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    Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la critica y la investigacion respetando la reglamentacion en materia de derechos de autor. Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducci6n total o parcial. El uso indebido de este documento es responsabilidad del estudiante @SAGE use Angee | Landen New Ded Singapore | Washingian DC FOR INFORMATION; SAGE Publications, Inc, 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail oscorttsagepub.com ‘SAGE Publications Ll 1 Diiver's Yard 55 City Road Londan EG1Y 1SP Liked Kadam SAGE Publications India Put. Lte 11/11 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area (Mathura Road, New Delhi #70 044 India ‘SAGE Publications Asia-Pactfe Pt Lids 2 Church Sirest #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049403 ‘Acquisitions Editor, Vicki Kriggt Editonal Asestant Jessica Young AAssistent Editor Kalle Kosclelak Producten Edlilor: Britany Bauhaus Copy Editor: Megan Markenich ‘Typesetter, CEM Digitals (P) Ltd, Proofaader: Ras-Ann Goodwin Indexer; Gloria Tierney Copyright ® 2014 by SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. Ne part of this book may be reproduced oF utilized in any form or by any means. electronfe of mechanical, including photocopying, recording, arby any information storage and reteieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Libniry of Congress Cataloging-tr-Publication Data Creswell, John W. Research design > qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches / John W; Creswell. — ath ed, poem Includes bibliographical references and index, ISBN'978-1-4522-2605-5 (cloth) — ISHN 978-1-4522-2610+1 (pbk.} 1, Social sciences—Research—Methodology, 2, Soolal sciences—Statistical methods. 1. Title. 162.069h 3 2014 F00,72'1-de24 2n12043521 This book Is printed! on ackd-tree papor. 83 CHAPTER NINE Qualitative Methods Luoitative methods demonstrate a diferent approach to schok carly inquiry than methods of quantiatne research, Although the processes are similar, qualitative methods roly on text ond Image dota, have unique steps in data analy, ond draw on diverse designs. Wrting @ methods section for a proposal for qualitctivereseorch Paty requires educating readers as tothe Intent of qualitative research mentioning specific designs. carefully reflecting on the role the researcher lays in the study clawing from an everexpanding list of types of data souces, using spectic protocols for recording data, analyzing the infor mation through multiple steps of analysis, and mentioning approaches ‘or documenting the accuracy—or validly—of the data collected. his Chapter addresses these important components of wing a good uolitative methods section into a proposal.lable 9.1 presents a check- ist for reviewing the qualitative methods section of your proposal to eletmine whether you have addressed important topics. ‘Ae the basic characteristics of qualitative studies mentioned? ——— | |s the specic ype of qualitative design fo be used in the study montones? he hey ofa dete conc ‘applications forthe design mentioned? ——— | Does the reader gain an understanding of the researcher’ ole ‘the study (past historical, social, cultural experiences, personal ‘connections fo sites and people, steps in gaining entity. ond sensitive eitical issues) and how they may shape ‘ade in the study? Designing Research mee Aa RaIGESIS Tara ot den cotecton mentioned and eae fgiven focthoir use? es == rs the pooedures for ecoraing niormation during the Goa Cotecton detailed (such as protocols)? : ‘re the dala ano}yss stops Ideniiioc?_ =I Tr hei evidence thot he researcher has organized the data for onoys? He resarcher reviewed the dcto gonerolty to oblon a sense of ee ~ Hs he researcher coded the dota? Hew the codes Been developed 10 o1rm © Goscnphon ander identity themes? ‘Ae the themes interelcied fo show a higher kevel of analysis and abstoction?| ‘re the ways hat the dato wil be represented mentioned auch Gs in tables. gonhs, anc figures? Howe the bates for interpreting the anotyais been speciied {perioral periences the iterature. questions. achon agenda}? Cente searcher mentioned the outcome of the shud Kceveloped a theory. provided a compion Picture of themes)? eeveoped a theory. provided 0 mae nulbesclegies been Gtod for valdotng the Nn I requires attention to topics xed methods) project. These n being used in the study and. in basic intent. It also involves st analysts steps and the preting it, validating it, and Study. In contrast to other designs, EE oe Chapter 4, in Examples 4.1 ture of a qualitative proposal t | provided ano ticlided thee matholeceaea The Characteristics of Qualitative Research For many years, proposal writers had to discuss the characte © Review the needs of potential audiences for the proposal. vide whether audience members ure knowledgeable enough about the charw teristics of qualitative research that this section Is not necessary © If there is some question about their knowledge present the bse characteristics of qualitative research in the proposal and pomslby ¢ arecent qualitative research journal article (or study) 1 use ws ae example toilustrate the characteristics © if you present the basic characteristics, what ones should yt met some common agreement today about the ewe ‘qualitative research. A number of authors of introductory texts convey these characteristics, such as Creswell (201) Hatch (2002), and Marshall and Rossman (2011) i the + Natural setting: Qualitative researchers end cols 0 field at the site where participants experie a als nto w la (a co under study. They do not bring individuals nt situation), nor do they typically send out insti als to complete. This up-close information Ty talking directly to people and seeing them belts Ot Nr their context is a major characteristic of WT — the natural setting, the researchers ha often over time. «© Researcher as key instrument examining doc nstruments far indivi hered by actly act he sate i -uments, obs themselves through came or mterviewing participants: THY A ores aretha Mistrament for collecting dat—but ne oe end ow who aetually gather the Inform aton TA yyeped rely on questionnaires oF Ins a researchers - native cescrches + Muldpe sources of dae: Quality Tr, aber ade multiple forms of data, sit Ray ments, and audiovisual Info 186 Designing Research data source. Then the researchers review all of the data, make sense of it, and organize it into categories or themes that cu across all of the data sources. Inductive and deductive data analysis: Qualitative researchers bud their patterns, categories, and themes from the bottom up by ‘organizing the data into increasingly more abstract units of inlor mation. This inductive process illustrates working back and forth between the themes and the database until the researchers have ‘established a comprehensive set of themes. Then deductivey the researchers look back at their data from the themes to determine iff more evidence can support each theme or whether they need to gather additional information. ‘Thus, while the process begins inductively, deductive thinking also plays an importantrole asthe analysis moves forward. Participants’ meanings: In the entire qualitative research process, the researcher keeps a focus on learning the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or that writers express in the literature, Emergent design: The research process for qualitative researchersis ‘emergent. This means that the initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed, and some or all phases of the process my change or shift after the researcher enters the field and begins 0 collect data. For example, the questions may change. the forms of data collection may shift, and the individuals studied and the tes Visited may be modified. The key idea behind qualitative research Is to learn about the problem or issue from participants and le address the research to obtain that information. Refleivity: In qualitative research, the inquirer reflects about how their role in the study and their personal background, cut ttre, and experiences hold potential for shaping thet interpret tons, such as the themes they advance and the meaning ascribe to the data. This aspect of the methods is more than merely advancing biases and values in the stud, but bow the background of the researchers actually may shape the direction of the study, Holistic acount: Qualitative researchers try to develo ome Plcture ofthe problem or issue under study. This involves ‘ing multiple perspectives, identifying the many factorsiav0"" a situation, and generally sketching the larger peture emerges. A visual model of many facets of a process or8 cen Phenomenon aids in establishing this holistic pleture 6% example, Creswell & Brown, 1992), —_— — Qualitative Methods 187 qualitative Designs beyond these general characteristics are more specific designs, ‘These Jeigns focus on data collection, analysis, and writing, but they originate catof disciplines and flow throughout the process of research (e.g. types af problems, ethical issues of importance). Many designs exist, such as the 28approaches identified by Tesch (1990), the 22 types in Wolcott's (2009) wee, and the five traditions to qualitative inquiry by Creswell (2013). Marshall and Rossman (2011) discussed five types common across five dif. {cent authors, As mentioned in Chapter 1, [recommend that qualitative rmearchers choose from among the possibilities, such as narrative, phe- romenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. { selected these five because they were popular across the social and health sciences lday. Others exist that have been addressed adequately in qualitative tooks such as participatory action research (Kemmis & Wilkinson, 1998) er dscourse analysis (Cheek, 2004), In. the designs, researchers might study individuals (narrative, phenomenology): explore processes, activi- tes, and events (case study, grounded theory); orlearn about broad culture- shicing behavior of individuals or groups (ethnography). lnwrting a procedure for a qualitative proposal, consider the following research tips: © ‘entify the specific design that you will be using and provide refr- ‘ences to the literature that discusses the approach. Provide some background information about the design, such as its dscipline origin, the applications of it (preferably to your field), and a brief definition of it (see Chapter 1 for the five designs). © Discuss why itis an appropriate strategy to use in the proposed study. © identify how the use of the design will shape many aspects of the Process, such as the title, the problem, the research questions, the data collection and analysis and report write-up. The Researcher's Role ‘mentioned in the lst of characteristics, qualitative research is inter- Petaive research; the inquirer ts typically involved in a sustained and tse experience with participants, This intrauces a range of strategie ce ersonal issues into the qualitative research Wel Pee verman, 2013), With these concerns in gt ‘RAG Hen reflexively thee biases, values, and personal backround *S gender, history, culture, and socioeconomic status (SES) that shape tations formed during a study. In addition, gaining entry toa reenulste and the ethical sues that might arise ar also elements ofthe her's role, _— 188 Designing Research © Include statements about past experiences with the research prob: Jem or with the participants or setting that help the teader understand the ‘connection between the researchers and the study. These experiences may involve partcipatioa in the setting, past educational or work experiences, “orculture, ethnicity, race, SES, or other demographics that te theresearch- cts directly tothe study. ‘© Be explicit, then, about how these experiences may potentially shape the interpretations the researchers make during the study. For example, the experiences may cause researchers to lean toward certain themes, to actively look or evidence to support their positions, and to create favorable ‘or unfavorable conclusions about the sites or participants. © Comment on connections between the researchers and the partic: pants and on theresearch sites that may unduly influence the researchers interpretations, “Backyard” research (Glesne & Peshikin, 1992) involves studying researchers own organization, or friends, or immediate work st: ting, This often leads to compromises in the researchers’ ability to disclose information and raises issues of an imbalance of power between the inquirers and the participants. When researchers collect data at their own workplace (or when they are in. superior role to participants) the infor. mation may be convenient and easy to collect, but it may not be accurate information and may jeopardize the roles of the researchers and the pat ticipants. I studying the backyard is essential, then researchers hold the responsibility foc showing how the data will not be compromised and how such information will not place the participants (or the researchers) a risk, In addition, multiple strategies for validation are necessary to demon strate the accuracy of the information, © Indicate steps taken to obtain permission from the Insiutona review board (IRB) (see Chapter 4) to protect the rights of aman part pants. Attach, asan appendix, the approval letter from the IRBand discus the process involved in securing permissions. © Discuss steps taken to gain entry to the setting and to secure| permis sions to study the participants or situation (Marshall & Rossman,201)). is important to gain access to research or archival sites by se=kine a approval of gatekeepers, individuals at the who provide access 10 site and allow or permit the research to be done. A brief propos#l i need to be developed and submitted for review to gatekeepers. eee Biklen (1992) advanced topics that could be addressed in such a PF © Why was the site chosen for study? © What activities will occur at the site during the research 0 © Will the study be disruptive? © How will the results be reported? © What will the gatekeeper gain from the study? — ‘© Comment about sensitive ethical issues that may arise (see Chapter 3), foreach issue raised, discuss how the research study will address it, For ‘ample, when studying a sensitive topic, itis necessary to mask names of people, places, and activities. In this situation, the process for masking information requires discussion in the proposal, Qualitative Methods 189 Data Collection Procedures (Comments about the role of the researcher set the stage for discussion of ‘sues involved in collecting data. The data collection steps include setting tbetoundaries for the study, collecting information through unstructured or semi structured observations and interviews, documents, and visual neterials, as well as establishing the protocol for recording information, © Identify the purposefully selected sites or individuals for the proposed study The idea bebind qualitative research is to purposefully select par- tkipants or sites (or documents or visual material) that will best help the recarcher understand the problem and the research question. This does ‘oinecessarily suggest random sampling or selection ofa large number of Pertcipants and sites, as typically found in quantitative research, A discus- ‘a about participants and site might include four aspects identified by Mies and Huberman (1994): (a) the setting (Le., where the research will {ake place), (b) the actors (i.e, who will be observed or interviewed). (c) the Gvens(ie., what the actors will be observed or interviewed doing), and (dhe process (Le., the evolving nature of events undertaken by the actors within the setting), © A related topic would be the number of sites and participants to be livoled in your study. Aside from the small number that characterizes ‘ualitative research, how many sites and participants should you have? Fist of all, there is no specific answer to this question; although I have laten the position (Creswell, 2013) that sample size depends on the qual- ‘atvedesign being used (e.g,,ethnography, case study). From my review of fy Qualitative research studies I have found narrative research to ‘ht one or two individuals: phenomenology to typically range from Wee to ten; grounded theory, twenty to thirty; ethnography to examine (Risitee culture-sharing group with numerous artifacts, interviews, and ations; and case studies to include about four to five cases. This is Gtainly one approach to the sample size issue. Another approach is a Viable. The idea of saturation comes from grounded theory. Hmmaz (2006) said that you stop collecting data when the categories (or ) are saturated: when gathering fresh data no longer sparks new "sor reveals new properties. tate dicate the type or types of data to be collected. In many qualitative Inquirers collect multiple forms of data and spend "= Designing Research + time in the natural setting gathering information. The collection proce ures in qualitative research involve four basic types and thei strengths ‘and limitations, as shown in Tuble 9.2. ‘+ A qualitative observation is when the researcher takes eld notes on the behavior and activities of individuals at the research site. In these field notes, the researcher records, in an ‘unstructured or semistructured way (using some prior questions that the inquirer wants to know), activities at the research site Qualitative observers may also engage in roles varying from a ‘nonparticipant to a complete participant. Typically these obser vations are open-ended in thatthe researchers ask general ques 8 of the participants allowing the participants to freely provide their views © In qualitative interviews, the researcher conducts faceto-ace interviews with participants, telephone interviews, or engages in focus group interviews with six to eight interviewees in each group. These interviews involve unstructured and generally ope: ended questions that are few in number and intended to elicit views and opinions from the participants. ‘+ During the process of research, the investigator may collet qual itative documents. These may be public documents (ees papers, minutes of meetings, oficial reports) or private documents (ex. personal journals and diaries, letters, e-mails) * A final category of qualitative data consists of qualitative audio and visual materials, This data may take the form of phot sraphs, art objects, videotapes, website main pages, malls et ‘messages, social media text, or any forms of sound. Include ew ative data collection procedures that fall under the category of Visual ethnography (Pink, 2001) and whcl might includ living stories, metaphorical visual narratives, and digital archive (Clandinin, 2007). * Inadiscussion about data collection forms, be spec boat l= types and include arguments concerning the strengthsand wl nesses of each type, as discussed in Table 9.2, ions! © Include data collection types that go beyond typical observations Interviews. These unusual forms create reader interest in @ Pt can. capture useful Information that observations and interviews 25 ‘miss. For example, examine the compendium of types of data ia Toe a that can be used, to stretch the imagination about possiblities fathering sounds or tastes, or sing cherished items to eb om during an interview, | a _— Qualitative Methods 191 Options Within Types ‘+ Complete participant— researcher conceals role + Observer as aricipant—role of researcher is known + Porticipant as obsever— observation role secondary to Participont ole + Complete observer— researcher observes ‘without participating Designing Research oie * ‘Advantages of the ypes Options within Types _| Type = time convenient to researcher— ‘on unobitusive s0u09 of information. + Represents cata to which ppaticiponts hove gion tention. As witien evidence, i foes researcher the time ond expense of tronsoning Moy be on Viseotopes Uncbirusve Atabjects method ot Colecting data Sounds + Prondes on Fim ‘opportnity for participants to Site share ‘their reality. = tis creative in thot captures tention visual e i’ | [Audio-Visual on NOTE:Ths table incuces matetal adapted tom Mriam (1998). + Gather fold noles by conducting an obseretion os © participant + athe fee notes by conducting an observation as an observer ‘| Gather field notes by spending more time os a participant than as on oer + Gator tet notes by ening more te os an obser thon os 2 =aD * Gather fold nots ts by observing cs « ‘paticipant outsider” and he" Into the seting and observing os 6 “partcpanknsider” 4nt® entering the field, qualitative researchers plan their approach 19 ‘ecording. The proposal should identify what data the researcher will ‘ord and the procedures for recording data. Sat to develop and use a protocol for recording observations In & fat sty. Researchers often engage in multiple observations dur- the course of a qualitative study and use an‘ [protocol ‘With ortlBg information while observing. This may be a single pase Tels of it line down the middle to separate descriptive notes (DO of the participants, a reconstruction of dialogue, a description 194 Designing Research the physical setting, accounts of particular events, or activities) fom reflective notes (the researcher's personal thoughts, such as “specula: tion, feelings. problems, ideas, hunches, impressions, and prejudices” Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 121). Also written on this form might be demographic information about the time, place, and date of the field set ting where the observation takes place. {© Plan to develop and use an interview protocol for asking questions and recording answers during a qualitative interview. Researchers record {information from interviews by making handwritten notes, by audotaping, orby videotaping, Even f an interview is taped recommend that esearch- ers take notes inthe event that recording equipment fails. If auditaping is used, researchers need to plan in advance for the transcription of the tape, The interview protocol needs to include the folowing components: © A heading (date, place, interviewer, interviewee) 6 Instructions forthe interviewer to follow so that standard proce dures are used from one interview to another ‘© The questions (typically an ice-breaker question atthe beginning followed by four to five questions that are often the subquestions ina qualitative research plan, followed by some concluding state ‘ment or a question, such as, “Who should I visit with to learn ‘more about my questions?” © Probes for the four to five questions, to follow up and ask individu als to explain their ideas in. more detail, or to elaborate on what they have said ‘© Spaces between the questions to record responses © A final thank-you statement to acknowledge the time the inter viewee spent during the interview © Researchers typically develop a log to keep a record of documents collected for analysis in a qualitative study Ina proposal for atu {tis helpfl to note in this log whether the information repress Primary material. information directly from the people ost- ation under study) or secondary material (,e., secondhandaccoun!s of the people or situation written by others). Itis also helt comment on the reliability and value ofthe data sources. For vial ‘materials, some form of system is needed to organize the matrals 0 that they can be easily retrieved. A log kept by the researchers ‘would work equally well for this form of data. Data Analysis and Interpretation ‘A methods discussion in a qualitative proposal needs also to specify he steps in analyzing the various forms of qualitative data. In gener (D€ ent isto make sense out of text and image data It involves segmenting andtaking apart the data (like Peeling back the layers of an onion) as sels putting it back together. The discussion in your proposal about iualative data analysis might begin with several general points about the eal process: (© Dataanalysis in qualitative research will proceed hand-in-hand with ciber arts of developing the qualitative study, namely, the data collection tndithe write-up of findings. While interviews are going on, for example, rseuchers may be analyzing an interview collected earlier, writing ‘nemosthat may ultimately be included as a narrative inthe final report, tad organizing the structure of the final report. This process is unlike ‘nantiative research in which the investigator collects the data, then analy the information, and finally writes the report. © Because text and image data are so dense and rich, not all of the inrmation can be used in a qualitative study. Thus, in the analysts of the dota researchers need to “winnow” the data (Guest. MacQueen, & Namey, 2012), process of focusing in on some of the data and disregarding other Jars of it, This process, too, is different from quantitative research in hich researchers go to great lengths to preserve allof the data and recon= suc or replace missing data, In qualitative research, the impact of this roe isto aggregate data into a small number of themes, something like feto seven themes (Creswell, 2013). © Alo specify whether you will use a qualitative computer data analysis ‘rogram to assist you in analyzing the data (or whether you will hand code thedaa), Hand coding is a laborious and time-consuming process, even for daa fom a few individuals, Thus, qualitative software programs have bcomequite popular, and they help researchers organi, sort. and search ioemation in text or image databases (see Guest and colleagues! 012} chapter on qualitative data anallysis softwar). Several excellent Snputer software programs are available, and they have similar features: Px tutrals and demonstration fle, the ability to incorporate both text {nd image (c-., photographs) data, the features of storing and organizing thesearch capacity of locating all text associated with specific codes, there codes for making queries of the relationship among codes, and ifort and export of qualitative data to quantitative programs, such 38 ‘ratsheets or data analysis programs. ‘The basic Idea behind these pro- sea ‘that using the computer isan efficient means for storing and! ee igus data. Although the researcher still nes to go Uarough tex (asin hand coding by going through transcriptions) and assign inky rocess may be faster and more efficent than hand coding. ABS, ae stabases, the researcher can quickly locate al passages (or ttt ue "coded the same and determine whether participants are ay “code idea in similar o efferent ways. Beyond this, the comput Qualitative Methods 195 196 Designing Research program can facilitate comparing different codes (e.g., How do males and females—the first code of gender—diler in terms of thet atitudes to _moking—a second code). These are just a few features of the software pro- grams that make them a logical choice for qualitative data analysis ver hhand coding. As with any software program, qualitative software programs require time and skill to learn and employ effectively. although books for learning the programs are widely available, Demos are available for three popular qualitative data analysis software programs MAXqda (wwwmax (qda.com/), Atlas: (wwwatlasti.com), and QSR: NVivo (wwwasrintera tional.com/). The first two programs were developed in Germany and the third in Australia, These programs are available to work on a PC or MAC. © A helpful conceptualization to advance in the methods section is that qualitative data analysis will proceed on two levels: (a) the first isthe more ‘general procedure in analyzing the data (see below), and (b) the second would be the analysis steps embedded within specific qualitative designs. For exam- ple, narrative research employs restorying the participants’ stories using structural devices, sch as plot, seting, activites, climax, and denovement (Clandinin & Connelly 2000). Phenomenological research uses the analysis ‘of significant statements, the generation of meaning units, and the develop- ment of what Moustakas (1994) called an esserice description, Grounded theory has systematic steps (Corbin & Strauss, 2007; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998). These involve generating categories of information (open coding). selecting one of the categories and positioning it within a theoretical model (axial coding), and then explicating a story from the interconnection ofthese categories (selective coding). Case study and ethnographic research involve detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis ofthe data for themes or issues (See Stake, 1995; Woleott, 1994). A complete description of the data analysis in a proposal, when the inquirer is using ane of these strategies, would be to first describe the general process of amass followed by the specic steps within the strategy. © Despite these analytic differences depending on the type of straleky used, qualitative inquirers often use a general procedure and convey inthe Proposal the steps in data analysis. An ideal situation is to blend the s™ ‘eral steps with the specific research strategy steps. An overview of the data ‘analysis process is seen in Figure 9.1. As a research tip, I urge researchers to look at qualitative data analysis as following steps from the specific tothe feneral and as involving multiple levels of analysis. ‘This figure suggests a linear, hierarchical approach building from th bottom to the top, but I see it as more interactive in practice: the stages are interrelated and not always visited in the order presented. ‘suggest that you advance these seven steps in your methods section of YF Proposal and give concrete illustrations of potential codes and themes tht ‘ight emerge in your study. Interpreting the Meaning of ‘Themes/Descrptions Interrelating Themes/Descrption (e.g., grounded theory, case study) Reading Through AllData ‘Organizing and Preparing Data for Analysis Raw Data (transcript, fieldnotes, images, et.) Sep 1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis. This involves ‘ranscibing interviews, optically scanning material, typing up field notes, Glaloguing all of the visual material, and sorting and arranging the data into diferent types depending on the sources of information. Sp 2. Read or look at all the data. This frst step provides @ genet “tse of the information and an ‘opportunity to reflect on its: oe Ste What general eas te partepants saying? What ten 1 ie! What is the impression of the overall depth, credibilt, ray ‘he information? Sometimes qualitative researchers write notes Peuins of transcripts or observational field notes, or start some Fat eughts about the data at this stag. For visual data, a skete ‘can begin to take shape. tiga, Sart coding al of the data. Coding is the proces f oreaniing tay bracketing chunks (or text or image segments) and -_— 198 Designing Research ‘word representing a category in the margins (Rossman & Rallis, 2012). tt Involves taking text data or pictures gathered during data collection, ‘segmenting sentences (or paragraphs) or images into categories, and labeling those categores with. a term, often a term based in the actual language of the participant (called an in vivo term). As shown in Table 94, ‘Tesch (1990) provided the eight steps typically used in forming codes. Get osense othe whole Read ol the transcriptions coretull Perhaps Jet down some ideas as they come fo mind as you read. Pick one document (Le.one intewview)—the most interesting one, he shortest, he one onthe top of the pile. Go through It, asking youset What is this obour” Do not think about the substance of the information but is undertying meaning Write thoughts in the margin, men you have completed this task fr several participants, make @ Ist of all iopics Cluster together similar fopies. Form these lopics ilo ‘Columns, perhaps arayed as major unique, ancl leftover Yopis. Now loke this Ist and go back fo your data, Abreviate the fopics as ‘codes ond wit the codes next fo the appropriate segments of he text. Ty this preliminary organizing schema fo soe if new categates ‘and codes emerge Find the mest descipve wording for your fopics and tum them info categories. Look kx ways of reducing your foto Ist of categories by ‘grouping topics hat relate fo each other Pemhops draw lines between Your catagories fo show intenelattonships. Mae o final deetion on the abiireviaton fot each category ond clphabetize these codes. ‘Assemble the dota material belonging fo each category in one ‘place and pertom o preliminary onchss '¥ necessary recede Your existing data. (pp. 142-149) {in addition, give some attention to the types of codes to develop whe analyzing a text transcript or a picture (or other type of visual object)! tend to think about codes as. falling into three categories: © Codes on topics that readers would expect to find, based on the pis Iiterature and common sense. When studying bullying in the schoo | might code some segments as “attitudes toward oneself.” This would be expected in a study about bullying in the schools. © Codes that are surprising and that were not anticipated at the bee ning of the study. Ina study of leadership in nonprofit organizations {might learn about the impact of geo-warming on the building of the cgaization and how this shapes the location and proximity of indi viduals to one another. Without going out to the building before the study begins and looking at it, T would not necessarily think about the ‘codes of geo-warminig and location of offices in my study of leadership, @ Coesthat are unusual, and that are, in and of themselves, of conceptual intewst to readers. I will use one of the codes that we discovered in our ualtatve study of a campus’ response to a gunman (Asmussen & Grswell, 1995). We did not anticipate the code “etriggering” to emerge inourstudy, and it surfaced from the perspective ofa psychologist called into the campus to assess the response. The fact that individuals were Oe further issue about coding Is whether the researcher should (a) develop codes only on the basis of the emerging information collected fom parcipants, (b) use predetermined codes and then fit the data to then, or (c) use some combination of emerging and predetermined codes. The tational approach in the social sciences Isto allow the codes to ‘merge during the data analysis, In the health sciences, a popular ‘approach is to use predetermined codes based on the theory being exam- ned. In this case, the researchers might develop a qualitative codebook, ‘table that contains a list of predetermined codes that researchers use for colng the data. Guest and colleagues (2012) discussed and illustrated the ‘se of codebooks in qualitative research. The intent of a codebook is to ‘moride definitions for codes and to maximize coherence among codes— ‘pecially when multiple coders are involved. This codebook would provide Alistof codes, a code label foreach code, a brief definition oft, a full defini- ‘io of it information about when to use the code and when mot to use it, ‘ndan example of a quote illustrating the code. This codebook can evolve ‘nd change during a study based on close analysis of the data when the ‘srarcheris not starting from an emerging code perspective. For research ‘who have a distinct theory they want to test in their projects, I would ‘summend that a preliminary codebook be developed for coding the data ‘od permit the | ‘codebook to develop and change based on the information during the data analysis. ep 4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting Or 45 well as categories or themes for analysis. Description involves & tng iene Of information about people, places or events in 8 $= uy eettchers can generate codes for this description This analysis and nc" “esigning detailed descriptions for case studies, ethnographiies, sal WE research projects. Use the coding as wel for generating Sumber of themes or categories—perhaps five to seven themes for & ‘eh tudy. These themes are the ones that appear asmajor findings 2 Qualitative Methods 200 Designing Research ‘qualitative studies and are often used as headings in the findings sections (or in the findings section of a dissertation ot thesis) of studies. They should display multiple perspectives from individuals and be supported by diverse quotations and specific evidence. Beyond identifying the themes during the coding process, qualtatve researchers can do much with themes to build additional layers of complex analysis. For example, researchers interconnect themes into a storyline (as in narratives) or develop them into a theoretical mode! (as in grounded theory). Themes are analyzed for each individual case and across diferent cases (as in case studies) or shaped into a general description (asin phe- ‘nomenology). Sophisticated qualitative studies go beyond description and theme identification and form complex theme connections. Step 5. Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative. The most popular approach is to use a narrative passage to convey the findings of the analysis. This might be a discussion, that mentions a chronology of events, the detailed discussion of several themes (complete with subthemes, specific illustrations, multiple Perspectives from individuals, and quotations) or a discussion with ‘interconnecting themes, Many qualitative researchers also use visuals, figures, or tables as adjuncts to the discussions. They present a process ‘model (as in grounded theory), advance a drawing of the specific research site (as in ethnography), or convey descriptive information about each participant in a table (asin case studies and ethnographles). Step 6. final stepin data analysis involves making an interpretation ‘in qualitative research of the findings or results. Asking, "What were the lessons learned?" captures the essence of this idea (Lincoln & Cube, 1985), These lessons could be the researcher's personal interpretation couched in the understanding that the inquirer brings to the study from ® personal culture, history, and experiences. It could also be a meaning derived from a comparison of the findings with information gleaned fm the literature or theories. In this way, authors suggest that the findings confirm past information or diverge from it. It can also suggest new ‘questions that need tobe asked —questions raised by the data and anaiss that the inquirer had not foreseen earlier in the study. Ethnographers can end a study, Wolcott (1994) said, by stating further questions. The uestioning approach is also used in transformative approaches !0 qualitative research, Moreover, when qualitative researchers ust # {theoretical lens, they can form interpretations that call for action agendas for reform and change. Researchers might describe how the narrative outcome will be compared with theories and the general literature othe (opie: In many qualitative articles, researchers also discuss the literature t the end ofthe study (see the discussion in Chapter 2). "Thus, interpretation ‘qualitative research can take many forms; be adapted for different IP Qualitative Methods 201 e{ designs: and be flexible to convey personal, research-based, and action etnies Validity and Reliability Although validation of findings occurs throughout thestepsin the pro ces of research (as shown in Figure 9.1), this discussion focuses on it to cmiblea researcher to write a passage into a proposal onthe procedures for rating the findings that will be undertaken in a study. Proposal devel- cpesneedto convey the steps they will take in thetr studies to check for the accuracy and credibility of their findings. Validity does not carry the same ‘onndlations in qualitative research as it does in quantitative research; nor ‘sta companion of reliability (examining stability) or generalizability (the cena validity of applying results to new settings, people, or samples, bath are discussed in Chapter 8), Qualitative validity means that the tearchet checks for the accuracy of the findings by employing certain ‘veiures, while qualitative reliability indicates thatthe researcher's cross diflerent researchers and different projects (Gb 2007). ‘ildity is one of the strengths of qualitative research and! is based on ‘dtemining whether the findings are accurate from the standpoint of the ‘searcher the participant, or the readers of an account (Creswell & Miller, 2000) Terms abound in the qualitative literature that address validity, such as irstworthiness, authenticity, and credibility (Creswell & Mille, 2000), and much-discussed topic (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011). procedural perspective that I recommend for research proposals is to Satfy and discuss one or more strategies available to check the accuracy othe findings, The researcher actively incorporates validity strategies ‘tote proposal. I recommend the use of multiple approaches, and these ‘tou enhance the researcher’ ability to assess the accuracy of findings “swellasconvince readers of that accuracy. There are eight primary strat~ Be oanlzed from those most frequently used and easy to implement fo ‘hae ocasionally used and more dificult to implement: © gute diferent data sources of information by examining ev tence from the sources and using it to build a coherent justification for themes. If themes are established based on converging several SOUTCES ‘ data or perspectives from participants, then tis process can be ‘almed as adding to the validity of the study. [CRtenber checking to determine the accuracy othe qualitative Bnd ey Heh taking the final report or specific descriptions or themes that ‘participants and determining whether these participant they are accurate. This does not mean taking back the raw tran- “Ito check for accuracy: instead the researcher takes back parts 202 Designing Research of the polished or semi-polished product, such as the major findings, the themes, the case analysis, the grounded theory, the cultural description, and so forth. This procedure can involve condlicting a follow-up interview with participants in the study and providing an ‘opportunity for them to comment on the findings. Use a rich, thick description to convey the findings. This description may transport readers to the setting and give the discussion an element of shared experiences. When qualitative researchers. provide detailed descriptions of the setting, for example, or offer many perspectives ‘about a theme, the results become more realistic and richer. Ths pro- cedure can add to the validity of the findings. Clarify the bias the researcher brings to the study. This self-reflection creates an open and honest narrative that will resonate well with read- ers. Reflectivity has already been mentioned as a core characteristic of qualitative research, Good qualitative research contains comments by the researchers about how their interpretation of the findings s shaped by their background, such as their gender, culture, history. and socioeconomic origin, Also present negative or discrepant information that runs counter tothe themes. Because real life is composed of dlflerent perspectives thal do ‘not always coalesce, discussing contrary information adds to the cret- Ability of an account, A researcher can accomplish this by discussing evidence about a theme, Most evidence wil build a case forthe theme ‘researchers can also present information that contradicts the general perspective of the theme, By presenting this contradictory evidence the account becomes more realistic and more valid. Spend prolonged tine in the field. In this way, the researcher develops {in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study and can con- vey detail about the site and the people that lends credibility to the ‘narrative account. The more experience that a researcher has with Participants in thelr settings, the more accurate or valid will be the findings. Use peer debriefing toenhance the accuracy of the account. This proces {involves locating a person (a peer debriefer) who reviews and asks Questions about the qualitative study so that the account will resonate with people other than the researcher. This strategy—involving a {Interpretation beyond the researcher and invested in another perso"— adds validity to an account. Use an external auditor to review the entire project. As distinet from # Deer debriefer, this auditor is not familiar with the researcher oF the Droject and can provide an objective assessment of the project throug! out the process of research or at the conclusion of the study. The roe 's similar to that of a fiscal auditor, and specific questions exist that Qualitative Methods 203, aodlors might ask (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The procedure of having anindependent investigator look over many aspects ofthe project (eg, ‘ccuracy of transcription, the relationship between the research ques. tinsand the data, the evel of data analysis from the raw data through interpretation) enhances the overall validity of a qualitative study How do qualitative researchers check to determine if their approaches erelable Le., consistent or stable)? Yin (2009) suggested that qualitative ‘searchers need to document the procedures of their case stadies and to document as many of the steps of the procedures as possible, He also ree- canended setting up a detailed case study protocol and database, so that athers can follow the procedures. Gibbs (2007) suggested several qualita- tercaility procedure: © Check transcripts to make sure that they do not contain obvious mis- takes made during transcription. Male sure that there is not a drift in the definition of codes, a shift in the meaning of the codes during the process of coding. This can be ‘complished by constantly comparing data with the codes and by ‘ting memos about the codes and their definitions (sce the discussion tna qualitative codebook). © For team research, coordinate the communication among the coders by regular documented meetings and by sharing the analysis. © Crsscheck codes developed by different researchers by comparing ‘sullsthat are independently derived. Proposal writersneedto include Several of these procedures as evidence that they will have consistent "suls in their proposed studs. I recommend that several procedures be mentioned in a proposal and that single researchers find antother per= smn who can cross-check their codes for what is called tntercoder agreement (or cross-checking) (also see Guest etal, 2012). Suehant ‘ereement might be based on whether two or more coders agree of ‘odes used for the same passages in the text. It isnot that they code the ‘RBeresage of text but whether another coer would code it withthe OF a similar code. Reliability subprograms in qualitative ute software packages can then be used to determine the level of aan. of coding. Miles and Huberman (1994) at the consistency of the coding be in ‘agreement at least 80% of the imefor ood qualitative reliability. llttive generalization isa term that i used in liited way i lt research, since the intent of this form of inguiy isnot to Be (ee cate individuals sites, or places outside of those unde fe laect he 2007, for his cautionary note about qualitative “the value of qualitative research lies in the particular deseripdon and themes developed in context of a specif site. Particularity rather than ‘generalizability (Greene & Caracelli, 1997) isthe hallmark of good qualita. tiveresearch. However, there are a few discussions in the qualitative litera ture about generalizability, especially as applied to case study research in which the inquirer studies several cases. Yin (2009), for example, fet that qualitative case study results can be generalized to some broader theory ‘The generalization occurs when qualitative researchers study additional cases and generalize findings to the riew cases. Itis the same asthe repica- tion logic used in experimental research. However, to repeat a case study's findings in a new case setting requires good documentation of qualitative procedures, such as a protocol for documenting the problem in detail and the development ofa thorough case study database, WRITING THE QUALITATIVE REPORT A plan for qualitative methods should end with some comments about the narrative that willemerge from the data analysis, Numerous varieties of narratives exist, and examples from scholarly journals illustrate these ‘models. In a plan for a study, consider advancing several points about the narrative. © The basic procedure in reporting the results of a qualitative study are {odevelop descriptions and themes from the data (see Figure 9.1), to present these descriptions and themes that convey multiple perspectives from par ticipants and detailed descriptions of the setting, or individuals. Using @ qualitative strategy of inquiry, these results may also provide a chronolgl- cal narrative of an individual's life (narrative research), a detailed descp- tion of their experiences (phenomenology), a theory generated from the data (grounded theory), a detailed portrait of a culture-sharing grou? (ethnography), or an in-depth analysis of one or more cases (case study) © Given these different strategies, the findings and interpretation sections of a plan for a study might discuss how the sections will be pre- sented: as objective accounts, fieldwork experiences (Van Maanen, 1988), ‘chronology, a process model, an extended story, an analysis by cases of ‘cross cases, or a detailed descriptive portrat. © At the specific level, there might be some comment in the propostl about writing strategies that will be used to convey the qualitative research. ‘These might include the following: © Quotes: From short to long embedded passages © Dialogue that reflects the culture of participants, thei langue and a sensitivity to their culture or ethnicity, and the interweaving ‘of words rom participants and the author's interpretations Qualitative Methods 205 o Varied narrative forms, such as matrices, comparison tables, diagrams First person “I” or collective “we” pronouns in the narration Metaphors and analogies (see, for example, Richardson, 1990) 6 Narrative forms associated with specific qualitative strategies (eg. description in case studies and ethnographies, a detailed story in narrative research) ‘Thefollowing is an example of a complete qualitative methods section ttut ws included in a proposal by Miller (1992). It contains most of the ‘opis fora good qualitative methods section addressed inthis chapter. Erieka All's project was an ethnographic study of first-year experiences of the resident of a 4-year college. As I present this discussion, I efer back to the sections addressed in this chapter and highlight them in boldfaced type. Als, Uhave maintained Miller's use of the term informant, although today, the moe appropriate term participant should be used. The Qualitative Research Paradigm The qualitative research paradigm has its roots in cultural anthropology ond ‘Aneicon sociotogy (Kite & Miler, 1986). I has only recently been adopled Y educational researchers (Borg & Goll, 1989), The intent of qualitative ‘Rtearch is fo understand a particular social situation, event, role, GFOUP, OF 'fetaction (Locke, Spicduso,& Sitvemman, 1987). fis largely an investigative ecess where the researcher gradually makes sanse of ¢ social phenom ‘enon by Contrasting. comparing, replicating, cataloguing and classitying ‘he object of study (Miles & Huberman, 1984). Mashall ond Rossen (1989) suggest that this entails immersion in the everyday life of the setting, Cesen for the study: the researcher enters the infomants’ word ond ‘ugh ongoing interaction seeks the informants’ perspectives ond mean 98. [Qualitative assumptions are mentioned. } Stel contend that qualtave research can be cistnguished fom quer- methodology by numerous unique characterises hate nherent [Rite design. The folowing isa synthesis of commonly ariouated ossumNP= "ereegording charactors prosontod by vaio searches 206 Designing Research 2 (Continued) Qualitative research is based on assumptions that are very diferent from quantitative designs. Theory or hypotheses are not estabished prion: The researcher is the primary instrument in date collection rather than some inanimate mechanism (Eisner, 1991; Frankel & Wallen, 1990; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988), The data that emerge trom a qualitative study are descriptive. hat '5. date are reported in words (primarily the participants words) or pictures, rather thonin numbers (Frank! & Wallen, 1990: Locke et ol, 1987: Marshall & Rossman, 1989: Mertiam, 1988), ‘The focus of quaiiative research Is on participants’ perceptions ‘ond experiences, and the way they make sense of thelr Ives (Froenkel & Wallen, 1990; Locke et ol, 1987; Merriam. 1988). The Gatiempt is therefore to. understand not one, but multiple reailies Uincoin & Guba, 1985), + Qusciilative research focuses on the process that Is occuring os well as the product or outcome, Researchers are particularly inter ‘ested in understanding how things oceur (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990: Merriam, 1988), Idiographie interpretation is utllzed. n other words. attention Is paid 0 particulars: and dato is interpreted in regard to the particulars of case rather thon generalizations. ‘Quoitctve research is on emergent design in Its negotiated out ‘comes. Meanings ond interpretations ore negotiated with humon ola sources becouse it i the subjects’ roles that the rescorcher

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