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A Report on the Comprehensive Geological Field Work at

Bandarban Anticline, Bandarban, Bangladesh.

Submitted by

Ishrat Rahman

Roll No: SK-050

Exam Roll: 2226

Submission date: 13/05/19

Department of Geology, University of Dhaka.

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ABSTRACT

This report mainly features the application of geological knowledge obtained from a typical
field work in the various branches of Geoscience. The field work has been conducted in two
divisions on the Bandarban anticlinal area from March 16 to March 22, 2019. In first division,
the typical geological field work was carried on by investigating the field area based on
Geological setting, lithology of identified formations and structures exposed on outcrops. In
the second division, five specialized survey have been conducted under the lead of expertise
professors of Department of Geology, University of Dhaka.

The investigated Bandarban anticlinal area exhibits an asymmetric, box shaped anticline with
NNW-SSE trending, regionally this anticlinal area is situated in the eastern fold belt zone of
Bangladesh i.e. Chittagong hill tracts. Aside the folding, numerous joints and some drag fold
have been observed throughout the field area. The identified geological formations are Bokabil
formation, Tipam Sandstone and Dupi Tila formation which also frames the stratigraphy for
this region and the depositional environment is interpreted to be shifted from Shallow marine
environment towards delta front or mouth bars deposits.

The survey of Petroleum geology is mainly focused on the petroleum prospect of the
investigated area where petroleum systems have been identified and interpreted; based on
studying the lithology, structures and depositional environment of the exposures of the whole
surveyed area. Conventional and unconventional reservoirs are observed and studied based on
their reservoir properties and petrography. The reserve potential of this reservoirs has been
interpreted as poor. The exposure of the seal rock and migration of the hydrocarbon before trap
formations are the most probable reasons for hydrocarbon seepage.

The subsurface bed forms, rock types, aquifer position, salinity of water have been delineated
by the Electrical Resistivity method in the geophysical survey. The survey was conducted via
two methods of resistivity i.e. Vertical electrical profiling and Horizontal Profiling. Two sand
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units are deciphered to be the aquifer of the studied area and water quality is estimated as fresh
water based on the obtained resistivity values.

In hand experience of the application of engineering geology was obtained in this field work.
The observed geological formations are divided into seven geotechnical units based on their
respective rock mass properties. The slope stability of this exposed rock units were analysed
based on the standard Slope Stability Probability Classification (SSPC) system. The slopes are
interpreted as highly unstable, susceptible to weathering and may fail sooner based on the
measured parameters of the SSPC classification system.

The changes in land use and land cover of the investigated area from the year 2000 till year
2019 are documented in this report. The insitu GPS data, remote sensing images of Landsat 7
(2000) and 8 (2019) have been used as materials for this purpose. And different remote sensing
methodologies such as NDVI, NDWI and Unsupervised classifications were applied for
categorizing the identified features from the Landsat images into vegetation, water surface,
mixed land and bare land classes. Based on the measured area data for each of the classes of
Landcover, it is prominent that settlement and bare lands have increased massively
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Starting with the name of Almighty, first of all, the author wants to express her heartfelt sincere
gratitude to Professor Dr. Kazi Matin Uddin Ahmed, Chairman, Department of Geology,
University of Dhaka for giving an opportunity to the undergraduate students to take part in this
comprehensive knowledgeable field work.

We were lucky enough to have Md. Zillur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of
Geology, University of Dhaka as our team leader of this field work, who is an expertise in the
field of Engineering Geology. His guideline to examine the geological exposure of the studied
area based on engineering properties of rock mass were remarkable to understand the role of
geology for designs and construction planning of various large infrastructure.

Author shows her deepest appreciation to the distinguished faculty member Dr. A S M
Woobaidullah, Professor, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka for including the
students in his geophysical survey procedures. His critical and constructive suggestions with
hand to hand instructions to conduct the sophisticated geophysical surveys throughout the
fieldwork were noteworthy.

The author avails this opportunity to show immense reverence to Md. Anwar Hossain Bhuiyan,
Associate Professor, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka for his guidance in
thoroughly investigating the stratigraphic units and further interpreting the petroleum prospect
of that region which will remain as a life-long lesson in the field of Petroleum Geology.

Author acclaims the persistent hard work of Dr. Mahfuz R. Khan, Assistant Professor and Md.
Jahangir Alam, Assistant Professor, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka. Under their
determined instruction and strenuous activity, the hydrogeological study work went smoothly
and an experience in hand methods of the survey process were gained properly.
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Author would like to express her tremendous appreciation to Dr. Md. Bodruddoza Mia,
Associate Professor, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka for his valuable guidance
and important critics in the understanding of data collection and collaboration process for
remote sensing and its application in land use and land cover purpose.

Last but not the least, author wants to express her thankful acknowledgement to the authority
of “Soil and Water Conservation Centre” at Bandarban, for the accommodation of our teachers
and students in their rest house. Author also wants to express her grateful appreciation to the
transport, food and medicine committee of the field work for their excellent management and
dedicated service throughout the field work. At the end, all the group members of the author’s
group deserve a great appreciation for their supportiveness and co-operations during the field
work.
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CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 9

1.1. General Statement ......................................................................................................... 10
Fig: 4th year Field work of 47th batch of Geology Department, Bandarban district,
Bangladesh........................................................................................................................ 10
1.2. Scope of work................................................................................................................ 11
1.3. Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................. 11
1.4. Organisation of Report .................................................................................................. 12
chapter 2: Geological Mapping ................................................................................................ 15
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 16
2.1. Tectonic Settings ........................................................................................................... 17
2.3. Geology ......................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1. Geological Structure................................................................................................... 18
1. Tectonic Structures ....................................................................................................... 18
Fold ................................................................................................................................... 18
Joint .................................................................................................................................. 19
2. Sedimentary Structures ................................................................................................. 19
Heterolithic bedding ......................................................................................................... 19
Calcareous bands .............................................................................................................. 21
Nodular Shale ................................................................................................................... 21
Fissile Shale ...................................................................................................................... 22
Micro cross lamination ..................................................................................................... 23
Load cast ........................................................................................................................... 23
Cross bedding ................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Stratigraphy ................................................................................................................. 25
Stratigraphic table of the investigated area: ..................................................................... 25
Lithological Columnar section: Day 01............................................................................ 26
2.3.2 .1. Description of Geological Units ............................................................................. 27
Surma Group..................................................................................................................... 27
Tipam Group: ................................................................................................................... 28
Dupi Tila Formation ......................................................................................................... 29
2.3.3. Interpretations of Depositional Environments ........................................................... 30
2.3.4 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 32
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Chapter 3: Petroleum Geology................................................................................................. 33

3.1. Petroleum System .......................................................................................................... 34
3.2. Reservoir: ..................................................................................................................... 35
3.2.1. Conventional and Unconventional Reservoirs ........................................................... 36
3.2.2. Reservoir Properties ................................................................................................. 39
3.2.3. Petrography ................................................................................................................ 40
3.2.4. Reserve estimations .................................................................................................... 42
3.3. Source rock characterization ......................................................................................... 43
3.4. Conventional trap and Unconventional Traps ............................................................... 43
3.5. Migration and Timing ................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 4: Water Resource Potential of the Study Area.......................................................... 46
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 47
4.2. Surface water Development potential ........................................................................... 47
4.3. Occurrence of Ground water ......................................................................................... 48
4.3.1. Aquifer characteristics................................................................................................ 48
4.3.2. Ground water development potentials........................................................................ 48
4.4. Water Quality Assessment ............................................................................................ 50
4.5. Identified Sources of Pollution...................................................................................... 51
4.6. Water Resource Management Options .......................................................................... 52
4.7. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 53
Chapter 5: Slope Stability Analysis: ........................................................................................ 54
5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 54
5.2 Rock mass Characterization ........................................................................................... 55
5.3. Geotechnical units: ........................................................................................................ 57
5.4. Slope Stability Analysis ................................................................................................ 58
5.5. Summary ...................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 6: Geophysical Survey ............................................................................................... 64
6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 65
6.2. Methodology ................................................................................................................. 65
6.3. Data Processing: ............................................................................................................ 68
6.4. Result............................................................................................................................. 71
6.5. Interpretation ................................................................................................................. 74
6.6. Summary ...................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter 7: Landuse and Landcover Changes Detection from 2000 to 2019 ........................... 76
7.1. Introduction: .................................................................................................................. 77
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7.2. Materials: ....................................................................................................................... 77

7.2.1. LandSAT 7 ETM+ Image (2000) ............................................................................... 78
7.2.2. Landsat 8 OLI Image (2019) ...................................................................................... 78
7.3. Methodology ................................................................................................................. 79
7.3.1. NDVI .......................................................................................................................... 79
7.3.2. NDWI ......................................................................................................................... 80
7.3.3. Unsupervised Classification ..................................................................................... 80
7.4. Results and Discussions .............................................................................................. 81
7.5. Summary: ...................................................................................................................... 83
Chapter 8: Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................ 84
Chapter 9: References .............................................................................................................. 86
Appendices ............................................................................................................................... 88

List of figures: Page

Table of Plates: ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Fig: 4th year Field work of 47th batch of Geology Department, Bandarban district, Bangladesh . ........... 10
Fig: Drag fold found at the Melange section, Shoilo Propat ........................................................................... 18
Fig: Highly jointed shale near the Meghla Resort. .......................................................................................... 19
Fig: Heterolithic bedding at Shoilo Propat section. ........................................................................................ 20
Fig: Calcareous bands at Sangu River section ................................................................................................. 21
Fig: Nodular shale formed by exfoliation ....................................................................................................... 22
Fig: Bluish grey highly fissile shale near Meghla Resort.................................................................................. 22
Fig: Load cast found at section near primary school, Kashem para. ............................................................... 23
Fig: cross- bedding at Tipam sandstone, section near Suyo Lok Bridge. ......................................................... 24
Fig: Massive sandstone of Bokabil Formation at Sangu river section. ............................................................ 27
Fig: Sand-shale alternating layer of Bokabil formation near Ruma Bus Stand. ............................................ 28
Fig: Tipam Formation near Suyo Lok Bridge. .................................................................................................. 29
Fig: Dupi Tila Formation at Bandarban University .......................................................................................... 29
Fig: Seal rock, Shoilo Propat section 3 ........................................................................................................... 35
Fig: Unconventional reservoir section-01. ...................................................................................................... 37
Fig:Unconventional reservoir section-02........................................................................................................ 38
Fig: Artificial reservoir at Meghla Resort, Bandarban. .................................................................................... 47
Fig: Ring well at Kashempara. ........................................................................................................................ 48
Fig: Water treatment plant at Bharakhali, Bhalaghata, Bandarban. ............................................................... 49
Fig: Water purification process. ..................................................................................................................... 49
Fig: Water pollution of Shoilo Propat caused by human activities. ................................................................ 52
Fig: The unit one of Dupi Tila formation at Bandarban University. ................................................................ 58
Fig: The unit two of Dupi Tila formation at Bandarban University ................................................................. 59
Fig: The unit three of Tipam formation near Suyo Lok Bridge. ....................................................................... 59
Fig: The unit three of Tipam formation around Kerani haat road section. ...................................................... 60
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Fig: The unit 5 of Bokabil formation at Meghla Resort. .................................................................................. 61

Fig: The unit 6 of Bokabil formation near the tunnel construction site. ......................................................... 61
Fig: The unit seven of Bokabil formation near the Bandarban Bus Stand ....................................................... 62
Fig: Electrical Resistivity Survey (VES) at Venus Resort area........................................................................... 66
Fig: Schlumberger array configuration. .......................................................................................................... 66
Fig: Electrical Resistivity Survey (Imaging) at Venus Resort area. ................................................................... 67
Fig: Wenner array configuration. ................................................................................................................... 68
Fig: NDVI of the Landsat Image (2019). .......................................................................................................... 81
Fig: NDVI of the Landsat Image (2000). .......................................................................................................... 81
Fig: NDWI of the Landsat Image (2000). ......................................................................................................... 82
Fig: NDWI of the Landsat Image (2019). ......................................................................................................... 82

Table of Maps:
The Map No. 01 The district map of Bandarban
The Map No. 02 The tectonic map of Bangladesh

Table of Columnar section:

Lithological columnar section of day 01
Lithological columnar section of day 02
Columnar section of Seal rock, Shoilo Propat
Unconventional reservoir, Shoilo Propat section 01
Unconventional reservoir, Shoilo Propat section 02
Conventional reservoir, Rupali Jharna

Table of Plates:
Plates of Dupi Tila Formation
Plates of Tipam Sandstone
Plates of Bokabil formations
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
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1.1. General Statement

Geology is the study of the structure, evolution and dynamics of the Earth and its natural
processes that have shaped the Earth through its 4.6 billion year history. Geological science
investigates the rock records to unravel the billion year’s history and provides information
about the resources that the Earth conceals beneath its surface. And that’s why aside the
theoretical knowledge and laboratory analysis, field studies are very important to understand
this science.

So, on this purpose of achieving practical knowledge, a geological field work has been
conducted on the Bandarban Anticline of Bangladesh by the Department of Geology,
University of Dhaka from March 16 to March 22, 2019. A group of 42 students from the 47th
batch of B.Sc. Hon’s attended the field survey program. The sole purpose of this field work is
to thoroughly study the geological settings, lithology, sedimentary and tectonic structures of
this anticlinal fold of Chittagong hill tract and application of the gathered information in the
different branches of Geology.

Fig: 4th year Field work of 47th batch of Geology Department, Bandarban district,
Bangladesh.
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1.2. Scope of work

The studied Bandarban area is a paramount place for geological studies as it exhibits a large
anticlinal structure of the eastern fold belt system and houses the huge exposure of Neogene
deposits, especially the Surma group which is the most important stratigraphic unit in
Bangladesh in terms of thickness and economic importance.

A detailed study of this exposures based on their lithology, depositional history, geological
settings and age can provide a good scope for properly understanding both the stratigraphic
units and the petroleum prospects of that region. Also, a Study of the fold system of this area
can provide a clear view about the tectonic activities from regional perspective. Moreover, the
geological conditions of this region requires a detailed investigation work based on aquifer
system and slope stability for ensuring a safer living environment. Finally, the hilly area is a
good scope for learning the land use management system in a large scale.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The field work has been conducted with the purpose of acquiring a comprehensive
understanding of the complete geological scenario with the perspective of Hydrogeology,
Geophysics, Petroleum Geology, Engineering Geology, land cover and land use management.

The objectives of the Hydrogeological survey is studying the regional aquifer system,
geochemical properties of water, quality of drinking water and the reason behind ground water
contamination of that region.
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The geophysical exploration techniques including Vertical Electrical Sounding and Horizontal
Profiling were used to delineate the subsurface layers, to determine the saturated subsurface
layers (aquifers). The objectives of this study also include evaluating the water quality
(salinity), estimating the depth of bed rocks and constructing a litho-section of subsurface
layers.

The ultimate objective of Petroleum Geological survey is to providing an overall view of the
lithological succession of that region with clear sight of depositional history. And thus,
delineating the petroleum system of that region, comprising all the essential elements (source
rock, reservoir rock, trap, seal and timely migration) to outline the reservoir potential of the
studied area.

The Engineering Geological Survey includes studying the engineering properties of the
exposed bed rocks based on the rock mass classification system for various construction
purpose. The objective of this study is analysing the slope stability of the road cut area to
provide a better slope construction plan map and mitigating the frequency of landslides.

The study of land cover and land use gives a clear view about the changes in the management
of land surfaces over the past 10 years. This study includes categorizing the land surface area
based on remote sensing data and in situ data via land cover and land use classification system.
Thus, to provide a better urban development plan of the surveyed area.

1.4. Organisation of Report

This report is based on the field survey which was conducted on the Bandarban anticlinal area
from March 16 to March 22, 2019. Aside studying the geological setting, lithology and
structures, the field work also included the application of this knowledge in the specialized
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branches of geology i.e. Hydrogeology, geophysics, engineering geology, petroleum geology,

land use and land cover. According to all this study wok, the report is organised into detailed
chapter:

The 2nd chapter deals with location of the investigated area and its geological situation in
respect of base map and regional tectonism. Then the tectonic and sedimentary structure
studied in the area has been discussed. Finally a detailed lithological description of the
stratigraphic unit has been given along with their probable interpretation of depositional
environment.

The petroleum system of the investigated area has been depicted in brief with its elements i.e.
source rock, reservoirs (conventional and unconventional), trap, seal and migration timing in
the 3rd chapter. Reservoir properties has been delineated from the petrographic study of the
samples. Based on the components of petroleum system and the estimated probable reserve
volume, the petroleum prospect of the studied area has been established later on.

Source of water, presence of aquifer and their characteristics, quality of drinking water of the
surveyed area have been analysed and briefed in the 4th chapter. Also presence of contaminants
in water and development of the aquifer potential for water quality and supply have been
discussed in this chapter.

The 5th chapter deals with the application of engineering geology in the slope construction
design based on the rock types exposed on the surveyed area. Different type of rock mass
classification has been discussed but among them the Slope Stability Probability Classification
has been used for measuring the rock mass properties. Based on the measured parameters, the
slope stability of the investigated area has been briefed at the end of chapter.

In the 6th chapter, the application of the Electrical Resistivity method in the Geophysical survey
has been discussed in brief. Two methodologies (VES and HEP) has been used for conducting
the resistivity survey. And the obtained data has been processed by manual partial curve
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matching method and geophysical software. At the end of the chapter, the sub surface bed
forms, rock types, presence of aquifer and water quality for the surveyed area has been
deciphered based on the calibrated data.

The Land use and Land cover changes for the investigated area from the year 2000 to year
2019 has been depicted at the 7th chapter. The application of different remote sensing
methodologies have been briefed in this chapter for identifying and interpreting the changes in
Landuse and Landcover based on the Landsat 7 (2000) and Landsat 8 (2019) images of the
studied area.

Through The 8th chapter, the report is completed by summarising all the chapters with a proper
conclusion. Also some recommendations have been suggested based on the field work on the
Bandarban anticline.
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CHAPTER 2: GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

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2.1. Introduction

The field work was conducted along the Kerani haat (west side) to Bandarban road (east side)
cut section situated on the Bandarban Anticline, Bandarban district, Bangladesh. This area
extends from 22º8ʹ0ʺN to 22º14ʹ0ʺN (latitude) and from 92º8ʹ30ʺE to 92º14ʹ30ʺE (longitude)
on map. The investigation based on lithology and structures were carried out in first two days:
first day, the Surma group of town-cantonment road cut section, Sangu river section, Town-
Meghla section were covered. And the second day, part of Surma group of Meghla – kerani
haat section and Dupi Tila section near Suyo Lok Bridge were covered. Regionally, the
investigated area lies in the south eastern hill tract region i.e. the Chittagong hill tracts with an
elongated direction from north-east to south-west.

Map NO.1: The district map of Bandarban.

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2.1. Tectonic Settings

The studied area sits on an anticlinal structure i.e. the Bandarban anticline. It is one of the
significant structures in the eastern folded belt of the Bengal basin and resulted from the
collision between the Indian plate and the Indo-Burmese plate during Oligocene or late
Miocene time. Presence of melange at the investigated area (Shoilo propat) also indicates the
massive tectonic movement. The compressive forces formed from the subduction of oceanic
crust of Indian plate beneath the Burmese plate caused this en-Echelon type folded structures
in regional scale. And most of the anticlines of this region have a trending from NNW-SSE.
The area is considered to be tectonically active as it is the westernmost continuation of the
Arakan Yoma Folded belt which is migrating westwards.
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2.3. Geology

2.3.1. Geological Structure

The investigated area exhibits both tectonic and sedimentary structures which are described
below :

1. Tectonic Structures:
Fold
The dominant tectonic structure of the Bandarban district is an asymmetric anticlinal fold
which lies in the Chittagong hill tract. The trend of this anticline is from northwest to southeast
direction. The anticline exhibits box fold like monoclinal structure in which the crest is broad
and flat. The dip of eastern flank of the anticline is from to and the dip of western flank is
from to . The attitude of the bedding shows clear indication of plunging anticline. Also
some small scale drag folds have been noticed at some section of Surma group indicating the
axial region of anticline. Also at melange section of Shoilo Propat, a prominent presence of
drag fold has been identified which denotes the large scale regional tectonism in that area.

Fig: Drag fold found at the Melange section, Shoilo Propat.

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Joint
The second most dominant structure of the studied area is joints which were found in the
different exposed sections. The joints are concentrated with the older shale formation. Near the
axis of anticline, the exposed fissile shale bed exhibits highly pressured and closely spaced
jointed section. The joints are well exposed in the eastern flank of the anticlinal structure.

Fig: Highly jointed shale near the Meghla Resort.

2. Sedimentary Structures:

Heterolithic bedding
The Heterolithic bedding is a sedimentary structure consisted of interbedded deposits of sand
and mud. It generally forms in tidal flat environment in response to alterations in sediment
supply and tidal velocity. All the three types of heterolithic bedding have been found at the
exposed sections of Surma group of the investigated area which are described below:

a. Flaser bedding: When the amount of deposited sand exceeds mud deposits forming isolated
mud drapes in ripple trough and crest, this type of sedimentary structure is called flaser
bedding.
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b. Wavy bedding: When the mud and sand deposits are equal, then the sedimentary structure
is called wavy bedding. In wavy bedding mud is deposited over the whole area of a ripple or
cross stratified sand.

c. Lenticular bedding: when sand lenses are deposited in mud in an isolated distribution pattern,
then the sedimentary structure is called lenticular bedding. In lenticular bedding, the sand
lenses are horizontally and laterally discontinuous.

Fig: Heterolithic bedding at Shoilo Propat section.

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Calcareous bands
Calcareous band is a hard compacted mass of concentrated calcium carbonate which
precipitated in the pore spaces of sedimentary rock (mainly sand bodies). A well exposed eight
sets of calcareous bands have been found in the Sangu River cut section. The calcareous bands
are formed either by meteoritic water leaching within sedimentary bodies (initiates within shale
flows toward sand body) or by chemical interaction between the meteoritic water and organic
shale.

Fig: Calcareous bands at Sangu River section.

Nodular Shale
Nodular Shale is a scattered to loosely packed silty shale having an irregularly rounded knot
like structure. Nodular shale occurs near the axial regions of anticlinal structures. And it is
formed by one of the three processes which are exfoliation, coupling and diagenesis. Elongated
nodular shale has been observed at one section of Surma group near primary school and it was
formed by coupling force in the inflection zone. Also a series of nodular shale has been
observed in the Shoilo Propat section which is considered to be formed by tectonic forces.
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Fig: Nodular shale formed by exfoliation

Fissile Shale:
Fissility is a property of shale whereby it breaks or splits along the planes of weakness due to
the parallel alignment of the clay minerals. At many exposed sections of Surma group, highly
fissile bluish grey shale has been noted indicating the pressured zone of axial region of
anticline.

Fig: Bluish grey highly fissile shale near Meghla Resort.

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Micro cross lamination

Units in the rock record are referred to as laminae, when they are less than 1 cm thick. Cross
laminations are the horizontal units that are internally composed of inclined layers. This
structures were observed in most of the exposed sections of the studied area

Load cast:

Load casts form on the underside of the overlying denser layer (coarser sand), which is
superimposed on a less dense layer (mud, silts). The cast takes the form of bulges, swelling,
highly irregular protuberances. At one section of Surma group near the primary school a
prominent cast structure been noted.

Fig: Load cast found at section near primary school, Kashem para.
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Cross bedding:
Cross bedding is a sedimentary structure where group of layers or strata incline at an angle
with the main bedding plane. It indicates water or wind dominated depositional environment.
Cross bedding has been observed at the Tipam Sandstone section of the studied area.

Fig: cross- bedding at Tipam sandstone, section near Suyo Lok Bridge.
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2.3.2 Stratigraphy

Stratigraphic table of the investigated area :

Age Group Formation Lithology

Yellowish brown to reddish

brown, medium to fine grained
sandstone with subordinate clay
Dupi Tila and silt.

Yellowish brown colour,

Tipam Tipam medium to coarse grained cross-
bedded massive sandstone.
Sandstone

Yellowish grey to light grey,

medium to fine grained,
Miocene to
moderately compacted massive
Pliocene sandstone.

Alternating layers of yellowish

brown, medium to fine grained,
Surma Bokabil moderately compacted sand and
bluish grey to light grey, finely
laminated, silty shale.

Bluish grey, highly fissile, thinly

laminated, silty shale.
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Lithological Columnar section: Day 01

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2.3.2 .1. Description of Geological Units

The Bandarban Anticline consists of three stratigraphic units which are described below from
older to younger rock in age :
Surma Group: Surma group is Miocene in age and traditionally subdivided into two formation
i.e. Bhuban and Bokabil Formation. The Bokabil formation of the Surma group was exposed
at the investigated area and can be divided into three units based on lithology which are
described below:

The massive sandstone unit of Surma Group is composed of yellowish grey to light grey,
medium to fine grained, moderately compacted massive sandstones layers. Well exposure of
this unit was observed at the studied area where sandstones were exhibiting permeable nature.
Heterolithic bedding is present. The sand and shale alternating unit of the Surma group is
mainly composed of alternated layers of yellowish brown, medium to fine grained, moderately
compacted sand and bluish grey to light grey, finely laminated, silty shale. Flaser beddings are
present. The upper marine shale unit of the Surma group is mainly composed of bluish grey,
silty shale. The shale is highly fissile and thinly laminated. Lenticular beddings are present.

Fig: Massive sandstone of Bokabil Formation at Sangu river section.

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Fig: Sand-shale alternating layer of Bokabil formation near Ruma Bus Stand.

Tipam Group: The Tipam group is a Pliocene lithostratigraphic unit in the Bengal basin
comprising two formations: the Tipam Sandstone Formation and the Girujan Clay Formation.
In the studied area outcrops of Girujan Clay were not observed while a well exposed section
of Tipam Sandstone was studied in the field work. The Tipam Sandstone Formation is
composed of yellowish brown colour, medium to coarse grained, cross bedded massive
sandstone. Presence of clay galls were observed in the exposed outcrop of this formation.
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Fig: Tipam Formation near Suyo Lok Bridge.

Dupi Tila Formation: It is a Pliocene-pleistocene mappable body of rock in the Bengal basin.
It consists of yellowish brown to brown, medium to fine grained pebbly sandstone with
subordinate clay and silt. A large outcrop of Dupi Tila Formation was encountered at the
construction site of Bandarban University. It exhibits the point bar deposits prominently.

Fig: Dupi Tila Formation at Bandarban University.

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2.3.3. Interpretations of Depositional Environments

The depositional environment of the sediments is interpreted based on their lithology,

embedded structures and other properties which are prominent at the exposures. The
stratigraphic units of the Bandarban anticline bears a depositional history from marine to fluvial
environment progressively.

The oldest strata of the succession is Surma group of Miocene age. Throughout the study area
exposed sections of Bokabil formation of Surma group were noted and has been divided into
three units based on their lithology: massive sandstone, sand-shale alternation, upper marine
shale.

Massive sandstone unit is sandstone dominated and exhibits Heterolithic bedding, so the
depositional environment was probably delta front or channel mouth bar deposits.

Sand-Shale alternating layer is composed of medium to fine grained sand and thinly laminated
silty shale, flaser bedding and wavy bedding are present indicating deposition in tidal flat
environment.

And the upper marine shale is dominated by bluish grey finely laminated upper marine shale
also embedded with lenticular bedding, indicates shelf region depositional environment.

The Tipam group of Pliocene age is consisted of Tipam Sandstone. Medium to coarse grained
sand, presence of clay galls and cross bedded Tipam sandstone exhibits channel bar deposits
which indicates fluvial (braided) depositional environment.
 P a g e | 31

The Dupi Tila formation of Pliocene-pleistocene age is composed of medium to fine grained
sand with subordinate silt and clay exhibits point bar deposits which indicates fluvial
(meandering) environment.

So, the depositional environments for the stratigraphic units of the anticline shift from shelf
environment to the land and so the sediments changes from finer clay to coarser sand according
to their respective environment.
 P a g e | 32

2.3.4 Summary

The investigated Kerani haat to Bandarban road section area is situated on the Bandarban
anticline of Bandarban district, Bangladesh. The field team traversed from western side
towards eastern side of the district. Regionally, the investigated area lies in the eastern fold belt
of Bangladesh i.e. Chittagong hill tract. The major tectonic structures of the field area are
anticlinal fold and joint which are formed by collisional force resulted from the converging
Indian and Burmese plate. The stratigraphic unit of the studied are is Surma group of Miocene
age, Tipam group of Pliocene age and the Dupi Tila formation of Pliocene to Pleistocene age.
Among the sedimentary structures, the heterolithic bedding is the most common structure
found in the sedimentary units. The depositional environment of this stratigraphic units
progresses from shelf environment towards land deposits which defines the lithology for each
of this units respectively.
 P a g e | 33

CHAPTER 3: PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

 P a g e | 34

3.1. Petroleum System

The Petroleum System (also known as “hydrocarbon system”) is a concept which includes all
the elements and processes of Petroleum Geology. This essential elements are source, reservoir,
migration path, trap, seal, time and the processes are generation, migration, accumulation,
entrapment and preservation. All this elements and processes which are required to generate
petroleum system are described below:

Source: The source rock is a rock which contains sufficient organic matters enough to generate
hydrocarbon or has generated hydrocarbon.

Reservoir: The reservoir rocks are rocks that have the ability i.e. porosity and permeability
enough to store fluids, so that the fluids (oil and gas) can be accumulated.

Migration path: It is the fracture zones i.e. fault conduits and joints through which hydrocarbon
migrates from source rock towards reservoir rock.

Trap: A configuration of rocks suitable for hydrocarbon accumulation and hinders further
hydrocarbon migration.

Seal: A relatively impermeable rock that forms a barrier or cap above and around reservoir
rock.

Time: The concept about time in petroleum geology is that, for the preservation of generated
petroleum, the trap structure should be formed before the hydrocarbon accumulates out of
source rock.

For the studied Bandarban anticlinal area, all the elements of the petroleum system has been
found where the lower Bokabil shale is the probable source rock and the massive sandstone of
the Bokabil formation is the reservoir of that region. The joints are the probable migration path
which are observed throughout the studied area. The anticlinal structure forms the trap
condition and shale of Bokabil formation is the seal of the petroleum system. The migration
timing has greatly affected the petroleum potential of this system of the Bandarban anticline.
 P a g e | 35

Columnar section:

Fig: Seal rock, Shoilo Propat section 3.

 P a g e | 36

3.2. Reservoir:

Reservoir is the most important component of a petroleum system. It is the rock having
sufficient porosity and permeability to store and transmit hydrocarbon. Sedimentary rocks are
the most common reservoir rocks because they have higher porosity than igneous rocks.
Reservoirs can be divided into Conventional and Unconventional Reservoirs which are
described below:

3.2.1. Conventional and Unconventional Reservoirs

Conventional reservoir is that which has a good permeability and hydrocarbon can migrate
depending on buoyancy to a nearby another reservoir characteristic rock. Mostly carbonate and
sandstone are said to be conventional reservoir. Conventional reservoirs have the permeability
above 0.1milidarcy.

On the contrary, the unconventional reservoirs has low to very low permeability (less than
0.1milidarcy) and hydrocarbon is trapped within the reservoir. In unconventional petroleum
system, either the source rock plays the role of reservoir or hydrocarbon stores or accumulates
in a rock or deposits which does not usually happen in case of conventional system. Mainly
shale are said to be unconventional reservoir.

In the field area, at Shoilo propat section, unconventional reservoirs were encountered. Where
the reservoir is the channel sand deposits of the heterolithic bedding which are very thinly
bedded and has very low porosity resulting tight reservoir or thin bed reservoir. The sand and
shale ratio was 70:30 on average. Also at Sangu river section, the sand-shale alternation with
calcareous band is considered to be an unconventional reservoir. Only the massive sandstone
of Bokabil formation is a conventional reservoir found at Rupali chara and Sangu River section.
The massive sandstone is highly permeable and plays the role of reservoir of that region.
 P a g e | 37

Columnar section:

Fig: Unconventional reservoir section-

 P a g e | 38

Columnar section

Fig:Unconventional reservoir section-02.

 P a g e | 39

3.2.2. Reservoir Properties:

The rock which can store and allow the transmission of fluid (oil or gas) is called reservoir.
And for this ability of rock, it requires some characteristic properties which are mainly: porosity
and permeability.

Porosity is the percentage of pore space (void space) in rock. Porosity is measured as the
percentage of volume of pores divided by total volume of rock. In petroleum geology, only the
effective porosity is of concern for determining the reservoir potential. Effective porosity is
interconnected pore space which allow the permeable behaviour of the reservoir. Porosity of
reservoir rock depends widely on the degree of burial and diagenesis where below 10%
porosity is poor and above 20% is considered excellent.

The porosity of the reservoirs encountered at Shoilo Propat is very poor. The estimated porosity
is 10-12 percentage on average. Also, the porosity value indicates that it is a tight hydrocarbon
reservoir.

Permeability is the property of a rock of allowing fluids to pass through it and it is expressed
as Darcy (1 Darcy = 1000 mD). Permeability decreases with decreasing porosity, with poor
sorting of grains. Also, permeability decreases with smaller pore throat diameter and pore
tortuosity i.e. zig-zag pore connectivity.

The studied reservoir rocks at Shoilo Propat have very low porosity; the grains are moderate to
poorly sorting; consists of finer sand grains resulting narrow pore throat diameter. Hence, the
permeability of that reservoir is very low and the reservoir is probably an unconventional
reservoir with less than 0.1 mD permeability.
 P a g e | 40

3.2.3. Petrography:

Plates of Dupi Tila Formation

Plates of Dupi Tila Formation

 P a g e | 41

Plates of Tipam Sandstone

Plates of Bokabil Formation

According to the petrographic study of thin section of the samples from three formations, the
light minerals: Quartz, Feldspar and Mica (Biotite and Muscovite) are found which the
framework grains of the rock samples are also. Among the heavy minerals some minerals are
identified but the presence of kyanite is prominent. Percentage of Quartz is higher than feldspar
 P a g e | 42

and grains are medium to fine grained with moderate to good sorting which indicates fluvial to
beach environment deposits.

3.2.4. Reserve estimations

From the porosity measurement of the collected rock sample: Porosity of Dupi Tila formation,
Tipam Sandstone, Bokabil sandstone and tight reservoir is around 17%, 19.5%, 25% and 18%
respectively.

The hydrocarbon reservoir for this region is mainly the Bokabil sandstone (conventional
reservoir) and channel sand-thin bed reservoir (unconventional reservoir).

Reserve volume estimation for Bokabil sandstone (conventional reservoir)

=Area*thickness*porosity*hydrocarbon saturation

=500 sq.km*25m*0.25*0.75

=82.76 BcF

So, the probable reserve volume for conventional reservoir is 82.76 BcF.

Reserve volume estimation for Channel sand bed reservoir (unconventional reservoir-Shoilo
Propat)

=Area*thickness*porosity*hydrocarbon saturation

=10 sq.km*15m*0.18*0.54

= .515 BcF

So, the probable reserve volume for this unconventional reservoir is .514 BcF.
 P a g e | 43

3.3. Source rock characterization

In petroleum geology, source rock is the rock which contains sufficient organic matters to
generate hydrocarbon. And for that, there are some conditions or characteristic that a rock must
have to become a hydrocarbon generating source rock. This characteristics are:

1. The quantity of organic matter (TOC = Total organic carbon) present; for shale type
sediments, the lower limit of TOC is 5%.

2. The type of organic matter (Kerogen); the source rock is capable of generating oil or gas
depending on the type of Kerogen present. Where Kerogen type 1 and 2 produces significant
amount of oil and type 3 produces significant amount of gas mainly.

3. Thermal maturity of organic matter; this temperature driven process is responsible for
conversion of organic matter into oil or gas depending on depth interval of temperature .i.e.
Gas window or oil window.

The source rock for the petroleum system of the Bandarban anticline is probably the lower
Bokabil shale which contains sufficient amount of organic matter. And the type of organic
matter is mainly Kerogen type 3 (humic origin) with some Kerogen type 2 (sapropelic origin).
The temperature interval is usually gas window (100˚-200˚c) for deltaic country Bangladesh
due to rapid burial process, which also applies for this region.

3.4. Conventional trap and Unconventional Traps

Trap is formed when the buoyancy driven migration of hydrocarbon flowing through a
permeable rock cannot overcome the capillary pressure of the sealing medium or cap rock. In
case of conventional reservoirs, traps can be classified into mainly structural, stratigraphic and
hydrodynamic based on geologic characteristics. But for unconventional reservoirs, the
 P a g e | 44

reservoir usually have high porosity but very low permeability. As a result the hydrocarbon is
trapped and cannot migrate further.

For the unconventional reservoirs which were encountered at Shoilo Propat, the thinly bedded
channel sand of heterolithic bedding acted as reservoir and this sand deposits were sealed with
shale deposits around them. Hence, this clay deposits present in the heterolithic bedding formed
the unconventional trap and stopped any further migration. For the conventional reservoir
found at Rupali chara, the Bandarban anticlinal structure is playing the role of trap and hindered
the migration of hydrocarbon. So, this anticline structure is the conventional trap.

3.5. Migration and Timing

Migration is the most crucial element of petroleum system. It is the movement of hydrocarbon
within the source rock towards the reservoir rock or any seepage. It can be classified into
primary, secondary and tertiary migration. About timing, the hydrocarbon generation and
migration is related with the timing of trap formation which also determines the petroleum
potential of any reservoir.

For the studied unconventional reservoirs, the migration path is rather short due to the trap
formation around channel sand by clay deposits. But this seal medium is exposed to the surface
at some section causing in escape of hydrocarbon. As a result, the section where the seal
medium is exposed, there the petroleum potential of the reservoir is low.

For the conventional reservoir, the joints are the migration route but the trap is formed probably
after the hydrocarbon generation. Hence, the hydrocarbon seeped out. Here the migration
timing has greatly affected the reserve potential.
 P a g e | 45

3.6. Summary:
Despite of having petroleum system, the hydrocarbon prospect of this region is very poor. This
is mainly due to the exposures of the seal rock and also due to the belated trap formation after
the probable hydrocarbon accumulation. As a result, most of hydrocarbons have escaped. If
there is any unexposed part of the reservoir, then there might be some petroleum prospect.
Moreover, if this petroleum system gets buried deep beneath surface, then after some geologic
period this area may become highly prospective with hydrocarbon reserves.
 P a g e | 46

CHAPTER 4: WATER RESOURCE

POTENTIAL OF THE STUDY AREA
 P a g e | 47

4.1. Introduction:

A hydrogeological field work was conducted on the Bandarban anticline, Bangladesh. The
purpose of the field work was to identify the source of water i.e. surface water and ground
water (aquifer system), evaluating the water quality for various purposes, detecting presence
of any water contaminants and source of pollution. And thus providing a management plant for
water resource to eradicate the water scarce issue of Bandarban district.

4.2. Surface water development potentials:

In the investigate Bandarban anticlinal area, the surface water source is mainly the streams,
the stored rain water in the artificial reservoirs and the water falls of the hills.

Fig: Artificial reservoir Meghla Resort, Bandarban.

The Tipam sandstone formation seems most favourable for surface water sources. The surface
water development scope is low and costly for this region. During rainy season, there is
abundant water supply in this area. On the contrary, during dry season huge scarcity of water
is seen in this region. Moreover, the surface water is easily polluted due to anthropogenic
 P a g e | 48

activities. So, water treatment plant has been installed for some zones of Bandarban district
(Lumibini Lake) from the Government. Thus, the surface water potential can be developed for
this region by storing water in large artificial reservoirs and treating the water to remove the
pathogen contamination for improving the water quality

4.3. Occurrences of Groundwater:

4.3.1. Aquifer Characteristics:
The aquifer system of this region consisted of two geological formations mainly i.e. Bokabil
massive sandstone and Tipam sandstone. The Bokabil massive sandstone is composed of
medium to fine sand, moderately sorted and is permeable. Thus rendering a good aquifer layer.
Most of the well are installed in this formation. Tipam sandstone is composed of finer to
medium sand, moderately sorted. For this hilly areas, Tipam Sandstone serves as an unconfined
aquifer and so ground water can be easily pumped out from lesser depths.

4.3.2 Ground water development potentials:

The Bandarban district does not have abundance of groundwater at every areas. During
monsoon, the ground water reaches near the surface and during dry season, the water surface
fluctuates. This region is considered unfavourable for extensive ground water development

Fig: Ring well, Kashempara

 P a g e | 49

The aquifer has low transmissivities and intensive development would therefore incur large
draw down. In hilly Bandarban, well are less feasible and local people mostly depends on
streams near the town side of the district. However, wells can be developed successfully based
on a planned map. Depending on the depth of water found in different areas, particular types
of water wells can be installed (Deep tube well or shallow tube well). Also, to purify the
pumped out water, treatment plants can be established. On this regard, near the Bandarban
town, there is a water purifying plant run by individual investment which is a great initiative.

Fig: Water treatment plant located at Barakhali, Bhalagata, Bandarban.

Fig: Purification of groundwater pumped out from a well.

 P a g e | 50

4.4. Water Quality Assessment:

Water quality assessment is an important measure of water to meet the requirements of usage
for various human needs. And for this purpose, the analytical results of pH, EC, temperature
and concentration of major anions and cations are compared with the guideline recommended
by the World Health Organisation (WHO).

From the bar diagram it is clear that the concentration of the major cations-Na and Mg are
within the WHO permissible limits and the acceptable limits are 200 mg/L and 50mg/L for Na
and Mg cation respectively. And the major anions: nitrate and sulphate have concentration
within the standard limit of WHO. Also, the value of electric conductivity of the surveyed tube
well water ranges within 163-446 micro siemens per centimetre and we know EC value
between 300-400 micro siemens per centimetres indicates good quality of water and suitable
for drinking. Hence, the water quality of the surveyed area is safe for drinking and our
household purposes.
 P a g e | 51

4.5. Identified sources of pollution:

Water pollution is a common scenario in this hilly regions. Source of pollution is mainly the
anthropogenic activities which results in the contamination of water. The water from water
falls, springs are easily polluted by micro-organisms and discarded human waste. The drainage
system plays a major role in the pollution cycle as it connects with aquifer system. As a
consequence micro-organisms, contaminants (dissolved anions) easily spread in water. The
iron rich water of Tipam formation is not polluted but iron reduces the aesthetic quality of
water by changing the colourless appearance of fresh water.
 P a g e | 52

Fig: Water pollution of Shoilo Propat Chara caused by discarded waste.

4.6. Water resource management:

The water supply distribution is uneven around the Bandarban district. For example, near the
Shorno Mandir area, the water well are installed at lesser depth and that zone has abundant
water supply during both dry and moon soon season. On the contrary, the area of Bandarban
sadar (Town), water supply is rare and people mainly depends on the streams, artificial
reservoir for their daily needs. At the hill valleys people depends on the water of the springs
and fall which are highly unhygienic due to microbial contamination. So, a proper water
management plan can solve all this issues. The area where the water supply is abundant from
there water supply can be sent to the water scarce areas. Also as the town area has low water
supply (only one aquifer), their limited water can be used only for drinking purpose. And for
other usage, artificial reservoir systems can be developed. In short, according to the
concentration water wells, a water supply system can be developed at the water available zones
for the whole district. And also artificial reservoir systems can be established to meet the need
of local people of water scarce zone during monsoon which will balance the supply of water
properly.
 P a g e | 53

4.7 Summary:
The water supply has been a problem for this Bandarban district. So to reduce its severity, a
planned well map can be provided for well installation and water management. The water
quality is good for drinking but the sources of water are easily contaminated by microbial
organisms and human waste pollution. However, by taking proper steps, the water supply
sources can be increased and the contamination grade can be reduced.
 P a g e | 54

CHAPTER 5: SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS:

 P a g e | 55

5.1. Introduction

For a hilly area like Bandarban district, unplanned road cutting and unstable slope construction
are life threatening. And so, a detailed study of slopes based on the rock mass properties are
necessary to provide a reasonable plan of slope stability of that district. And regarding this
purpose to acquire practical knowledge in this field of Engineering Geology, a field work was
conducted on the Bandarban-Kerani Haat road section and the area around base camp to
analyse the slope stability using Slope Stability Probability Classification (SSPC) system.

5.2 Rock mass Characterization

The purpose of rock mass classification is to establish the quality of a particular rock mass by
assigning rating values to set a rock parameters. This classification systems are used for various
engineering design and stability analysis such as for tunnels, slopes, foundation and
excavatability

The rock mass classification scheme is simple way of representing rock mass quality. The
classification systems have been developed up to date following basic approach but including
more parameters and greater number of classes. Some of this important classification systems
are described below:

Between the year 1972 and 1973, Z.T.Bieniawski developed the rock mass rating (RMR)
classification system. It combines the most significant geologic parameters and represent them
with comprehensive index of rock mass quality. There are six parameters which are used to
classify the rock mass using RMR system: uniaxial compressive strength of rock, rock quality
designation, spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities, groundwater conditions
 P a g e | 56

and orientation of discontinuities. Each of this parameters is assigned with a value for their
corresponding rock based on field survey and laboratory test. The sum of this parameters are
RMR value which lies between 0 and 100.

Slope mass rating (SMR) classification system is developed by Manuel Romana to describe
the strength of an individual rock outcrop or slope. This system is based on RMR scheme and
uses six parameters: uniaxial compressive strength, rock quality designation (RQD), joint
spacing, joint condition and ground water condition, rating joint orientation. The rock masses
are rated typically from 0 to 100, with 100 being the most competent rock mass.

The Q system for rock mass classification system is developed by Barton et al (1974).The Q
value is determined by: Q = RQD/Jn*Jr/Ja*Jw/SRF. Here, first term RQD (rock quality
designation) divided by Jn (joint set number is related to the intact rock block size; the second
term Jr (joint set number) divided by Ja (joint alteration number) is related to the shear strength
and third term Jw (joint water parameter) divided by SRF (stress reduction parameter) is related
to active stress on the rock mass. The determined value of Q varies in the logarithmic scale
from .0001 to maximum 1000.

Slope stability probability classification (SSPC) system developed by Robert Hack is the most
widely used classification system and is used for slope stability assessment. The system is a
three step classification: exposure, reference and slope rock mass classification with conversion
factors depending on existing and future weathering and damage due to method of excavation.
The used rock mass parameters in this classification are: Intact rock mass strength, spacing and
persistence discontinuities, Roughness (large scale and small scale), infill, karst and
susceptibility to weathering. The slope stability is expressed as probability for different failure
mechanisms which are divided into orientation dependent and independent of discontinuities
in the rock mass. For the slope stability analysis of the field survey, SSPC classification system
has been used as the data collected in this system can be easily used for other classification
system and is less time consuming. But there is a limitation of SSPC system, its stability
measurement does not include the damage caused by surface water flow.
 P a g e | 57

5.3. Geotechnical units:

The geological formations of the investigated area has been divided into five geotechnical units
under the SSPC system. The stability of about 13 slopes has been analysed throughout the
studied anticlinal area based on this classification scheme. The rock mass properties for each
of the slopes has been used to classify the geotechnical units. This parameters are lithology,
discontinuity and spacing, weathering, intact rock strength and slope orientation. The
geotechnical units are described below with their respective rock mass properties:

Geological Geotechnical No. of

Description of the units
exposures
unit unit

Deep brown, medium to fine grained massive sandstone

with occasional clay; moderately weathered; one set
Unit 1 BGE-06 discontinuity is present and spacing is .1-1.5m; intact rock
strength is <1.25MPa; slope direction is NW direction with
Dupi Tila 70˚ dip.
Reddish to yellowish brown sand with silty clay; laminated
shale and bedded sand; moderately weathered; one set of
Unit 2 BGE-06 discontinuity present and spacing is .002 m; intact rock
strength 1.25-5MPa; slope direction is NW direction with
70˚ dip.
Yellowish brown, medium to fine grain, cross bedded
sandstone; slightly weathered; one set of discontinuity is
Unit 3 BGE-07 present and spacing is 0.2 to 0.4m; intact rock strength is
5-12.5MPa; slope direction is SE with 65˚.
Tipam
Bluish grey, fine to very fine, thickly to thinly laminated
shale with sand lenses; slightly weathered; three set of
Unit 4 BGE-08 discontinuities are present and their spacings are 0.001 to
.05m; intact rock strength is <1.25MPa; slope direction is
NW direction with 60˚ dip.
Yellowish brown, medium to fine grained thinly bedded
sandstone with laminated shale; slightly weathered; three
Unit 5 BGE-09 set of discontinuities are present and their spacings are 3 to
0.1m; intact rock strength is 12.5-50MPa; slope direction is
SW direction with 85˚ dip.
 P a g e | 58

Bluish grey colour, .004-.063mm grain size, thinly

laminated shale; fresh, three set of discontinuities are
Unit 6 BGE-04 present and their spacing are .002 to >2m; intact rock
Bokabil
strength is 5-12.5MPa; slope direction is NE direction with
89˚ dip.
Yellowish brown to grey colour, .5-.25mm grain size,
medium grained massive sandstone; faintly weathered;
Unit 7 BGE-02 three sets of discontinuities are present and their spacings
are .02 to .5m; intact rock strength is5-12.5MPa; slope
direction is NE direction with 75˚ dip.

5.4. Slope Stability Analysis

Slope stability is expressed in terms of slope failure mechanism which is divided into
orientation dependent and orientation independent of discontinuity of the rock mass.
Orientation dependent stability measures the probability of slope failure and independent one
measures the probability of slope stability. Below the stability analysis for the slope of each
unit is given:
For the slope of unit-1, the orientation independent stability is <5%. So, the slope is <5% stable.
The orientation dependent stability based on AP value: for bedding, the toppling and sliding
probability is 100%.

Fig: The unit one of Dupi Tila formation at Bandarban

University.
 P a g e | 59

The above figure of unit one shows the highly unstable condition of the slope. Also, the slope
is highly susceptible to weathering. Hence, the slope may fall off any time soon if stabilizing
steps are not taken.

For the slope of unit-2, the orientation independent stability is <5%. So, the slope is <5% stable.
The orientation dependent stability based on AP value; for bedding, the toppling and sliding
probability is 100%.

Fig: The unit two of Dupi Tila formation at Bandarban

University.
The above figure of unit two shows the slope is highly susceptible to weathering. Also
according to the SSPC system, the slope is highly unstable and may fall on further weathering
or excavation work.

For the slope of unit-3, the orientation independent stability is <5%. So, the slope is <5% stable.
The orientation dependent stability based on AP value: for bedding, the toppling and sliding
probability is >95%.

Fig: The unit three of Tipam formation near Suyo Lok Bridge.
 P a g e | 60

The slope has failed in the past during rainy season and is susceptible to weathering. According
to the data obtained from SSPC system, the slope is highly unstable and so the slope may fail
again if proper steps are not taken.

For the slope of unit-4, the orientation independent stability is <5%. So, the slope is <5% stable.
The orientation based on AP value: for bedding, sliding and toppling is 100%; for joint set 1,
toppling probability is <5% and sliding probability is 100%.; for joint set 2, the toppling and
sliding probability is 100%.

Fig: The unit three of Tipam formation around Kerani haat road
section.

The figure of unit three shows that the slope is highly weathered. Also according to the SSPC
system toppling and sliding probability is higher, resulting an unstable slope. The slope failure
may occur on further exposure to weathering or excavation.

For the slope of unit-5, the orientation independent stability is<5%. So, the slope is <5% stable.
The orientation based on AP value: for bedding, sliding and toppling probability is 100%; for
joint set 1, the toppling probability is 95% and sliding probability is 100%.
 P a g e | 61

Fig: The unit 5 of Bokabil formation at Meghla Resort.

From the figure of the unit 5 we can see that the slope is moderately weathered. And according
to the obtained from the SSPC system, the toppling and sliding probability is very high. Hence,
the slope may fall if the shear strength decreases due to weathering or further excavation.

For the slope of unit-6, the orientation independent stability is <5%. So, the slope is only <5%
stable. The orientation dependent stability based on AP value: for bedding, the toppling
probability is 100% and sliding probability is >96%; for both joint set 1 and 2, the toppling and
sliding probability is 100%.

Fig: The unit 6 of Bokabil formation near the tunnel construction

site.
The above figure shows that the slope of unit 5 is highly susceptible to weathering. The slope
is landslide prone and very unstable according to the data obtained from SSPC system. The
slope may fail sooner on further excavation work.
 P a g e | 62

For the slope of unit-7, the orientation independent stability is <5%. So, the slope is only <5%
stable. The orientation dependent stability based on AP value: For joint set 1, the toppling and
slide probability is 100%; for joint set 2 the toppling probability is 100% and sliding probability
is >5%

.
Fig: The unit seven of Bokabil formation near the Bandarban Bus Stand .

From the above slope figure of unit 7 we can see that, the slope is slightly susceptible to
weathering. According the data obtained from SSPC system, along some discontinuity
direction, the slope is highly unstable and may fall off sooner if proper steps are not taken.
Hence, Rock bolts can be used for reducing the probability of slope failure in that direction.

From the stability analysis of all the slopes under different geotechnical units, it is clear that
most of the slopes are highly unstable. Some of them are landslide prone and some slopes have
failure probability along particular discontinuity direction. Different engineering geological
steps are needed to be taken for stabilizing the slopes, for mitigating the landslides and the
damages which may cause due to slope failure.
 P a g e | 63

5.5. Summary:

The hilly district, Bandarban is a landslide prone area. Hence to mitigate this hazard, proper
slope construction plan is needed. And so, the slope stability of the investigated area has been
analysed based on Slope Stability Probability Classification (SSPC) system. The measured
slope stability of all the investigated area is less than <5% and also the sliding-toppling
probability is very high. Hence, the slopes are highly unstable and landslide prone. So,
measured actions are required to stabilise this unstable slopes for life safety, infrastructure
development and economic growth.
 P a g e | 64

CHAPTER 6: GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

 P a g e | 65

6.1. Introduction

A geophysical survey is an exploratory method that uses ground based physical sensing
techniques to systematically collect geophysical data and interprets the subsurface structures
and the resources of Earth beneath the surface. There are a wide range of geophysical surveying
methods based on their operative physical properties.

Among all this methods, the electrical resistivity method has been conducted on the Bandarban
anticlinal area at two location i.e. Venus Resort and Raisa Check post area respectively. The
survey has been carried on this structure to delineate the subsurface bed forms, vertical and
lateral variation in Rock types and to determine the ground water quality, aquifer position and
lateral extent of aquifer.

6.2. Methodology

The electrical resistivity method is sensitive to the medium’s electrical conductivity. For the
survey purpose, this method has been applied using Vertical Electrical Sounding and
Horizontal Electrical Profiling.

Vertical Electrical Sounding is performed based on the measurement of voltage of electrical

field induced by the distant grounded electrodes. The principle of this method is to insert a
electric current of known intensity through the ground with the help of two electrodes (current
electrodes) and measuring the electric potential difference with another two electrodes
(potential electrodes). The investigation depth is proportional with the distance between the
current electrodes. In this survey, the schlumberger array has been used for VES covering a
length 140 feet at Venus Resort area and 100 meters at Raisa Check post area with N-S array
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alignment. Using this array is advantageous for VES survey, as for each measurement the
current electrodes ( A,B ) are moved out ward to a greater separation throughout the survey,
while the potential electrodes ( M,N) stay in same position until the observed potential becomes
too small to measure.

Fig: Electrical Resistivity Survey (VES) at Venus Resort area.

Fig: Schlumberger array configuration.

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Through Horizontal Electrical profiling, the lateral variation beneath the surface is detected
based on the resistivity values. In Horizontal Electrical profiling, the array is moved along the
line of a traverse. The principal of Horizontal profiling is moving an electrode with fixed
electrode separation along a traverse line, the array of electrodes being aligned either in the
direction of the traverse (longitudinal traverse) or at right angle to it ( transverse traverse). For
any symmetrical array for example: Wenner array, the obtained resistivity value is associated
with the centre point of the array. When profiling is done using Wenner array, it is convenient
to use a spacing between stations equal to the electrode spacing. In moving the array the near
most electrode need only be moved a step ahead of the forward electrode, by a distance equal
to the electrode spacing. The cables are then reconnected to the proper electrodes, and the next
reading is made. On the field survey, the used electrode spacing for Horizontal Profiling was
2m, 6m, 15m, 25m respectively with traverse line in S-N direction and 4m, 10, 20m, 30m
respectively with traverse line in N-S direction. The data obtained from the Horizontal
Electrical Profiling is used for Electrical Resistivity Tomography i.e. imaging of subsurface
structures.

Fig: Electrical Resistivity Survey (Imaging) at Venus

Resort area.
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Fig: Wenner array configuration.

6.3. Data Processing:

The data processing of survey data was done using manual process (partial curve matching)
and in digital process (using geophysical software). Both of the processes are described below:

Partial curve matching process is only applicable for VES data. In this process, a master curve,
respective auxiliary curve and a log-log graph paper are needed. Partial curve matching
requires matching of small segments of field profile (drawn from VES data) with theoretical
curves (master curve) for two or more horizontal layers.

Generally the process is started from the left hand side (small spacing) of the profile and match
successive segments towards the right (large spacing). When the portion of the field curve is
reasonably matched then all the layers are stacked together and provides an effective resistivity
and depth or thickness. And then the field profile is matched with their respective auxiliary
curve (A, H, K, Q type curves) based on their resistivities. The similar procedure is applied for
the next portion. The matching process requires to locate the origin (Auxiliary cross) on the
master curve with respect to the field curve for attaining the best fit to successive portions of
the later as progressing right. The whole process is described in simple steps below:
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1. The left hand portion of the field sounding curve plotted on a log-log paper is fitted to as
many as point possible on the master curve, maintaining the respective axes parallel. This fit
provides the location of first cross where we obtain ρ1, h1 and the best fit segment gives (ρ2 /
ρ1) or ρ2.

2. The sounding curve is then matched with the appropriate auxiliary curve where the cross is
placed at the origin and the same curve (ρ2/ρ1) curve of the auxiliary as that step 1 is drawn.

3. Replacing the sounding curve on the master curve and maintaining the drawn line from step
2 on the master origin, a second master segment further to the right is fitted to the sounding
curve. The second cross is marked over the master origin which gives ρeff1, heff1.

This 3 steps are followed for the next portion of the sounding curve until it is completely fitted
with the master curve. And for the field survey, the H- type and Q- type auxiliary curves have
been used for the sounding curve matching of VES-5 and VES-6 data.

In digital process, two software were used for survey data measurement. 1X1D software was
used for VES data calculation. And RS2DINV software was used for Horizontal Profiling data
calculation.

In 1X1D software, the VES data obtained from the field is entered as input data. Then the
software creates a matched or fitted sounding curves determining the number of layers with the
layered model automatically. In the layered model one can edit the fitting of the sounding curve
with the master curve. And the output result of the software provides data of resistivity and
thickness for each layers. In RS2DINV software, the Profiling data is entered then the software
creates a resistivity curve and a model (cross section) providing the apparent resistivity for each
layer from minimum to maximum resistivity value and shows the intensity with colour contrast.
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By comparing the data determined from this two process, an approximate information about
the resistivity and the thickness of the subsurface layers can be obtained which will used in the
further interpretation of the surveyed area.
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6.4. Result
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6.5. Interpretation

The data obtained from the VES and Horizontal Profiling shows that there are four subsurface
layer present at both of the location.

At Venus resort, from the determined data of VES-5 and Horizontal Profiling via partial curve
matching and software we can interpret:

The resistivity of first layer is ranging from 35 to 41.6 Ohm-m which indicates the first layer
is probably top soil unit. And the thickness of the first layer is 2 m. The resistivity of the second
layer is ranging from 28 to 28.5 Ohm-m which indicates silty clay layer and has a thickness of
about 3 to 9 m. The resistivity of the third layer is ranging from 21.03 to 23.2 Ohm-m which
indicates Medium to coarse sand unit and has a thickness of over 10 m. Finally, the resistivity
of fourth layers is ranging from 34.5 to 37.4 Ohm-m indicating the fine to medium sand unit
and has a thickness of over 42 m.

At Raisa Check post, from the determined data of VES-6 via partial curve matching and
software we can interpret:

The resistivity of first layer is ranging from 127.95 to 90 Ohm-m which indicates clayey soil
unit and has a thickness of about 2 m. The resistivity of second layer is ranging from 36 to 55.9
Ohm-m which indicates silty clay unit and has thickness of about 5 m. The resistivity of the
third layers is ranging from 15 to 18.2 Ohm-m indicating fine to medium sand unit and has a
thickness of about 35 m. And the resistivity of the fourth layer is ranging from 14 to 11 Ohm-
m indicating fine to medium sand unit which has thickness of over 35 m.

The measured resistivity and their respective lithology for 3rd and 4th layer of both of the
location shows that units are composed of medium to coarse and fine to medium grain sized
sand. So, this two sand units of subsurface are probably the water bearing units i.e. aquifer of
the surveyed area. Also, if the resistivity value is above 10 Ohm-m, then it suggests fresh to
very fresh water. And the measured resistivity of this two sand units for both location are
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above 10, ranging from 21 to 37 Ohm-m at Venus Resort and 11 to 18 Ohm-m at Raisa Check
post. And so the quality of water, present in this two sand units (aquifer) is fresh water.

6.6. Summary:

The Electrical Resistivity survey was conducted at two location i.e. Venus Resort and Raisa
Check post. The survey was accomplished using two methods: Vertical electrical Sounding
and Horizontal Profiling. The surveyed geo electric data is processed via manual partial curve
matching procedure and geo physical software. The determined resistivity and thickness data
shows presence of 4 subsurface layer at both location where the first two layers are composed
of top soil (clayey soil) and silty clay sediments respectively. And the 3rd and 4th layers are
sand units with fine to coarser grain size. So, this two sand units make up the aquifer system
for the both surveyed area. The extent of aquifer is probably from 10m below the surface to
over 42m depth at Venus Resort and from 5m below the surface to over 35m depth at Raisa
Check post. Also, the resistivity values of the two sand units (aquifer) indicate that the quality
of water is fresh.
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CHAPTER 7: LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER CHANGES

DETECTION FROM 2000 TO 2019
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7.1. Introduction:

Landcover refers to the surface cover on the ground, whether vegetation, infrastructure, water
and bare soil. Identifying, delineating and mapping Landcover is important for the purpose of
Landuse management such as settlement, agriculture and others. And on this regard, this field
survey has been conducted to detect changes in Landuse and Landcover of the investigated
from the year 2000 till 2019. For this purpose, remote sensing image and soft wares have been
used to classify, measure and detect changes in the Landuse over the past years.

7.2. Materials:

The materials required for the Landuse and Landcover are basically the in situ and remote
sensing data. The in situ data is the GPS reading of selected locations to cover the investigated
area and a camera to capture the surrounding information about the surveyed area such as
vegetation, hills, barren land and water bodies during the field work. The remote sensing data
includes the images of LandSAT 7 and LandSAT 8 from year 2000 and 2019 respectively.
Also, to process all this information and in detecting the changes happened over the past 19
years, ERDAS Imagine and Arc GIS soft wares are required.
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7.2.1. LandSAT 7 ETM+ Image (2000)

LandSAT 7 satellite is equipped with Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+). This satellite
sensor was launched on 15 April 1999, at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. The sensor
has the same seven bands as TM and also a newly added band 8. The band 8 is a panchromatic
band which has high resolution of about 15m. The orbit period of this satellite is 98.9 minutes
and the resolution capacity is about 15 to 60m. LandSAT 7 data has been used by government,
commercial and industrial purposes throughout the world. The data can be used for various
application such as agriculture plan, hazard mitigation plan, and survey work and to detect
changes in Landuse management. For the purpose of the field survey, a LandSAT 7 image of
the investigated Bandarban anticlinal area has been taken from the year 2000. The information
from this image will be used for interpreting the changes happened in the area over the past
year.

7.2.2. Landsat 8 OLI Image (2019)

Landsat 8 is an American Earth Observation satellite launched on February 11, 2013. It is the
eighth satellite in the Landsat program. The satellite has two main sensors: the Operational
Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). These two instruments collect
data about nine short wave bands and two long wave thermal bands respectively. The Landsat
8 has nine bands where bands 1-7, 9 are the multispectral bands and the band 8 is panchromatic
band. The spatial resolution of Landsat 8 is 15 to 30 meters which is sufficient enough to
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distinguish features like urban centres, farms, forests and other land uses. The datum used for
Landsat 8 is world Geodetic System (WGS) 84. For the field survey, a Landsat 8 image of the
investigated Bandarban anticlinal area has been taken from the year 2019. This image will be
used to detect changes in Landuse by comparing with Landsat 7 image of the same area.

7.3. Methodology
It is necessary to classify the Landsat image to distinguish between land surface, water body
and vegetation; also to observe the changes occurred with time. For this purpose the following
methods are applied to collect information from the Landsat images:

7.3.1. NDVI
NDVI (Normalized difference vegetation Index) is used to quantify vegetation cover in remote
sensing. It is measured by calculating (NIR-RED/NIR+RED); where NIR is reflection in the
near infrared spectrum and RED is reflection in the red range of the spectrum. According to
this formula, the density of vegetation (NDVI) at a certain point of the image is equal to the
difference in the intensities of reflected light in the red and infrared rang divided by the sum of
these intensities. The index defines values from -1 to 1 basically as greens (vegetation), where
negative values are mainly represent clouds, water and snow; values close to zero represent
rock and bare soil .But when NDVI value is close to zero, there isn’t green leaves and it could
even be an urbanized area. Also, the state of the plant health can be identified by observing
NDVI measurements.
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7.3.2. NDWI
The NDWI index is used for water body mapping in remote sensing. The water body has strong
absorbability and low radiation in the range from visible to infrared wavelengths. The index
uses the green and near infrared bands of remote sensing images based on this phenomenon
and NDWI is calculated by: (NIR-SWIR/NIR+SWIR); where NIR= near infrared range with
wavelengths in the range of .841-.876nm and SWIR= part of the range with wavelength in the
range of 1.628-1.652nm. NDWI enhance water information effectively where values of water
bodies are larger than 0.5 and vegetation has much smaller value. The NDVI index is
dimensionless and varies from -1 to +. The results of NDVI can be represented in the form of
maps and graphs, providing information on both the spatial distribution of water stress on
vegetation and its temporal evolution over long period of time.

7.3.3. Unsupervised Classification :

Unsupervised classification is where the outcomes (groupings of pixels with common

characteristics) are based on the software analysis of an image without the user providing
sample classes. So, this classification does not provide any Sample classes for the remote
sensing image. In this method, the user selects the number of classes and bands to apply for the
satellite image. Next, the software clusters pixels into set number of classes based on the input
parameters. Finally, the Landcover, vegetation, water surface are identified from their iso-
cluster output i.e. the group of pixels with the assigned same colour.
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7.4. Results and Discussions :

Table of NDVI values:

Landsat Image Class : water Class: Bare Class: mixed Class: Vegetation
land

Landsat 7 (2000) 149 sq. km 168 sq. km 185 sq. km 215 sq.km

Landsat 8 (2019) 45 sq. km 184 sq. km 288 sq. km 194 sq. km

Fig: NDVI of the Landsat Fig: NDVI of the Landsat

Image (2000). Image (2019).
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Fig: NDWI of the Landsat Fig: NDWI of the Landsat Image

Image (2000). (2019).

By comparing the NDVI and NDWI results of Landsat 7 image (2000) and Landsat 8 image
(2019), we can see that the vegetation covered area and the water surfaces have reduced in the year
2019 than the year 2000. On the contrary , occupied area (settlement) and bare land have increased
massively due to human activity and other uses.
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7.5. Summary:
The Land use and Land cover survey has been conducted to detect the changes that occurred
at the investigated area over the past 19 years. For this purpose, remote sensing image and soft
wares has been used for the identification, classification, measurement of data from the image
to further interpreting he changes. According to the comparison of the two remote sensing
image, it is clear that the human activities has greatly reduced forest, bare land, water body.
And on the other hand, the cultivable land, settlement, infrastructure development and other
uses have occupied most of the land surface.
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CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
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Conclusions and Recommendations:

The field work on the Bandarban anticline has covered most of the information from different
geological aspects, which includes the geological situation of the studied area, stratigraphy of
that regions, structures exposed on the exposures. Also, the application of such geological
knowledge in its different branches have been shown during the survey.

The anticlinal area situated in the eastern fold belt zone of Bangladesh bears a poor prospect
from petroleum perspective. The sand units encountered at depths 42m and above are
interpreted to be the aquifers of the surveyed area. The major water bearing units are Bokabil
and Tipam formation. According to the water quality assessment, the water quality is fresh and
presence of contaminants have been detected. The slope stability throughout the surveyed area
has been deciphered as highly unstable which may cause landslide in future. From Landuse
and Landcover study of the studied area, it is clear that human constructions and barren lands
have increased more than the vegetated and water surfaces.

The major calamity for this region is the search of water. Ground water is pumped from greater
depth in Bokabil formation whereas in Tipam formation at less depth water can be pumped out
but it is contaminated. So, a well plan map can be provided to solve this problem by identifying
the aquifer system, developing the water source potentials and managing the water resources
for this region.

From the field work, it is clear that the slope which were cut for road construction are highly
unstable and some of them have fallen few times already. Most of the slopes studied throughout
the surveyed area are landslide prone. So, to avoid any future damage, some steps can be taken
to stabilize this slopes.

The Landuse and Landcover changes data displays that, humans are filling up streams,
deforesting the forests areas and increasing the number of barren land for their habitats,
cultivation, construction and other uses. All this activities are harmful for the surrounding
environments and living animal of this hilly area. So, some strongly restricting steps can be
taken from government to save environment and thus providing a controlled urban
development plan.
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CHAPTER 9: REFERENCES
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References
Bieniawaski. “Rock Mass Classification.” 1976.

F.H, Khan. Geology of Bangladesh.

Imam, Badrul. Energy Resources Of Bangladesh. January 2013.

Keary.p and Brooks. An introduction to geophysical exploration. Third edition. 1984.

MD. MASIDUL HAQUE, MRINAL KANTI ROYO, NAJNEEN SULTANA JOLY.

“Sequence Stratigraphy of the Surma Group of Rocks, Bandrban Anticline, Chittagong Hill
Tracts, Bangladesh.” International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, June 2010: 341-
356.

R. Hacks, D.Price, N.Rengers. “A new approach to rock slope stability- a probability

classification (SSPC).” Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, june 2002.

Richard C. Selley, Stephen A. Sonnenberg. Elements of Petroleum Geology. Third edition. n.d.

W.M. Telford, L.P. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff. Applied Geophysics. Second edition. 1990.
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APPENDICES
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Hydrogeology data sheets:

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Geophysical survey data sheet:

Vertical Electrical Profiling
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Horizontal Electrical Profiling

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