Advanced Diploma in Quantity Surveying Materials & Construction Technology-4

Metals and Alloys

In engineering materials, metals and alloys are frequently used in civil industry.
E.g Iron (Fe)
Aluminum (Al)
Copper (Cu)

Metals

Metals used in the construction industry are chosen for their durability, strength and resistance to
weather. The most common of them are carbon steel, aluminum, copper tubing and stainless steel,
which each have their particular qualities and ideal uses.

Basically, metals can be broadly classified into twos types, which are

1. Ferrous Metals
2. Non-Ferrous Alloys

Ferrous Metals

In this type of metals commonly Iron (Fe) is the main constituent element, which is highly spread
in the particular metals.
E.g Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
Steel

Non-Ferrous Metals

Is this ease the main constituent part of the metal is not Iron.
E.g Aluminum (Al)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)

Aluminum (Al)

Aluminum is the most effective alloy and it’s come under non-ferrous metals and also aluminum
is widely used in construction.

Aluminum has good corrosion resistance, good electric conductivity and less weight. Aluminum
can be made harder, stronger and stiffer by mixing small amount of other metals.

Copper (Cu)

1
Advanced Diploma in Quantity Surveying Materials & Construction Technology-4

Some of the special behavior of copper is satisfy for boiling materials application because it has
high thermal conductivity. Good appearance and good dimension material.
➢ For special purpose copper is mixed with other forms of metals.
E.g (Brass – Cu+Zn)
➢ To improve the mechanical properties of copper, Alloys forms of copper is mostly
used in industry because alloys are good ductile materials.

Steel

Steel is an alloy because it contains small quantities of carbon with Iron. Carbon is the primary
hardening element which added into the iron. The increase carbon percentage will be developing
the strength, hardness, ductility and other forms of application.

Types of steel Mild / Low carbon steel Medium / Hard High carbon steel
carbon steel
Carbon 0.1% - 0.18% 0.35% - 0.45% 0.55% - 0.654%
Tensile 400 - 600 550 - 850 800 – 1050
strength
(MNm-2)
Uses Boiler plates shafting Rails, connecting rods Wheels, hammer

Alloy

Alloy can be defined as combine of two or more metals mixed together and it will produce a new
element which is known as alloys.

Basically, alloys can be categorized into two forms which are

i. Ferrous alloy
ii. Non-ferrous alloy

Comparing with metal, alloys have good mechanical properties, physical properties and the
chemical properties

Ferrous alloy
Any metallic elements added during the making of steel for the purpose of increasing corrosion
resistance, hardness, strength, etc.

Steel contains Iron as the main part and small amount of carbon is mixed with Iron element.

In the forming of alloys steel, Nickel (Ni), Chromium (Cr), Silicon (Si) and Magnesium (Mg) may
be mixed into the Iron.

Non-Ferrous alloy

2
Advanced Diploma in Quantity Surveying Materials & Construction Technology-4

In non-ferrous alloys element, Iron is not presented into the alloys and which contains other forms
of metals
E.G Brass – (Cu+Zn)
Bronze – (Cu+Zn+Sn)

Metal Properties

• High melting points

• Good conductors of electricity
• Good conductors of heat
• High density
• Malleable
• Ductile

Stress-Strain Diagrams

The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on
small specimens of the material. The tests are conducted in materials-testing laboratories equipped
with testing machines capable of loading the specimens in a variety of ways, including static and
dynamic loading in tension and compression.

Figure 1: Stress and Strain Diagram for Structural Steel

3
Advanced Diploma in Quantity Surveying Materials & Construction Technology-4

Stress

Stress is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s cross-sectional area.

σ = stress (N/m2, Pa)

F = force (N)
A0 = original cross-sectional area (m2)

Strain

Strain is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress.

ε = strain
L = length after load is applied (mm)
L0 = original length (mm)

Many materials exhibit a proportional relationship between stress and strain up to certain point,
referred to as the proportional limit, shown here as point “A” (Fig.01) This stress-strain
relationship is known as Hooke’s Law, and in this region, the slope of the stress-strain curve is
referred to as the modulus of elasticity ( Also known as Young’s modulus), denoted E.

Failure of Metals

Common Metal failures can occur as follow

• Overload
• Fatigue failure
• Corrosion
• Erosion
• Creep
4
Advanced Diploma in Quantity Surveying Materials & Construction Technology-4

Over load

This type of failure is caused when applied loads stress the metal beyond its ultimate strength.

Fatigue failure

Fatigue failure is the most common type of metal failure.

It occurs when repeated or fluctuating loads are imposed that allow a small material failure to
develop into a larger one, over a long period of time.

Compared to the material stress limits, fatigue failure can occur at relatively low stress levels,
sometimes below its yield strength.

Creep

Creep defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated temperature and constant stress.

It follows, then, that a failure from such a condition is referred to as a creep failure or,
occasionally, a stress rupture.