedeat
hofhi
s
 965

wi
feand herf
ri
end.Expl
aint
heessent
ial
i
ngr
edi
ent
soft
hecr
imey
ouar
echar
ging
t
heaccusedwi
thandsuppor
tyourcasewi
th
suf
fi
cient r
easoni
ng.
20Poi
nts
Pr
osecut
ionCase:
1.
TheCr
imeCommi
tt
ed:I
tisagai
nstt
hel
i
fe
of a per
son, i
.
e. ‘
Homi
ci
de’ Essent
ial
el
ement
sandcausat
ionofcr
ime:Ar
ts.538,
58,
23and24hav
etobeappl
i
edt
oest
abl
i
sh
t
hati
tisani
ntent
ionalhomi
ci
deandt
he
causat
ion.
I
ntent
ion t
o cause deat
his suf
fi
ci
ent
ly
mani
fest
edbyt
hef
actt
hathepur
posef
ull
y
wentt
ohi
scart
opi
ckuphi
sgunandf
ir
ed
atbot
hoft
hem af
terr
etur
ningback.Ther
e
i
snodoubtaboutt
hecausat
ionsi
ncei
twas
commi
tt
ed i
n a par
tyi
nthe pr
esence of
 966

manyey
ewi
tnesses.
2.
Speci
fi
cty
peofhomi
cide:
Ordi
nar
yhomi
ci
de
underAr
t.540
Addi
sucanbechar
gedunderAr
t540oft
he
Cr
imi
nalCode,
2005f
orcommi
tt
ingor
dinar
y
homi
cidebycausi
ngdeat
hofbot
hhi
swi
fe
Di
anaandherf
ri
end.
Reasonsf
ort
heChar
geunderAr
t540:
1.
Theki
ll
ingsi
nt enot‘
hecasear aggr
avat
ed
homi
cides’because,t
hought
heconductof
t
he accused i
ndi
cat
es t
he pr
esence of
pr
emedi
tat
ion i
tisnotofsuch a ser
ious
qual
i
ty as t
o br
ing t
he case under
aggr
avat
edhomi
cide.A husband ki
l
li
nga
wi
feandhermal
ecol
l
eagueunderenr
aged
condi
ti
oncannotdescr
ibeadanger
ousoran
except
ional
l
ycr
uelper
sonal
i
tyasr
equi
red
byAr
t.539.Thequal
it
yofpr
emedi
tat
ion
 967

t
hati
srequi
redundert
heAr
t.539i
sthati
t
shoul
dbeofsuchameannat
uret
hati
t
suggest
sthatt
hecr
imi
nali
sexcept
ional
ly
cr
uel
,abomi
nabl
e ordanger
ous per
son.
Ther
efor
e, ever
y case of pr
emedi
tat
ed
ki
ll
ingmaynotnecessar
il
yfal
lundert
his
ar
ti
cle.Apr
emedi
tat
ionofl
esserdepr
avi
ty
mayt
aket
hecaset
obet
reat
edunderAr
t.
540asanor
dinar
yhomi
cide.
The ki
2. ll
ings ar
e not an ext
enuat
ed
homi
cidest
oof
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
a.
Though t
her
eis pr
ovocat
ion i
tdoes not
amountt
o‘gr
oss’
prov
ocat
ionasr
equi
redby
Ar
t541.
b.
Prov
ocat
iont
obeav
ali
ddef
encei
tshoul
d
comef
rom t
hedeceasedper
son.Her
ein
t
hiscaseDi
anai
sther
easonf
orpr
ovocat
ion
butt
hatwas notsuch a ser
ious one t
o
 968

descr
ibei
tasa‘
grosspr
ovocat
ion’
.Sof
or
t
he actr
esul
ti
ng i
nthe deat
h ofDi
ana
pr
ovocat
ionasr
equi
redbyAr
t.541cannot
beest
abl
i
shedt
her
ebydi
squal
i
fyi
ngAddi
s
f
rom t
hebenef
it
sofext
enuat
ion.
c.
Diana’
s f
ri
end i
s i
gnor
ant of t
he
di
stur
bances bet
ween t
he wi
fe and t
he
husband. He di
d not do any t
hing i
n
par
ti
cul
art
opr
ovokeAddi
su.Ther
efor
e,f
or
causi
ngdeat
hofDi
ana’
sfr
iendAddi
sucan
nev
ercl
aimt
hedef
enceofpr
ovocat
ion.
Ast
heki
l
li
ngsi
ntheabov
ecasedonotf
it
i
ntot
he def
ini
ti
ons ofnei
theraggr
avat
ed
homi
cidenorext
enuat
edhomi
ci
det
her
ight
pr
ovi
sion under whi
ch he shoul
d be
pr
osecut
edi
s‘or
dinar
yhomi
ci
deunderAr
t.
540.
3.
Int
oxi
cat
ioncannotbeadef
ence:Ar
t.50/
1
 969

Theaccusedgoti
ntoxi
cat
edbyhi
sownf
aul
t
andt
heacthecommi
tt
edwasnotasi
mpl
e
di
stur
bancet
hatcangett
hebenef
itdef
ence
ofi
ntoxi
cat
ion.
2.I
fyou wer
ethe def
ense counselwhat
def
ensewoul
dyour
aisef
ort
hedef
endant
.
St
atet
he pr
inci
ples,i
n det
ail
,gov
erni
ng
suchdef
ense/
sundert
heCr
imi
nalCode.
20Poi
nts.
Def
enceCase:
I
f Iwer
ethe def
ence counself
or t
he
def
endanti
nthi
s case Iwoul
drai
se t
he
f
oll
owi
ngcont
ent
ions:
1.
Int
oxi
cat
ion:Ar
t.50/
3readwi
thAr
t.491
Though t
he def
endant got i
ntoxi
cat
ed
v
olunt
ari
l
y,he nei
ther cont
empl
ated nor
i
ntended t
hathe woul
d do anysuch act
subsequentt
o hi
s dr
inki
ng.Ther
efor
e,he
 970

shoul
dber
ight
lyt
reat
edunderAr
t50/
3read
wi
thAr
t491.Fol
l
owi
ngt
his,hi
ssent
enceby
no means shoul
d go bey
ond si
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonmentnotexceedi
ng1y
ear
.
2.
Art
50/
2readwi
thAr
t543/
1:
I
ftheCour
tisnotconv
incedt
hathi
scase
doesnotf
iti
ntoAr
t50/
3,i
tshoul
datl
east
bet
reat
edunderAr
t50/
2andi
sent
it
ledt
o
t
hebenef
itofhi
scr
imet
obeanegl
i
gentone.
Under Ar
t.543/
1the accused may be
puni
shedwi
thnomor
ethan3y
ear
ssi
mpl
e
i
mpr
isonment
.
3.
Prov
ocat
ion Ar
t 541/
b:The conductof
Di
ana and her f
ri
end wer
e suf
fi
ci
ent
ly
pr
ovocat
ivet
oahusbandt
oreacti
nsucha
way
.Ther
ewasnosuf
fi
cientt
imet
ocool
down t
her
e ei
ther
.The pr
ovocat
ion was
f
rom t
hedeceasedwi
feher
sel
f;t
her
efor
e,
 971

pr
ovocat
ioncanbecl
aimedasadef
ence.I
n
t
hiscasehi
spuni
shmentshoul
dnotexceed
5y
ear
s si
mpl
eimpr
isonment
.Ihumbl
y
r
equest t
he honor
abl
e Cour
t t
o be
consi
der
atet
owar
ds t
he accused hav
ing
r
egar
dtot
heser
iousment
alandemot
ional
di
stur
banceshehadgonet
hroughandt
hat
hi
sst
ateofbei
ngi
ntoxi
cat
edhadmadehi
s
st
ate of mi
nd ev
en mor
eincapabl
e of
r
egul
ati
nghi
sconductandgr
anthi
m ev
ena
l
essersent
encet
ohi
m.
I
nanycaset
hedef
endant
’scasedoesnot
f
allunder Ar
t540.Ther
efor
e,Ihumbl
y
submi
ttot
hehonor
abl
eCour
ttoconsi
der
t
hegr
oundsf
ort
hedef
encesot
hatj
ust
ice
i
sdonemycl
i
ent
.

CASE TWO
 972

10POI
NTS
Al
emay
ehusol
dandt
ransf
err
edhi
sest
ate
t
oZel
alam.Al
emay
ehuaf
ter
war
ds,
execut
ed
at
ransf
eroft
he same est
atet
o Bay
isa,
dat
edsi
xmont
hsear
li
ert
hant
hedat
eof
t
ransf
eroft
heest
atet
oZel
alam,
int
endi
ngi
t
t
obebel
i
evedt
hathet
ransf
err
edt
heest
ate
t
oBay
isabef
orehet
ransf
err
edi
ttoZel
alam.
Di
d Al
emay
ehu commi
tanycr
ime?I
fso,
est
abl
i
sht
hecr
imeagai
nsthi
m aspert
he
essent
ialel
ement
soft
hecr
imeundert
he
r
elev
antpr
ovi
sionsoft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.
KeyAnswer
:Yeshehascommi
tt
edacr
ime
of‘
Mat
eri
alFor
ger
y’puni
shabl
eunderAr
t.
375oft
heSpeci
alPar
t.Ast
hiscoul
dcause
ser
iousmat
eri
aldamaget
othev
ict
imt
his
case shoul
d be t
reat
ed wi
th suf
fi
ci
ent
ser
iousness and hi
s sent
ence shoul
d be
 973

suf
fi
cient
lysev
eret
oo.Thepuni
shmentf
or
t
his cr
ime i
s a mi
nimum sent
ence of3
mont
hs si
mpl
e i
mpr
isonment and a
maxi
mum of 10 y
ear
s of r
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonment
.

I
II
. PLEASE, GI
VE EXPLANATORY
ANSWERSFORTHEFOLLOWI
NG: 10X
4=40POI
NTS
1.“
Ever
y accused i
s pr
esumed t
o be
r
esponsi
ble”
. Di
scuss. What ar
e t
he
di
ff
erencesbet
weenAr
t.48andAr
t49?10
POI
NTS

KeyAnswer
:Gener
all
y,when a per
son i
s
accusedofacr
imehi
s/herr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
s
pr
esumed by t
he Cour
t.The pr
osecut
ion
neednotpr
ovei
t.Thi
smeanst
hatof t
he
 974

i
mpor
tant t
hings necessar
yto make a
per
son l
i
abl
eforpuni
shmentwi
thi
nthe
meani
ngofAr
t.
49/
1ar
eest
abl
i
shedt
hei
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngway
:
1.
The pr
ooft
hatt
he actwas done byt
he
accused-
--
Iti
sthebur
denoft
hepr
osecut
or.
3.
Thef
actt
hatt
heaccusedi
sresponsi
blef
or
hi
sact
s—Thi
sispr
esumedbyt
heCour
t.
Howev
er, t
he quest
ion of
i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyar
isesi
nanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
t
wosi
tuat
ions:
When t
heaccused i
nvokesi
t,par
ti
cul
arl
y,
dur
ingt
hepr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ionsasperAr
t.
130/
2/goft
heCr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
eCode,on
t
hef
ir
stdayoft
hecr
imi
nal
Proceedi
ng.
Whent
heCour
tisdoubt
fulaboutt
hement
al
condi
ti
onoft
heaccusedduet
opar
ti
alor
compl
ete depr
ivat
ion ofment
alf
acul
ti
es.
 975

TheCour
tmayent
ert
ainsuchadoubtatany
st
age oft
he t
rai
lbyt
he conductoft
he
accusedont
het
ri
al.
Once t
he ‘
quest
ion’ar
ises i
t becomes
necessar
ytodeci
det
hef
act
sint
hel
i
ghtof
Ar
ts.48and49.Theni
tbecomest
hebur
den
oft
he def
ence t
o pr
ovet
he accused i
s
i
rr
esponsi
ble bey
ond r
easonabl
e doubt
.
Thent
hebur
denoft
hepr
osecut
ioni
sonl
y
t
orai
sear
easonabl
edoubti
nthemi
ndof
t
heCour
tthatt
heaccusedi
sresponsi
ble
anddeser
vespuni
shment
.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenAr
t.48andAr
t49:
 Regar
dingt
hecausesofi
nsani
tyt
hear
ti
cl
es
suppl
ementeachot
her
.
 Ar
t.48deal
swi
thabsol
utei
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
wher
easAr
t.49deal
swi
thl
i
mit
edorpar
ti
al
 976

i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
tyduet
odi
seaseofmi
nd.
 Absol
ute i
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty under Ar
t.
48
ent
it
lest
heaccusedt
ocompl
etei
mmuni
ty
f
rom t
hepuni
shment
,whi
l
eunderAr
t.49t
he
accused i
s par
ti
all
y pr
otect
ed f
rom
puni
shmentsi
ncehe/
shesuf
fer
sfr
om onl
y
par
ti
ali
ncapaci
tyt
ounder
standt
henat
ure
andconsequencesofhi
s/herconduct
.
 Under Ar
t. 48 t
he act
ions t
aken ar
e,
measur
es oft
reat
mentormeasur
es f
or
pr
otect
ion as pr
ovi
ded Ar
ts.129-
131.I
n
caseofAr
t49t
heaccusedi
sgi
venf
ree
mi
ti
gat
ionofpuni
shmenti
naccor
dancewi
th
Ar
t.180aswel
lasanyot
hermeasur
esf
or
t
reat
mentorpr
otect
ionshal
lbeor
der
ed.

2.
Thei
ncr
easi
ngunder
standi
ngoft
hesoci
al
andpsy
chol
ogi
calcausesofcr
imehasl
ed
 977

t
o a gr
owi s on r
ng emphasi efor
mat
ion
r
at handet
hert err
encei
ntheol
dersense,
as
t
hebestwayt
opr
otectbot
hthei
ndi
vi
dual
cr
imi
nal hi
msel
f,and soci
etyf
rom t
he
i
nci
denceofcr
ime”
.Anal
yzet
hisst
atement
cr
it
ical
l
y. 10POI
NTS
KeyAnswer
:Byr
efor
mat
ionoft
hecr
imi
nal
i
s meant hi
s mor
al r
egener
ati
on, and
dev
elopi
ngt
hesenseofhonest
y.Aper
son,
who commi
ts a cr
ime and suf
fer
s
puni
shmentf
ort
hat
,comes back t
othe
soci
etyand l
i
ves i
n al
ong wi
th hi
s ot
her
f
ell
owbei
ngs.Theadv
ocat
esofr
efor
mat
ive
t
heor
y ai
m at t
he r
ehabi
l
itat
ion of t
he
cr
imi
nali
nthesoci
ety
.Thi
stheor
yadmi
ts
onl
ysucht
ypesofpuni
shment
swhi
char
e
educat
iveanddi
sci
pli
net
othecr
imi
nal
,not
t
hosewhi
chi
nfl
i
ctpai
nonhi
m.Ther
efor
e,
 978

puni
shmentmustai
m atmaki
ng a man
wor
thy ofl
i
ving i
nthe soci
ety
.Howev
er,
pur
elyr
efor
mat
ive puni
shment has t
he
di
sadv
ant
age ofdi
l
utes t
he pai
n oft
he
penal
ty.Andmaynotdet
ert
hecr
imi
nalf
rom
r
epeat
ingsi
mil
arcr
imeont
heot
herhandi
t
mayev
enencour
aget
hecr
imi
nalt
orepeat
hi
scr
imi
nal
behav
iour
.
Thepur
poseoft
hepuni
shmenti
stodet
er
t
hecr
imi
nalf
rom commi
tt
ingcr
imei
nfut
ure
andt
osetasanexampl
etot
hepr
ospect
ive
cr
imi
nal
s.I
tcar
ri
est
hemessaget
hatt
hose
who v
iol
atet
hel
aw wi
l
lbepuni
shed l
i
ke
wi
se.Thei
deai
sthatpuni
shmentwi
l
lcur
b
t
he cr
imi
nal act
ivi
ti
es of t
he pot
ent
ial
cr
imi
nal
s.St
rongl
y det
err
entpuni
shment
s
maybesuccessf
uli
nmai
ntai
ningt
hef
ull
i
nti
midat
ionv
alueoft
hepenal
ty.Howev
er,
it
 979

has t
he di
sadv
ant
age of r
est
ri
cti
ng t
he
chancesofr
efor
ming.Tool
engt
hyandt
oo
har
sh puni
shment
s i
n t
he name of
det
err
encemayhar
dent
hecr
imi
nali
nst
ead
ofr
efor
minghi
m.
Ther
efor
e,puni
shmentshoul
dbedesi
gned
i
neachandev
erycasebycar
eful
l
yincl
udi
ng
t
hedet
err
entaswel
lsr
efor
mat
iveel
ement
s.

3.a.Pet
tyof
fencesar
e al
so r
efer
red t
o as
‘
regul
ator
y of
fences’
, ‘
publ
i
c wel
far
e
of
fences’
etc.Whatdot
hesedi
ff
erentl
abel
s
si
gni
fyaboutt
henat
ureoft
heseof
fences?
5Poi
nts.
KeyAnswer
:Thepet
tyof
fencesor
igi
nat
ed
asr
esul
toft
heneedt
opr
otectt
hesoci
al
i
nter
esti
.e.t
he i
nter
estoft
he publ
i
cin
gener
al.Thenecessi
tyofsoci
alr
egul
ati
on
 980

ar
ose outoft
he gr
owi
ng compl
exi
ty of
soci
al l
i
fe. The speci
al r
egul
ator
y
l
egi
slat
ionssuchasexampl
esofsuchl
aws
may be, The Wei
ght
s and Measur
es
Pr
ocl
amat
ion, 1973, The Wi
l
d Li
fe
Conser
vat
ion Or
der
,1970,t
he Cur
rency
Pr
ocl
amat
ion,1942 (
Proc.No.31)
,the
Cur
rencyAmendmentPr
ocl
amat
ionof1947
(
Proc.No.99)
,roadt
raf
fi
crul
eset
c.,The
v
iol
ati
onsofsuchmandat
orypr
ovi
si
onsar
e
made puni
shabl
e mor
ein or
dert
o gi
ve
ef
fectsuchl
awst
hant
oinf
li
ctpai
nint
he
name ofpuni
shmenton t
he l
aw br
eaker
.
Ther
efor
e,t
heabov
esai
dnamessi
gni
fyt
hat
t
hese of
fences ar
efor t
he pur
pose of
r
egul
ati
onofsoci
alconducti
nthegener
al
i
nter
estoft
hecommuni
tyasopposedt
othe
pr
ivat
eint
erest
sofaspeci
fi
cvi
cti
m.
 981

b.Doal
lthegener
alpr
inci
plesandr
ulesof
t
heGener
alPar
toft
heCr
imi
nalCodeappl
y
t
othepet
tyof
fencesbyv
irt
ueofAr
ts3of
t
heCr
imi
nal
Codeand734oft
hePet
tyCode?
St
ate t
he except
ions, i
f any
.
5Poi
nts.

KeyAnswer
:No,al
lthegener
alpr
inci
ples
andr
ulesoft
heGener
alPar
toft
heCr
imi
nal
Codedonotappl
ytot
hepet
tyof
fences.The
f
oll
owi
ng ar
e some of t
he i
mpor
tant
di
ff
erences:
Pr
inci
plesofLi
abi
li
tyt
hatDi
ff
erf
rom t
he
Cr
imi
nalCode:Ar
t740:
I
ncaseofpet
tyof
fencesonl
ycompl
eted
of
fences ar
e puni
shabl
e.The st
ages of
pr
epar
ati
onandat
tempt
sar
enotpuni
shabl
e.
 982

I
nthesecasesonl
ypr
inci
palof
fender(
Art
32)i
spuni
shabl
e.I
nci
ter
s,co-
off
ender
s,and
accessor
iesaf
tert
hef
actar
enotpuni
shabl
e.
Eachof
fendershal
lbepuni
shedf
orhi
sown
act i
rr
espect
ive of t
he par
ti
ci
pat
ion of
anot
her
.Ar
t741/
3cl
ear
lyl
aysdownt
hatt
he
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyandl
i
abi
l
ityf
orpet
tyof
fences
shal
lal
way
sbei
ndi
vi
dual(
Art41and88)
.
Ther
eisno col
l
ect
iver
esponsi
bil
i
tyunder
t
hePet
tyCode.
Jur
idi
calper
sons ar
e al
so notl
i
abl
efor
i
nci
tementorcompl
i
cit
yrel
ati
ng t
o pet
ty
of
fences.A j
uri
dicalper
son i
spuni
shabl
e
onl
y when i
ts empl
oyee v
iol
ates l
aws,
r
egul
ati
onsordi
rect
ivesasapet
tyof
fender
i
naccor
dancewi
thAr
t32oft
heCr
imi
nal
Code.
 983

4.
a.Def
ine‘
tr
aff
icki
ngi
nwomenandmi
nor
s”.
Ar
ethe def
ini
ti
ons under t
he Et
hiopi
an
Cr
imi
nalCode i
n conf
ormi
ty wi
tht
hose
gi
venundert
hei
nter
nat
ionali
nst
rument
s?
5Poi
nts.
KeyAnswer
:TheEt
hiopi
anCr
imi
nalCode
deal
swi
tht
hecr
imeoft
raf
fi
cki
ngundert
wo
di
ff
erentheadsbasi
ng ont
hepur
poseof
t
hiscr
imi
nal
conduct
.Theyar
e:
1.
Traf
fi
cki
ngf
ort
hepur
poseoff
orcedl
abor
,
Ar
ts.597-
600
2.
Traf
fi
cki
ng f
ort
hepur
posesofpr
ost
it
uti
on,
Ar
ts.634-
638
b.Doest
heconsentofv
ict
im neut
ral
i
zet
he
cr
imeoft
raf
fi
cki
ng?I
sthepecuni
arygai
nof
t
he cr
imi
nalan essent
ialel
ementoft
he
cr
ime of t
raf
fi
cki
ng?
5Poi
nts.
 984

KeyAnswer
:No,t
heconsentofav
ict
imi
s
i
rr
elev
ant
.Thesecr
imesar
epuni
shabl
eev
en
wher
ether
eis consentoft
he v
ict
im or
wher
ether
eis no pecuni
ary gai
ntot
he
cr
imi
nal
. Ar
t. 597 does not ment
ion
‘
pecuni
ary gai
n’t
o t
he cr
imi
nal as an
essent
ialel
ement
.UnderAr
t.635‘
pecuni
ary
gai
n’i
soneoft
het
woal
ter
nat
ivepur
poses
oft
he cr
ime,t
he ot
herbei
ng t
o‘gr
ati
fy
anot
her
’.

AnnexI
I.Keyt
oSol
veaCasePr
obl
em:
Whi
l
esol
vi
ngacasepr
obl
em t
hest
udent
s
ar
erequi
redt
osy
stemat
ical
l
ydealwi
tht
he
f
act
s gi
ven t
othem keepi
ng cer
tai
n key
poi
ntsi
nthei
rmi
ndi
nor
dert
oachi
evet
hese
benef
ici
alr
esul
ts:
1.To hav
ecl
ari
tyi
npr
esent
ati
onoft
hei
r
 985

case,
and
2.Toav
oidmi
xi
ngupofpr
osecut
ionand
def
ensecases.
St
udent
s hav
ethi
s common pr
obl
em of
mi
xi
ngupofpr
osecut
ioncasewi
tht
hatof
def
ence.Theyshoul
dremembert
hatwhi
l
e
pr
epar
ing apr
osecut
ion caset
heyshoul
d
st
ickt
othatsi
deandchal
l
enget
hedef
ence
wi
tht
hei
rcont
ent
ions.Swi
tchi
ngt
odef
ence
poi
ntsi
nbet
weenr
efl
ect
sthei
runcer
tai
nty
andmakest
hei
rcaseweak.Thesamei
s
t
rue whi
l
e pr
epar
ing a def
ence case;t
he
st
udent shoul
d compl
etel
y expl
ore hi
s
chancesofdef
endi
nghi
scasebyi
dent
if
ying
di
ff
erentgr
oundst
oest
abl
i
sht
hei
nnocence
oft
heaccusedi
nar
ightcaseoratl
eastt
ry
t
oli
mithi
sli
abi
l
ityi
n a case wher
ethe
def
endant
’si
nvol
vementi
sobv
ious.
 986

I
.Bei
ngaPr
osecut
or:
Bef
ore pr
oceedi
ng t
o pr
epar
eyourcase
al
way
sreadt
hef
act
sthor
oughl
y,i
fneedbe
mor
ethanoncet
ocl
earanyl
i
nger
ingdoubt
s
aboutt
he f
act
siny
ourmi
nd.Not
ethe
names oft
he par
ti
es,dat
es,t
imi
ngs et
c.
per
fect
lyi
nachr
onol
ogi
calor
der(
accor
ding
t
otheor
derofoccur
rence)
.Thepr
osecut
ion
case shoul
d necessar
il
y consi
stoft
hree
i
mpor
tantpar
tsnamel
y,i
dent
if
icat
ionoft
he
conductunderspeci
fi
c pr
ovi
si
on of t
he
Speci
alPar
t,f
ixi
ngt
hecr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ityof
t
he accused and r
ecommendat
ion oft
he
sent
ence.
1.
Ident
if
icat
ionoft
heAccused’
sConduct
:
Thef
ir
stt
hingt
hatcomest
othemi
ndaf
ter
r
eadi
ng t
he f
act
sist
he speci
fi
c ki
nd of
cr
imet
hatt
heaccusedhascommi
tt
ed.I
tis
 987

t
hehar
mfulr
esul
tthatdi
rect
syout
othe
r
elev
antpr
ovi
sion;sayf
orexampl
eift
he
f
act
sincl
udet
heki
l
li
ngofahumanbei
ngi
t
wi
l
lbei
dent
if
iedas:
Acr
imeofhomi
cideAr
ts538-
543
Thespeci
fi
cty
peofhomi
ci
dei
.e.whet
her
i
ntent
ional
[Aggr
avat
ed
(
Art
.539)
,Or
dinar
y(Ar
t.540)orExt
enuat
ed
(
Art
.541)
]orNegl
i
genthomi
cide(
Art
.543)
At t
his st
age j
ust i
dent
if
icat
ion of t
he
conduct under t
he r
elev
ant pr
ovi
si
on i
s
suf
fi
cient
.
2.
Fixi
ngt
heCr
imi
nalLi
abi
li
tyoft
heAccused:
Essent
a. ialel
ement
soft
hecr
imei
dent
if
ied:
Themat
eri
alandmor
ali
ngr
edi
ent
soft
he
cr
ime i
n accor
dance wi
tht
he i
dent
if
ied
pr
ovi
sion oft
he Speci
alPar
thas t
o be
di
scussedher
ecl
ear
ly.Forex
ampl
e,i
fiti
sa
 988

case of aggr
avat
ed homi
ci
de,t
he f
act
s
shoul
dbeshownt
odi
scl
ose:
I
ntent
ionoft
heaccusedi
nter
msofAr
t.58,
At l
east one of t
he aggr
avat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancesi
nter
msofAr
t.
539/
1/aorb
Causat
b. ionofcr
ime:
I
fthef
act
sincl
udemor
ethanonecause
t
heni
thast
obeshownt
hatt
heaccused’
s
actwast
heact
ualandadequat
ecausef
or
t
he har
mfulconsequence i
.e.‘
deat
h ofa
humanbei
ng’asi
nthecaseoft
heexampl
e
we ar
e consi
der
ing. Thi
s i
s done i
n
accor
dance wi
tht
he r
ules l
aid down i
n
Ar
t.
24oft
heGener
alpar
t.
Al
way
str
ytogi
vesuf
fi
cientr
easoni
ngf
or
y
ourst
and.Yes/No answer
s ar
e nei
ther
usef
ulf
orscor
ing maxi
mum mar
ks nor
usef
ulf
ory
ourf
utur
epr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ion.
 989

Thi
swi
l
lhel
pyou t
o wr
it
eni
cer
easoned
j
udgment
sofacademi
caswel
laspr
act
ical
i
mpor
tancei
nfut
ure.
3.
Recommendat
ion of t
he Quant
um of
Puni
shment
:
The l
astand v
eryi
mpor
tantpar
toft
he
pr
osecut
ioncasei
sthati
tshoul
dcont
aina
wel
lreasoned r
ecommendat
ion f
or a
speci
fi
c‘quant
um’ofpuni
shment
.Thoughi
t
i
sthe j
udge t
hathas t
he f
inalwor
din
deci
ding t
he nat
ure and l
engt
h of t
he
sent
encet
obegi
ven,i
tshoul
dfor
m par
tof
t
hepr
osecut
ion’
srequest
.Forexampl
e,i
na
case of aggr
avat
ed homi
ci
de y
ou wi
l
l
concl
ude t
hat t
he accused be gi
ven a
sent
enceofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
i
fe
unl
ess t
her
e ar
e conv
inci
ng gr
ounds f
or
demandi
ng a deat
h penal
ty.You hav
eto
 990

suppor
t y
our sent
ence wi
th suf
fi
ci
ent
r
easoni
ngt
oowhi
chwi
l
lst
andasananswer
f
or t
he demands of t
he def
ence f
or
mi
ti
gat
ionofpuni
shment
.
The sent
ence r
ecommendat
ion shoul
d
i
ncl
udeaggr
avat
ingci
rcumst
ances,
prev
ious
conv
ict
ions,i
fany
,andadescr
ipt
ionoft
he
di
sposi
ti
onoft
heaccused.
I
I.Bei
ngaDef
enceCounsel
:
Nor
mal
l
ythedef
encecasebegi
nswi
tha
‘
plea ofnotgui
l
ty’wher
eint
he accused
deni
esal
lthechar
gesmadeagai
nsthi
m.
Thedef
encemaybasei
tscaseonany
oneof
t
hef
oll
owi
nggr
ounds:
1.
AbsenceofLegalI
ngr
edi
ent
:
I
tmaybeshownt
hatt
hehar
m causedi
snot
one of t
hose whi
ch ar
e speci
fi
cal
l
y
pr
ohi
bit
ed undert
he Speci
alPar
toft
he
 991

Code.Forexampl
e,‘
rapi
ng’i
sacr
imeunder
t
he Et
hiopi
an Cr
imi
nal Code wher
e as
‘
for
nicat
ion’
isnot
.Ther
efor
e,unl
esst
her
eis
ast
rongpr
oofofandel
ementof‘
for
ce’t
he
conductcannotbeacr
ime.Thepr
inci
pleof
l
egal
i
typr
ohi
bit
sthecr
eat
ionofcr
imesby
anal
ogy(
Art
.2/
3).Or
,
2.
AbsenceofMat
eri
alI
ngr
edi
ent
:
a.
By pr
ovi
ng t
he absence of‘
cause’and
‘
eff
ect
’rel
ati
onshi
p:
I
nacasewher
esev
eralcausesar
epr
esent
l
i
kepr
ecedi
ng,
concur
rentori
nter
veni
nget
c.
(
Art
.24)‘
theact
/conductoft
heaccused’
maybepr
ovedt
obe‘
nott
heone’t
hathad
br
oughtaboutt
her
esul
tor t
hati
twast
he
‘
i
nadequat
eone’t
ohav
ebr
oughtaboutt
he
har
mful
resul
tinquest
ion.
You need t
o show f
act
s suppor
ti
ng y
our
 992

ar .Or
gument ,
b.
Bypl
eaof‘
ali
bi’
:
TheLat
inexpr on ‘
essi al
ibi
’li
ter
all
ymeans
‘
el
sewher
e’.I
tisapl
eabyaper
sonaccused
ofanof
fencet
hathewas‘
el
sewher
e’…t
hat
hav
ingr
egar
dtot
het
imeandpl
acewhen
andwher
ehei
sal
l
egedt
ohav
ecommi
tt
ed
t
hecr
ime,
hecoul
dnothav
ebeenpr
esent
.

The pl
ea ofal
i
bipost
ulat he ‘
es t physi
cal
i
mpossi
bil
i
tyoft
hepr
esence’
oft
heaccused
att
hesceneoft
hecr
imebyr
easonofhi
s
pr
esence atanot
herpl
ace.I
tshoul
d be
shownt
hatt
heaccusedwassof
arawayat
t
he r
elev
antt
ime t
hathe coul
d notbe
pr
esent
edatt
hepl
acewher
ethecr
imewas
commi
tt
ed.
Not
e:Whi
l
e sol
vi
ng a hy
pot
het
icalcase
 993

al
‘ibi
’canber
aisedonl
yint
hel
i
ghtoft
he
gi
venf
act
s.Youcannotmodi
fyt
hef
act
sby
i
magi
nat
ion.Youcannotassumet
hef
act
s
unl
essy
ouar o.Or
easkedt ,
3.
AbsenceofMor
alI
ngr
edi
ent
:
a.
ByPr
oofofI
ncapaci
ti
es:Ar
ts.48-
56
The def
ence may cl
aim any
one of t
he
i
ncapaci
ti
es l
i
ke i
nsani
ty,i
ntoxi
cat
ion or
i
nfancy t
o pr
ovet
he i
ncapabi
l
ity oft
he
def
endantt
ofor
mthegui
l
tymi
ndnecessar
y
t
obr
ingaboutt
hehar
mfulconsequencesi
n
quest
ion.Her
eagai
nyouhav
eanobl
i
gat
ion
t
osuppor
tyourcont
ent
ionsi
nthel
i
ghtof
t
hef
act
sgi
venandt
hepr
inci
plesgov
erni
ng
suchadef
encebyr
efer
ri
ngt
other
elev
ant
pr
ovi
si aw.Or
onsofl ,
b.
ByPr
oofofanAf
fi
rmat
iveDef
ence;
Art
s.68
-
81
 994

i
) Wher
ejust
if
iabl
e-Nopuni
shmentatal
l:
Wher
eal
ltheessent
ialcondi
ti
onsandt
he
l
i
mit
ati
ons speci
fi
ed under t
he r
elev
ant
pr
ovi
sionar
eful
fi
ll
ed,t
hedef
encecancl
aim
compl
etei
mmuni
tyf
rom puni
shment
.
i
i) Wher
eexcusabl
e-Mi
ti
gat
ionofpuni
shment
:
Wher
etheconductoft
heaccuseddoesnot
f
ulf
il
lthe r
equi
rement
sfor an absol
ute
j
ust
if
icat
ionaf
reemi
ti
gat
ionofpuni
shment
pur
suantt
oAr
t180canbecl
aimed.
I
II
.Bei
ngaJudge:
a.
Anal
ysi
sofi
ssuesonbot
hsi
des:
I
fyou ar
e asked t
o deci
de t
he case
assumi
ngy
our
sel
ftobeaj
udge,
youhav
eto
br
ief
ly di
scuss bot
h pr
osecut
ion and
def
encecasesandt
hencomet
oar
easoned
deci
sionwhi
chcananswert
hecont
ent
ions
ofbot
hthepar
ti
es.
 995

b.
Det
ermi
nat
ionofpuni
shment
:
Thi
s exer
cise shoul
d be done car
eful
l
y
f
oll
owi
ng i
mpor
tantpr
inci
ples r
elat
ing t
o
det
ermi
nat
ion ofpuni
shmenti
ncor
por
ated
i
nAr
ts.87and88.Dueat
tent
ionshoul
dbe
gi
vent
otheaggr
avat
ing,mi
ti
gat
ingaswel
l
as combi
nat
ion of bot
h ki
nds of
ci
rcumst
ances (
Art
s.82-
86,and179-
189)
.
Suppor
ti
ng y
oursent
ence wi
th suf
fi
ci
ent
r
easoni
ngi
sthemosti
mpor
tantpar
tofy
our
j
udgment
.

THEEND