Chapter -3
Plant Kingdom
Artificial
•Given by Linneaus.
•Based on natural affinities
among the organisms
•Based mainly on Vegetative
character or on the androecium
structure
Demerits
•Separated closely related species
as they were based on a few
characteristics
•It gave equal weightage to
vegetative and sexual
characters.This is not acceptable
because vegetative characters are
more easily affected by
environment
Numerical Taxonomy
•Carried out using computer
and is based on all observable
characteristics
•Number and codes are
assigned to all the characters
and the data are then
proceed.
Classification
Natural
•Given by George Bentham
and Joseph Dalton Hooker.
•Based on natural affinities
among organisms and
consider both external and
internal features like
ultrastructure, anatomy,
embryology,phytochemistry
Blueberry
Taxonomy
Cytotaxonomy
•Based on cytological
information like chromosome
number , structure and
behaviour.
Phylogenetic
•Based on evolutionary
relationship between the
various oraganism
•This assumes that
organisms belonging to
the same taxa have a
common ancestor
Chemotaxonomy
•It is based on the chemical
constituents of the plant
 Plant Kingdom

Algae Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms.

Algae
•Algae are chlorophyll -bearing,simple,thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both freshwater and
marine ) oraganism
•The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial (Volvox) and filamentous
(spirogyra)

Reproduction -
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•ASexual - Production of difference types of spores (mainly zoospores) .They are flagellated (motile)
a•Sexuand germinate to give rise to new plant
•Sexual-Takes place when through fusion of two gametes
(i)Isogamous- Gametes are similar in size they can be flagellated (Ulothrix) and Non-flagellated gametes
(Spirogyra)
(ii)Anisogamous - Gametes dissimilar in size (Eudorina)
(iii)Oogamous-Fusion between one large non-motile female gamete and smaller motile male gamete
(Volvox).

Economic importance -
•At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by Algae
•Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment
•They are primary producer of energy-rich compound which form the basis of food cycles of all aquatic
animals
•70 spieces of marine algae are used as food like Porphyra ,Laminaria and Sargassum
•Hydrocolloids like algin (brown algae) and carrageen(red algae) are used commercially
•Agar obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in preparation of ice-cream
•Chlorella are rich in protein and used as food supplements even by space travellers

Algae

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae

Chlorophyceae Ulothrix

•Commonly called green algae because grass green due to dominance of pigment chlorophyll a and b
•Plany body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous
•Choroplasts may be discoid,plat -like , reticulate,cup-shaped ,spiralor ribbon-shaped in different
species
•Storage body - pyrenoids . Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch, sone also store food as oil
droplets
•They have rigid cell wall of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer of pectose.
Reproduction -
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual-Flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia
Chara
•Sexual-May be Isogamous, Anisogamous,Oogamous
Example -Volvox,chara, Spirogyra etc.
Volvox
Phaeophyceae
•Commonly called brown algae and found mainly in marine habitat
•They can be simple branched, filamentous form (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as
kelps(can grow a height of 100meters)
•Pigments-Chlorophyll a,c, carotenoids and xanthophylls
•Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon the amount of
xanthophylls ,fucoxanthin present in them. Laminaria
•Storage body-Laminarin or mannitol (from of complex carbohydrates)
•Cellulosic cell wall covered by algin
•Plant body has -
(i)Holdfast -help plant to attached to the substratum
(ii)Stipe-Stalk
(iii)Frond-leaf like photosynthetic organ Fucus
Reproduction -
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual-Pyriform (Pear-shaped )biflagellate zoospores and have two unequal laterally attached
flagella
•Sexual- May be Isogamous, Anisogamous,Oogamous,Union may takes place in water or in oogonium
Gametes are pyriform and bear two laterally attached flagella
Example-Ectocarpus, Laminaria and Fucus

Rhodophyceae
•Commonly called red algae because the predominance of the red pigment,r-phycoerythrin in
their body
•Majority are found in marine habitat with greater concentration found in the warmer areas
•Occur in both well-lighted region close to the surface of water and also ar great depths in Ocean
where relatively little light penetrates
•Thallibof most red alage are multicellular
•Food storage as floridean starch (very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure)
Reproduction-
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual-Non-motile spores
•Sexual-Non-motile spores gametes (Oogamous), a
ccompanied by complex post fertilization development
Example-Gracilaria, Porphyra Polysiphonia Porphyra
 Bryophytes
•Also know as amphibians of plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on
water for sexual reproduction
•Commonly grow in moist shaded areas in the hills
•It has thallus-like and prostrate or erect ,and attached to the substratum by unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids
•Lack true roots,stem or leaves but may possess root -like,leaf-like or stem -like structure
•Main plant body of the bryophytes is haploid (gametophyte)
•Sex organ are multicellular
Male- Antheridium, produce biflagellted antherozoids
Female- Archegonium, produces a single cell
•Antherozoids are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium , and they fuses
together to form zygote
•Zygote do not undergo reduction division immediately,they produce a multicellular body
sporophyte.Some cells of the sporophyte undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores these spores
germinate to produce gametophyte.
Sporophyte - Not free living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyteband derives nourishment
from it

Economic importance -
•Spiecies of Sphagum provide peat used as fuel and as packing material for trans-shipment of living
material as they hold water
•Mosses (along with lichens) are of great ecological importance,they decompose rocks making substrate
suitable for growth of higher plants .Plays an important role in plant succession on bare rocks /soil
•Help in preventing soil erosion as they form a dense mats on soil

Bryophytes

Liverworts
Mosses
Liverworts
•Usually grow in moist,shady habitats, such as banks of streams, marshy ground,damp soil,bark
soil,bark of trees and deep in the woods
•Plant body of a liverworts is thalloid,thallus is dorsoventral and closely appressed to the substrate.
•Leafy members have tiny leaf like appendages in two rows on the stem-like structure
Reproduction-
•Asexual - (i) Fragmentation of thalli
(ii) Formation of specialised structure called gemmae
Gemmae get detached from the parent body and germinate to new individual
Gemmae-Green , multicellular, asexual buds, which developes in small receptacles called Gemma cup
located on the thalli
•Sexual - Male and female sex organ are produced either on the same or on different thalli
•Sporophyte is differentiated into feet ,seta and capsule.After meiosis,spores are produced within the
capsule and spores germinate to form free-living gametophytes.
Example -Marchantia
Female Male
Marchantia Marchantia

Mosses
•Predominant stage of the life cycle of moss is gametophytes which consists of two stages -
(i) Protonem- Develops directly from a spores.It is a creeping,green, branched and frequently
filamentous stage
(ii) Leafy stage -Develops from secondary Protonema- as a lateral bud, consists of upright, slender
axes bearing spirally arranged leaves and they get attached to the soil through multicellular and
branched rhizoids.This stages bears sex organ
Reproduction -
•Vegetative- Fragmentation and budding in the secondary Protonema
•Sexual-Sex organ antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.After
fertilization,the zygote Develops into sporophyte, consisting of a foot,seta and capsule .The sporophyte
and spore dispersal mechanism are more elaborate than in liverworts
Example -Funaria and Sphagum
 Pteridophytes (Snakes of plant kingdom) Fern
•Evolutionary,they are the first terrestrial plant with vascular tissues
•Found in cool,damp,shady places though some may flourish well in Sandy -soil condition
•Main plant body is sporophyte (2n),with true root,stem and leaves,all these organs possess well-
differentiated vascular tissues

•Leaves are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns

•Sporophytes bear sporangia subtended by sporophyll, which may be compact called strobilli or cones as in
Selaginella

Meiosis
Sporangia Sporemother cell Spores
(2n) (2n) (n)
•Spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous,small but multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic
thalloid gametophytes called prothallus (required cool, damp, shady places to grow) •Because of this specific
requirement and the need of water for fertilization the living pteridophytes is limited and narrow to
geographical regions.
•Gametphytes bear sex organs
Male-Antheridia
Female-Archegonia

•As told earlier water is required for fertilization and fusion of male gamete with egg present in the
archegonium result in the formation of zygote
•Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte which is the dominant phase of
pteridophytes.
•Majority are homosporous but genera like Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous
Homosporous-Spores are of similiar kinds
Heterosporous-Spores are of two type
(i) Macrospores (large)
(ii) Microspores (small)
•Macrospores and Microspores germinate and give rise to female and male gametophytes and female
gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophyte, zygote develops into young embryos within female
gametophytes .This event is a precursor to seed habit consider an important step in evolution

Economic importance -
•Used as medical purpose
•Soil - binders
•Frequently grown as ornamental
Pteridophytes

Psilopsida Lycopsida Sphenopsida Pteropsida

Psilotum Selaginella Equisteum Pteris
 Gymnosperms

•Gymnosperms includes medium- sized trees or tall tress and shrubs (The gaint redwood tree Sequoia is one of
the tallest tree species)
•Plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and reamin exposed,both before and after
fertilization,seed that develop post- fertilization are also not covered (naked )

•Roots are generally tap roots,some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus) while
some (Cycas) specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen fixation Cyanobacteria.
•Leaves may be simple or compound,In cycas the pinnate Leaves persist for a few years
•Stems are unbranched(Cycas) or branched (Pinus)
•Neddle - like leaves to reduce surface area,thick cuticle and sunken stomata to reduce water loss these types of
well-adaptation of leaves have been seen in gymnosperms that make them withstand extreme temperatures,
humidity and wind

Needle -like leave inPinus adaptation to reduce surface area

.
V. •They are heterosporous

. Two kinds of (microspores and megaspore) are produced within sporangia

. that are borne on sporophylls which are arranged spirally along an axis
. to form cones
. Sporophylls

Pinus

Microsporophylls. Megasporophylls

Male cone. Female cone

•Cone bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia are called macrosporangiates strobilli or female
come
•Megaapore mother cell is differentiated from one of the cells of the nucleus it is protecting by envelope
and the composite structure is called an ovule
•The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four megaspore
•Female gametophytes bear two or more archegonia or female sex oragns. The multicellular Female
gametophytes is retained within megasporangia
•The microspores develope into a male gametophytes generation, which is highly reduced and is confined to
only a limited number of cells called pollen grains (developes within microsporangia)

Sporangia

Microsporangia (2n) Megasporangia (2n)

Pollen grains (n) Meiosis of MMC(Megaspore mother cell)

4 Megaspore
One develops into Female gametophytes (n)
 Gymnosperms Trees

Monoecious Dioecious

Male and female cone Male and female cone

are borne on same are borne on different
treeExample-Pinus trees Example -Cycas
.

•Male and female gametophytes do not have an independent free living existence
•Pollen grains are carried by air current and come in contact with opening of Ovule
•Fertillisation is by pollen- tube formation which carries male gametes
•Zygote forms embryo and ovules are naked seeds

Ginkgo
(Living fossil)
Angiosperms

•Angiosperms are flowering plants in which pollen grains and ovules are developed in specialist structure
called flower
•Seeds are enclosed in fruits
•They are exceptionally large group of plants occurring in wide range of habitat and size (Smallest -
Wolffia to tall trees Eucalyptus)

Economic importance -
•Food
•Fuel
•Medicines etc

Angiosperms

.
Diocotyledon. Monocotyledon.
Q.What is the basis of classification of algae?
Algae are classified into three main classes – Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae,
and Rhodophyceae. These divisions are based on the following factors:
(a) Major photosynthetic pigments present
(b) Form of stored food
(c) Cell wall composition
(d) Number of flagella and position of
Q.Write a note on economic importance of algae
Economic importance of algae
Algae have diverse economic uses. They perform half of the total carbon dioxide-fixation on earth
by photosynthesis, acting as the primary producers in aquatic habitats.
(a) Food source: Many species of marine algae such as Porphyra, Sargassum, and Laminaria are
edible. Chlorella and Spirulina are rich in proteins. Thus, they are used as food supplements.
(b) Commercial importance: Agar is used in the preparation of jellies and ice-cream. It is obtained
from Gelidium and Gracilaria. Carrageenin is used as an emulsifier in chocolates, paints, and
toothpastes. It is obtained from the red algae.
(c) Medicines: Many red algae such as Corallina are used in treating worm infections.
Q.Describe the important characteristics of gymnosperms.
Important features of gymnosperms:
1. The term gymnosperm refers to plants with naked seeds (gymnos – naked, sperma – seeds), i.e.,
the seeds of these plants are not enclosed in fruits.
2. The plant-body ranges from medium to tall trees and shrubs. The giant redwood tree Sequoia
is one of the tallest trees in the world.
3. The root system consists of tap roots. The coralloid roots present in Cycas are associated with
nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.
4. The stem can be branched (as in Pinus and Cedrus) or un-branched (as in Cycas).
5. The leaves can be simple (as in Pinus)or compound (pinnate in Cycas). The leaves are needle-
like, with a thick cuticle and sunken stomata. These help in preventing water loss.
6. Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They bear two kinds of spores – microspores and megaspores.
7. Flowers are absent. The microsporophylls and megasporophylls are arranged to form compact
male and female cones.
8. Pollination occurs mostly through wind and pollen grains reach the pollen chamber of the
ovule through the micropyle.
9. The male and female gametophytes are dependent on the sporophyte.
10. The seeds contain haploid endosperms and remain uncovered.
Q.How are the male gametophytes and female gametophytes of pteridophytes and
gymnosperms different?
The male gametophytes in the pteridophytes are known as anthurium and are motile. At the same
time, the female gametophyte of pteridophytes is not enclosed in the ovule.
While the female gametophyte in a gymnosperm is independent and enclosed in an ovule, the male
gametophyte is non-motile, i.e. they are not flagellated in nature.

NOTE: Worksheet (Important

questions of all typology with
answers) is provided as a seperate
PDF on website padhleakshay.com