***HARDWARE***

**INPUT DEVICES**

There are several general factors that you can consider when choosing an appropriate device and
method for data input. The main criteria are:

- Cost

- Speed

- Accuracy

- Reliability

Any method that involves a human is probably going to score poorly on all four criteria: when a human
inputs data manually, the work is generally expensive, slow, and not very accurate, because humans get
distracted and tired, and can make mistakes.

Therefore, whenever a human enters data manually, it is important that the data is validated to catch all
possible errors. Sometimes, a verification technique, such as double entry, is also used. When you fill in a
registration form, you are usually asked to enter your email address and chosen password twice. Well-
designed systems will disable the functionality to copy and paste these fields so that you can't replicate
an input error.

*Biometric techniques*

- A biometric is a physical characteristic used for authentication, such as fingerprints, facial images, irises,
and voice

- Biometric scanners are increasingly common due to improvements in technology

- Biometric spoofing is a method of fooling biometric scanners

- Iris recognition is the most secure authentication method due to the iris's protection by the cornea

- Fingerprints are less secure and easier to spoof

- Fingerprint recognition is commonly used for phone, computer, and payment authentication
- Many airports use iris recognition for security

- Voice recognition is an emerging use of biometrics

- Banks and insurance companies use voice recognition to identify customers

- User consent is important for the storage and processing of personal data

- HM Revenue & Customs was instructed to delete over 5 million recordings for their 'Voice ID' service
due to unlawful collection.

*Sensors*

- Sensors act as analogue inputs in control systems

- Analogue signals are converted to digital form by an analogue to digital converter (ADC)

- Many different types of control systems use sensors, such as robotics, building control, and flight
control systems

- Mobile phones have a variety of sensors, including accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, GPS
receivers, barometers, thermometers, proximity sensors, and ambient light sensors

*Digital Cameras*

- Digital cameras capture images by opening a shutter to allow light into the camera through the lens.

- The lens focuses the light onto an image sensor which is an array of millions of light-sensitive elements
or photosites.

- The picture is broken up into millions of pixels, with each pixel consisting of a photosite.

- A Bayer filter is used to determine the color of each pixel, which provides an array of red, green, and
blue filters - with twice as many green filters as red and blue filters.

- The final value for each pixel is derived from its own color intensity and those of its immediate
neighbors through the application of a demosaicing algorithm.

- The image processing engine, which includes an analog to digital converter, carries out the demosaicing
stage and converts the signal into binary form.

- Larger image sensors with more photosensitive points capture higher-quality images, and two different
types of sensors are CCD and CMOS.

- CMOS systems are more popular on mobile phones and devices that use a lot of power because they
use less energy.

- Image quality is also influenced by the size and nature of the sensor.

- The image processing engine in some cameras automatically compresses images to JPEG format.

*RFID*

- RFID allows wireless data transmission over radio waves

- RFID system consists of a tag and a reader

- Tags have an antenna and a chip with a unique identifier and may store additional data

- Reader transmits an encoded signal to interrogate the tag and receives the response with the identifier
and data

- RFID tags can be read-only or read-write and come in various physical forms

- Passive tags use radio energy transmitted by the reader to activate the chip, and active tags have a
battery and transmit their identifier at regular intervals

- Passive range is up to 1 meter, and active range can be up to 200 meters

- RFID is used in various applications such as products, employee/student ID cards, libraries, transport
systems, production lines, and animal tracking.

*Barcode Readers*

- Barcodes are read by illuminating them with a laser.

- Photoelectric cells capture the reflected light.

- The cells generate a set of electrical pulses corresponding to the black and white stripes.

- The pulses are processed and converted into a binary number representing the code.

- Barcode readers often provide an indication of successful reading, such as a beep or green light.

**OUTPUT DEVICES**
*Printers*

Criteria for Choosing a Printer:

- Speed

- Print Resolution

- Quality of Color Reproduction

- Paper Handling

- Cost of Consumables

Types of Printers:

- Impact Printers

- Inkjet Printers

- Laser Printers

- Plotters

- 3D Printers

Impact Printers:

- Produce characters by striking the paper

- Noisy and rare in modern offices

- Useful for multipart stationery

Inkjet Printers:

- Non-impact printers that use liquid ink

- Can handle specialist paper and print at high resolutions

- Suitable for printing photo-quality images

- Preferred by home users and photographers

- Cost of ink is a key factor

Laser Printers:

- Print a whole page at a time and faster than inkjet printers

- Use powdered ink called "toner"

- Toner is cheaper than liquid ink and lasts longer

- Good for text but not photo-quality images

- Have four toner cartridges for CMYK printing

Plotters:

- Use one or more pens to draw an image

- Handle wide paper and produce precise drawings

- Common in engineering and architectural practices

3D Printers:

- Interpret instructions to create 3D objects

- Use plastic-based resin filament to print objects

- Commercial printers can create larger-scale and more robust objects

- Bioprinters can make living body parts

Laser Printers: Principles of Operation

- Bitmap image of page created

- Laser changes polarity on print drum

- Drum exposed to positively charged toner

- Toner transferred onto paper

- Fusing stage heats toner to stick to paper

- Four different toner cartridges used for color printing (CMYK)

*Display Devices*

- When choosing a monitor, consider screen size, resolution, and color reproduction.

- LCD displays are the most common display found in offices and on standard desktop and laptop
computers.

- LED displays use less power than LCD and are cheaper and more environmentally friendly to run.

- OLED screens are being developed and don't require a backlight, making them lighter and more
flexible.

- OLEDs are a good option for mobile devices such as phones and tablets.

*Motors/actuators*

- Control systems often use sensors as analogue inputs and motors/actuators as analogue outputs.

- Digital signals can be converted to analogue using a digital to analogue converter (DAC).

- Automated systems are cost-effective, safe, and efficient for businesses. Robots can operate
continuously.

- Control systems can be used by individuals for various purposes, such as controlling greenhouse
windows using a computer with a temperature probe.

**PRIMARY MEMORY**
*Cache*

- Cache memory is designed to make access to frequently used data faster.

- There are three levels of cache used by the processor, with different capacities and access speeds.

- The closer the cache is to the CPU, the faster it can read and write data, but the less it can store.

- Level one cache is usually part of the processor itself, with the lowest capacity and quickest access
speed.

- Level two cache might be built into the processor with a higher capacity than level one but slightly
slower to read.

- Level three cache might be the slowest, but still twice as fast as RAM.

- In a multi-core processor, each core has its own level one cache but might share levels two and three
with other cores.

- The levels of cache are designed to make frequently used instructions and data the quickest to access.

*Virtual Memory*

- Virtual memory is used to compensate for a shortage of RAM.

- Running modern applications on systems with minimal main memory can lead to performance issues,
such as lag, freezing, or crashing.

- To reduce the likelihood of these issues, a portion of secondary storage is allocated as virtual memory.

- Virtual memory creates a set of virtual addresses, and data moved to it is stored as pages.

- When the processor is ready to accept instructions from files in virtual memory, it moves the page files
into RAM.

- Both HDDs and SSDs are used for virtual memory, with SSDs having an advantage in access speed.

- However, using SSDs regularly for virtual memory reduces their lifespan due to their finite read/write
lifecycle.

- Virtual memory should not be confused with virtual storage, which refers to secondary storage located
away from the computer.

*Flash Memory*
- Flash memory is used in some microcontrollers to store instructions.

- Flash memory is non-volatile and can be written to and read from.

- Microcontrollers and microprocessors perform specific tasks and often run a single program.

- Flash memory is used as both storage and main memory in microcontrollers because there is no need
for multiple programs to share the same main memory.

*SRAM and DRAM*

- DRAM is dynamic random-access memory used for a computer's main memory because it is relatively
cheap to manufacture.

- DRAM memory cells are made of a capacitor and a transistor, where a charged capacitor represents the
value 0,0 and a discharged capacitor represents 1,1.

- The system will need a frequent memory refresh to restore the capacitors to their original charge,
which happens constantly in the background.

- SRAM is static random-access memory that uses flip-flops circuitry and does not need to be refreshed.

- SRAM is generally twice as fast to access as DRAM, but more expensive to manufacture.

- DRAM and SRAM are both types of volatile memory, requiring a constant power supply to maintain the
memory charge.

*PROM, EPROM AND EEPROM*

- Electronic devices contain ROM (Read-Only Memory)

- Traditional ROM circuits (Mask ROM) are written during manufacturing and can't be changed

- PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a type of ROM that can be written to once after
manufacturing

- PROM is used for low production volume devices to avoid expensive manufacturing process redesigns

- PROM is used in microcontrollers, games consoles, mobile phones, and RFID tags

- EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) requires removing the memory unit and using
ultraviolet light to erase the data
- EPROM is a specialist operation requiring special equipment and expertise

- EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can erase individual bytes
electronically and can be reprogrammed

- EEPROM is used in smart cards and remote keyless systems

- Some EEPROM devices have security features to prevent hacking.

**SECONDARY STORAGE**

*Magnetic Hard Disk*

- A hard disk is also known as a magnetic disk, and was originally differentiated from floppy disks.

- HDDs are mechanical devices with many moving parts, but are sold as sealed units to protect from
contamination and wear.

- Data is represented on the disk surface by magnetized dots in two states: magnetized and not
magnetized.

- Access speed is determined by disk speed, with standard drives spinning at 5,400 to 7,200 rpm, and
higher-spec drives spinning at 15,000 rpm.

- Standard HDDs have read-write access speeds of 80-200MB/s, and fragmentation can slow down
access speeds.

- The main advantages of magnetic hard disks are capacity and cost, but the gap between HDDs and SSDs
is narrowing.

- Magnetic hard disks are best suited for devices where low cost is the most important factor, such as
desktop and laptop computers.

- A disk unit has one or more metal platters with magnetic coatings.

- Binary data is stored on platters in polarized states.

- Platters are divided into concentric tracks and further into sectors, which are grouped into clusters.

- The file allocation record records the location of each file on the disk.

- When the disk is full, files can be split across many non-contiguous blocks.

- To read and write data, the device has two mechanical arms and a read-write head.

- The platters spin at around 7,200 rpm while the head sweeps across the tracks.
- Magnetic disks allow direct access to any block, unlike magnetic tapes that allow only serial access.

*SSD*

- SSD stands for solid-state disk or drive, which is an electronic device that uses flash memory and has no
moving parts

- Advantages of SSD over magnetic hard disks include faster read-write access speeds, reduced likelihood
of mechanical failure and damage, and reduced energy consumption and heat generation in computer
systems

- However, SSD has a limited lifespan and is not suitable for long-term archiving of data

- SSD storage is still more expensive per GB than magnetic storage

- SSDs are usually built into physical enclosures that mirror those used for magnetic disk drives, and can
be swapped or connected as additional drives

- SSDs are particularly suitable for storing frequently accessed files and applications, and can be used as
an additional drive alongside a larger magnetic disk.

- SSDs consist of a controller and millions of NAND flash memory cells

- Each cell has a floating gate transistor which can trap an electrical charge

- NAND flash cells are organized in pages and blocks

- Data is read from an SSD by page and can be written a page at a time if the surrounding cells are empty

- If a file is updated, the relevant block containing the pages must be copied to main memory and
updated, then written to a new area of the disk and the original block(s) will be erased

- SSDs become slower as they fill up due to having to copy out and rewrite existing pages within a block.

*Optical Media*

- Optical discs include CD, DVD, and Blu-ray Discs

- CD-ROM and DVD-ROM are read-only memory discs

- CD/DVD-ROMs were once used to deliver application software, but this use is declining

- CD-R and DVD-R are recordable or write-once read-many discs used for archiving data

- CD-RW and DVD-RW are rewritable discs used for backing up computer files
- Optical disc speed is expressed as a factor relative to a base figure, which is the speed required to read
an audio CD for CDs and play a video film for DVDs

- The actual speed achieved depends on the speed rating of the disc and the disc drive, with the lower
value used for both reading and writing.

*Virtual Storage*

- Users can access storage that is not installed as part of their own computer system.

- Network attached storage (NAS) is a dedicated stand-alone device that is installed as part of a LAN.

- There are small NAS devices for home networks, and much larger devices for business use.

- When network attached storage is used, the user will see the drive listed alongside their local storage.

- Cloud storage is usually owned and managed by commercial organizations, and is facilitated by the
internet.

- Cloud storage provides a certain amount of storage for free, and then charges per GB for additional
storage.

- Cloud storage has affected the market for portable storage devices such as optical discs and USB flash
drives.

- Cloud storage can be configured to automatically synchronize with local drives, ensuring that there is
always a local copy in case there is no available internet connection.