UNIT - I

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk is one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. All
mammals produce milk after the birth of the young ones and man uses milk of
many animals as his food. The cow is the most important of all these animals as
supplier of food. Buffalo and goat milk is also used.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE

Milk is a complex mixture of lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and many other

organic compounds and inorganic salts dissolved or dispersed in water. The
most variable component of milk is fat followed by protein. The composition of
milk varies with the species, breed, diet, lactational period and interval between
milking. There is individual variation also.

 Fat -

Buffalo's milk contains 6.5 per cent fat Cow's milk contains 4.1 per cent fat.
Milk fat or butter fat is of great economical and nutritive value. The flavor of
milk is due to milk fat. Milk is a true emulsion of oil-in-water. The fat globules
are stabilized by a surrounding membrane composed of proteins, phospholipids
and cholesterol. Fat globules are visible under a microscope. Each globule of fat
is surrounded by a thin layer which is composed of a lipid-protein complex and
a small amount of carbohydrate. The lipid portion includes both phospholipids
and triglycerides. Milk fat is composed mainly of triacylglycerol’s which are
present as an emulsion in which the fatt globules are stabilized by a surrounding
membrane composed of proteins, phospholipids and cholesterol. The fat
globules also contain small amounts of cholesterol esters and fat-soluble
vitamins and provitamin mainly A, D and B-carotene.

Fat globules vary widely in size from 2 to 10 um (micro meters) and in number
3x10 per ml. The larger fat granules come to the surface of milk more quickly
due to low specific gravity and this can be observed in the transportation of
milk.

Milk fat absorbs volatile odour very readily. Milk, butter and cream should not
be exposed strong odours.

 Proteins -

Casein: Casein constitutes 80 per cent of the total nitrogen in milk. It is

precipitated on the acidification of milk to pH 4.6 at 20°C. The remaining whey
protein constitutes lactoglobulin, lactoalbumin. Milk protein contains proteoses,
peptones and milk enzymes.

Casein is classified as a phosphor protein because of the phosphoric acid that is

contained in its molecular structure. At the normal acidity of fresh milk (about
pH 6.6), casein is largely combined through the phosphoric acid part of its
structure with calcium caseinate. Hence, casein occurs in milk as a colloidal
protein calcium phosphate complex. Casein is also a glycoprotein. Glutamic
acid is the predominant one in casein. Proline, aspartic acid, leucine, lysine and
valine are also present. Casein is a good source of essential amino acids. Casein
contains 8.2 per cent calcium and 5.7 per cent carbohydrates. Casein can also be
separated from milk by the addition of rennin, an enzyme secreted by the young
calves.

Whey proteins: Whey proteins are made up of a-lacto albumin and ß-lacto
globulin, serum albumin the immunoglobulin’s, enzymes and proteoses,
peptones. B-lacto globulin accounts for about 50 per cent of total whey proteins.
These are not precipitated by acid or rennin; they can be coagulated by heat.
Whey also contains small amounts of lactoferrin and serum transferrin. By a
process involving ultrafiltration, whey protein concentrate is produced. Whey
protein isolates are also produced. It can be given in lactose intolerance.

 Carbohydrate -

Milk contains 4-5 per cent carbohydrate. The chief carbohydrate present in milk
is lactose, a disaccharide, although trace amounts of glucose, galactose and
other sugars are also present. Lactose gives on hydrolysis glucose and galactose,
Lactose has only one sixth the sweetness of sucrose and one third-one fourth of
its solubility in water. When milk is heated, lactose reacts with protein and
develops a brown color. The development of brown color is due to
nonenzymatic browning. It is called reaction. The acid fermentation is used in
making butter, cheese and curd.

 Minerals -

Phosphates, citrates, sulphates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium

and magnesium are present. These salts influence the condition and stability of
the proteins, especially the casein fraction. Copper and iron are important in the
development of off flavors in milk and milk products. In addition to this, milk
contains trace elements like zinc, aluminium, molybdenum and iodine.

 Enzymes -
The enzymes found in milk can originate from the mammary glands or may be
released by contaminating bacteria. Alkaline phosphatase exists as lipoprotein
and is distributed between the lipid and aqueous phases.

This enzyme is inactivated by normal pasteurization procedures and its activity

is tested to determine the effectiveness of pasteurization. More than one type of
lipase occurs in milk. Milk lipase is responsible for the development of rancid
flavors in milk. Bacterial lipase is very resistant to heat and can cause serious
quality defects.

Lipases may be important in the development of desirable flavors in some

cheeses

Xanthin oxidase occurs in the fat globule membrane. It is a conjugated protein

complexed with FAD, iron and molybdenum. The enzyme degradation of FAD
gives FMN and riboflavin. The riboflavin content of milk may thus be due to
xanthin oxidase. Xanthine oxidase can catalyze the oxidation of aldehydes
which are some of the aroma constituents in fermented dairy products. The
enzyme is not destroyed by pasteurization.

 Color -

White color of milk is caused by the reflection of light by the colloidally-

dispersed casein, calcium and phosphorus. Yellowish color of milk is due to the
presence of carotene and riboflavin. Fat-soluble carotenes are found in milk fat,
riboflavin is water soluble which can be visible clearly in whey water.

 Flavor and aroma -

Milk is slightly sweet because of its lactose content. Flavor sensation in mouth
is due to fit protein and some of the salts such as calcium phosphate. The slight
aroma of fresh milk is produced by a number of low molecular weight
compounds such as acetone, acetaldehyde, dimethyl sulphide and short chain
fatty acids. Some of the volatile compounds to the flavor of milk are unique to
the far portion of milk. Boiling changes the flavor of fresh milk more than
pasteurization.

Oxidized flavor can result from the oxidation of phospholipids in the milk.
Since traces of copper accelerate the development of oxidized flavor, copper
containing equipment is not used in dairies. Some of the poly-unsaturated fatty
acids are particularly susceptible to auto - oxidation in the presence of oxygen
and unpleasant flavor substances are produced.
Off flavor in milk may be influenced by the health of the cow or the feeds that
are consumed by the cow, action of bacteria, chemical changes in milk, or the
absorption of foreign flavors after the milk is drawn.

Off flavors are also produced when milk is exposed to light. In this reaction,
tryptophan and riboflavin may be involved and their content decreases when the
off-flavor develops. Anything that alters the membrane and permits contact of
the lipases with the fat will promote rancidity and off flavor.

MICROBIAL SPOILAGE - Milk is an excellent medium for the growth of

micro-organisms. The odour of milk is due to the activity of the micro-
organisms. Milk can be contaminated from the udders to the vessels. Good
hygienic conditions are to be used at all levels of milk handling to keep the
bacterial count level low. Freshly drawn milk is cooled immediately to 4°C to
arrest microbial growth or heated to boiling to destroy them. If raw milk is
placed at room temperature a number of fermentative changes take place
Curdling may occur due to lactic acid produced by bacteria. Some bacteria
produce in addition to acid some gaseous products while others bring about
proteolysis of casein resulting in off flavor and unpleasant odour. There are also
bacteria which bring about ropiness in milk. Milk undergoes predictable
changes in step succession during spoilage.

Steps involved in spoilage of milk

Growth of lactococcus lactis

Additional and production

Growth of more acid tolerant organisms such as lactobacillus

Accumulation of lactic acid

Yeasts and moulds become dominant

 Degrade the accumulated lactic acid

Acidity gradually decreases

Protein digesting bacteria become active

Development of putrid odour and bitterness

Milk loses opacity

When acid is increased in milk, moulds and yeasts present in milk flourish.
They utilize the acid and bring about chemical changes producing an alkaline
condition. Tuberculosis, typhoid fever, gastroenteritis and diphtheria organisms
may be present in contaminated milk. Some micro-organisms bring about
desirable changes by forming volatile acid like acetic acids and control the
flavor and aroma. These are used in making butter, curds and other fermented
products.

Milk processing

Milk Pasteurization - Milk pasteurization is the process of heating milk (or

milk product) to a predetermined temperature for a specified period without re-
contamination during the entire process. The predetermined temperature
usually depends on the heat resistance of spoilage microorganisms that the
pasteurization program is targeting to destroy.
It helps to produce milk that has initial low bacterial count, good flavor and
satisfactory keeping qualities. There are three operations of milk processing
and they are clarification, pasteurization and homogenization.

There is a general and urgent need for rapid procedures, applicable to process
control, to monitor food safety and quality. Pasteurization is a process in which
certain packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juice) are
treated with mild heat, usually less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate
pathogens and extend shelf life. The process safeguards foods by destroying or
inactivating organisms that contribute to spoilage, including vegetative bacteria
but not bacterial spores. The process was named after the French scientist
Louis Pasteur, whose research in the 1880s demonstrated that thermal
processing would inactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine. Today,
pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing
industries to achieve food preservation and food safety.
1. Milk chilling: Chilling is not a pasteurization process but it is a
necessary step when dealing with large volumes of milk. Milk leaves the
cow’s udder at temperatures above the ambient, which encourages rapid
bacterial multiplication that speeds up spoilage. However, reducing the
temperatures to between 2° C to 5° C arrests bacterial growth and
metabolism. This provides a head start at keeping the quality before proper
pasteurization commences.
2. Pre-heating (regeneration) and Standardization Stage: After
bulking, the chilled milk is heated to about 40°C to facilitate easy
separation of butterfat during standardization. The system uses
regenerative heating, i.e., it uses the heat of the already pasteurized milk
to heat up the incoming chilled milk. The chilled milk, in a counter-
current flow, cools down the pasteurized milk. The purpose of
standardization is to obtain a product with uniform content of
butter-fat.
3. Clarification stage: Clarification is essential for removing all foreign
matter from the product. Large solid particles are removed by straining
the milk through tubular metallic filters. A centrifugal clarifier (not the
one used for standardization) is used to remove all soil and sediments
from milk. The filters usually fitted in parallel twins permits continuous
processing as one can be cleaned while the other is running. Clean the
filters regularly (between 2 to 10 operational hours depending on the
level of dirt) to avoid the growth of bacteria.
4. Pasteurization: Pasteurization derives its name from the French scientist
Louis Pasteur who, found that heating of certain liquids to a high
temperature improved their keeping quality. In general terms, it is the
heating of milk to a temperature which destroys organisms responsible for
tuberculosis and fever and nearly all the other micro-organisms present in
that product without seriously affecting the composition or properties of the
product. Pasteurization should be followed by immediate cooling of the
product to the temperature sufficiently low to check the growth of micro-
organisms which are resistant to the temperature used. At present,
pasteurization is considered as an essential feature in the manufacture of
butter, ice-cream and also in cheese industries. Pasteurization also
inactivates some of the natural like lipase.
Pasteurization utilizes heat from steam to raise the temperatures of the milk
from about 60°C to the required 72°C that is effective to kill the
Clostridium botulinum spores. The steam exchanges heat with the milk
across the PHE plates in a counter current motion. In the end, if this
section, there is a temperature sensor, which controls the flow diversion
valve. Any milk that does not attain the required temperature is diverted
 back to the heating section until it attains the required temperatures.

A. Holding or Batch System/ Low-Temperature Long Time

(LTLT): The holding system consists in bringing the milk or cream
to a temperature usually 65°C and holding at that point for at
least 30 minutes followed by rapid cooling A higher temperature is
sometimes used in which case the time of holding may be
shortened. For example, holding at 68.3°C for 20 minutes. Careful
control of both temperature and time of heating is important. In
more recent years it is found that the organism causing Q fever,
coxiella burnetti, is slightly more resistant than the tuberculosis
organism and required a treatment of 63°C for 30 minutes to ensure
its destruction. The extended holding time causes the alteration
in the milk protein structure and taste.
B. High Temperature Short Time Method (HTST) or the
Continuous System: The machines used are so constructed as to
make possible a continuous operation and for this reason the system
is called as "continuous flow or flash pasteurizer." The system
depends upon the raising of the temperature of the milk to at least
72°C for 15 seconds as it passes through the machine. This is
followed by quick cooling. This method does not impart cooked
flavor and cream line is not affected.
C. Ultra High Temperature System: This UHTS system results in a
complete pasteurization of milk. In this system, milk is held for 3
seconds at 93.4°C - 135°C or for one second at 149.5°C. This
system is also used extensively for the treatment of milk or cream
in dairy industries. This product has a longer shelf life than milk
pasteurized by other methods. After pasteurization, the milk is
cooled rapidly to lower temperatures. There is a more pronounced
cooked flavor to UHT milk. Pasteurized milk is not sterile. It must
be quickly cooled following pasteurization to prevent multiplication
of surviving bacteria.

Role of Phosphatase in Pasteurization: Raw milk contains alkaline

phosphatase. This enzyme serves as a built-in indicator by which the
adequacy of pasteurization may be gauged. This enzyme his heat destruction
characteristic that closely approximates the time, temperature, exposures of
proper pasteurization. Therefore, if alkaline phosphatase activity beyond a
certain level is found in pasteurized milk it is evidence of inadequate
processing. This enzyme has the ability to liberate phenol from phenol
phosphoric acid compound. The liberated phenol gives a deep blue color
with certain organic compounds. If the milk is incubated it does not give
blue color with the indicator it means the pasteurization is complete.

Disodium phenyl phosphate phenol + phosphate

(end product)
(Substrate) phosphatase

So sensitive is this test that it gives positive in the presence of 0.1 per cent raw
milk added or if the pasteurization temperature is less by 1 "F.

5. Standardization stage: It is important to standardize milk fat to ensure

that you end up with a product of consistent quality in the market.
Different consumers prefer different products. There are customers who
will consume skim milk only while there are those who will take low-fat
milk. There are those who will take standardized milk while there are
those who prefer high-fat milk. Standardization is necessary to ensure
that all the customers are catered for. Again, it is during the process of
standardization that you get to separate the butterfat that is used for
making cream and other fat-based products such as butter and ghee.
6. Cooling/chilling section: After regenerative cooling of pasteurized milk,
it moves to the cooling section of the PHE where chilled water/PHE
coolant lowers the temperature of pasteurized milk to 4°C. The chilled
milk is then pumped to the packaging machines for aseptic packaging and
subsequent storage in the cold room.

7. Homogenization -

The process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum by
mechanical treatment and rendering the mixture homogeneous is
homogenization. This is achieved by passing warm milk of cream through a
small aperture under high pressure and velocity. Milk and cream have fat
globules that vary from 0.1 to 20 um in diameter.

The fat globules have a tendency to gather into clumps and rise due to their
lower density than skimmed milk. Homogenized milk fat globules size is 2 um.
The decrease in the size of the fat globules increases their number and surface
area. A film of adsorbed protein or lipoprotein immediately surrounds each of
the new globules, acting as an emulsifier and prevents them reuniting. The
newly formed fat droplets are no longer coated with the original membrane
material. This brings about the stabilization of milk emulsion and thus prevents
the rising of the cream.
Homogenized milk has a creamier structure, bland flavor and whiter
appearance. It has a greater whitening powder when added to coffee and tea. A
soft curd is formed when coagulated and is easily digested. In the manufacture
of evaporated milk (condensed milk) and ice-cream homogenization reduces the
change of separation of fat resulting in a smoother texture of the finished
product. Homogenization accelerates the action of lipase and rancidity of fat
takes place.

PROCESSING OF MILK AT DAIRY FARM

Mixed Milk (Cow's+ buffalo's)

(at collection centers)

Chilled at 5°C for 6-8 hours transported within 24 hours to dairy farms SNF 8.5
per cent

Assessment of quality of milk

Fat 3 per cent

Pumped into plate chillers chilled to 0°C

Passed to raw milk storage tank

Pasteurized at 80°C

Passed into silo

Stage - I homogenized under 500 psi

Stage – II homogenized under 2000 psi

FORTIFICATION - Milk Fortification – A Necessary Practice
Milk is truly a super food — it’s delicious, rich, and packed with nutrients. It
goes through several purification processes to ensure that it’s safe and healthy
for us to consume. But when the milk fat is skimmed from the milk, it can lose
some of its nutrients in the process.

This is where fortification comes in. According to the Food Fortification

Resource Centre (FFRC) of the FSSAI, vitamins A and D are lost when milk fat
is removed during processing. The process of fortification is necessary to
reintroduce these vitamins back into the milk.

As mentioned before, fortification is the process of replenishing/addition of the

nutrients lost during the fat removal process back into the milk. While it might
sound complicated, the process of fortification is actually very simple according
to the FFRC, and the fortificants are water-soluble and can be uniformly
distributed in the milk without the need for elaborate equipment.