Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

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Construction and Building Materials

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Use of iron ore tailings and sediments on pavement structure

Thomas Schatzmayr Welp Sá a, b, *, Sandra Oda c, d, *,
Vivian Karla Castelo Branco Louback Machado Balthar e, f, Romildo Dias Toledo Filho a, b
a
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Programa de Engenharia Civil - COPPE, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
b
Av. Athos da Silveira Ramos, 149 - Bloco I-110, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão. CEP 21941-909, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
c
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Engenharia de Transportes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
d
Av. Athos da Silveira Ramos, 149, Centro de Tecnologia, Bloco D, Sala 209 Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão. CEP 21941-909, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
e
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
f
Av. Pedro Calmon, 550, Prédio da FAU/Reitoria, 5◦ Andar, Sala 521, Cidade Universitária da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-485

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The reuse and recycle of mining tailings are alternatives that could reduce the environmental impact related to its
Iron ore tailings destination, and, also, promote sustainable development. The incorporation of mining tailings in pavement
Mining tailings recycle layers, such as base, subbase, and subgrade, has the potential to reduce the consumption of natural resources and
Soil–cement
to promote a new destination to the mining tailings. This article aims to evaluate soil–cement mixtures with
Pavement construction
different proportions of soil and iron ore tailings. When evaluating the mechanical properties, the results show
that soil–cement mixtures with iron ore tailings can be an excellent alternative as a pavement material. The
addition of 10% and 20% of iron ore tailings showed a decline in the compression resistance, but all the mixtures
met the required strength standard for a base layer application. This article also aims to evaluate the behavior of
hypothetical pavement structures, using the iron ore tailings mixtures as a base layer. A fatigue test with three
different asphalt mixtures was done and eight hypothetical pavement structures were simulated using the
software ELSYM 5. The structures with the addition of 10% and 20% of iron ore tailings had about the same
results as the structures of soil–cement with no addition of iron ore tailings. Moreover, the use of iron ore tailings
in pavements layers also contributes by creating a new disposal method to the tailings, reducing the environ­
mental impact related to the mining activity, and it possibly can reduce the costs related to the pavement
construction.

1. Introduction
Brazil is one of the largest mineral producers in the world. It is the
lead producer of niobium, the second-biggest producer of tantalum and
magnesite, and the third biggest of bauxite, natural graphite, iron, and
chrysolite [1]. In 2018, the Brazilian iron ore production was about 460
million tons, representing 18.7% of the global production [2].
The mining activity causes big environmental impacts on the
extraction regions. Huge volumes of materials are extracted and moved,
and the residues production depend on the deposit location about the
surface, the concentration of the mineral on the rock matrix, and the
extraction process used.
The two main solid residues generated from the mineral extraction
process are the overburden and the tailings. Overburden is the material
that lies above the desired mining area. This material is excavated and
piled up. Also, they do not have economical value. The tailings are the
material left over after the ore go through the separation process of the
valuable fraction. Studies about the mining activity in Minas Gerais in
2008 and 2009 show that the proportion of solid residues generated is
about 25% of tailings and 75% of overburden material [3].
In 2005, more than 290 million tons of mining tailings were pro­
duced in Brazil and about 33% of those (95.6 million tons), were iron ore
tailings (IOT). The expectation for further years is that the Brazilian
generation of mining tailings will reach 684 million tons in 2030 [3].
Historically, after the First Industrial Revolution, the number of
minerals demanded increased, and along with that, the tailings gener­
ation also increased. These tailings needed to be moved, deposited, and
contained, so the easiest method to manage that was the use of dams.

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: thomas.sa@coc.ufrj.br (T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá), sandraoda@poli.ufrj.br (S. Oda), vivian@coc.ufrj.br (V. Karla Castelo Branco Louback Machado
Balthar), toledo@coc.ufrj.br (R. Dias Toledo Filho).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128072
Received 7 April 2021; Received in revised form 2 June 2022; Accepted 6 June 2022
Available online 12 June 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al.
However, it is still the most common method of mining tailings man­
agement [4]. Alternative methods of mining tailings management are
increasingly more interesting facing the problems and risks of the tailing
dams. In recent years, two serious disasters involving the collapse of iron
ore tailings dams occurred in Brazil. The first one is known as the
Mariana dam disaster and it occurred on 5 November 2015, where 19
people died and the pollution was spread through 668 km of water­
courses [5]. With the collapse of Mariana dam, there was the leakage of
about 35 million cubic meters of tailings, which caused the devastation
of an extensive area and serious environmental and socioeconomic
problems [6].
The second one happened on 25 January 2019 and is known as the
Brumadinho dam disaster. The collapse released 12 million cubic meters
of tailings and 259 people were officially confirmed dead [7].
A large amount of IOT is generated by the extensive mining activ­
ities, leading to the occupation of large areas of land [8,9], that become
susceptible to high ecological risks and serious environmental pollution
[8]. The development of effective and economic technologies for the use
of these tailings became an urgent demand for the mitigation of the
environmental impacts in the regions occupied by the tailings [8]. The
most beneficial strategy related to tailings management would be
reducing the amount of tailing produced. Recycling and reusing the
material in different ways would also be very interesting methods for
environmental impact mitigation. Aiming at the reuse of IOT in civil
construction, some recent studies have evaluated the performance of
this material with different applications.
Zhao et al. [10] conducted a review of the literature published over
the past decades on the effect of IOT from different continents on con­
crete properties. Regarding particle sizes, there are three types of IOT
categories: iron tailings rock, produced by mechanical crushing of low-
grade ore and wall rock, with a granulometry above 4.75 mm and used
as coarse aggregates; iron tailings sand, produced by grinding and
filtering iron ore, with a particle size between 0.16 mm and 4.75 mm
and used as fine aggregates; iron tailings powder, with a particle size of
less than 0.16 mm and used as a mineral additive for concrete. The
apparent density of IOT was higher than that of natural sand, varying
between 2.64 and 3.31 g/cm3, due to the presence of iron mineral.
Although the chemical composition of IOT varies according to the type
of mine, those authors indicated high proportions of SiO2, Al2O3, and
Fe2O3. Furthermore, the main crystalline phases observed in the IOT
XRD analyzes were quartz, gibbsite, and hematite. Regarding the study
of the axial stress–strain behavior of concretes containing IOT, the axial
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity data are limited in the
literature [10]. However, in several studies, the compressive strength
was measured in cubes. Comprehensive compressive strength data
allowed those authors to draw the following conclusions about the ef­
fects of IOT on the compressive strength of concrete: (i) the replacement
of natural sand by IOT at low contents can cause an increase in
compressive strength due to the filler effect, while its decrease can be
observed when the optimal replacement ratio is exceeded; (ii) the total
replacement of natural sand by IOT is feasible; (iii) the replacement of
cement by IOT caused a reduction in compressive strength with an in­
crease in the replacement content [10].
Xu et al. [11] investigated the mechanical properties of concretes
produced with partial replacement of natural sand by IOT. The mixtures
were produced with a water/cement ratio of 0.4; natural coarse aggre­
gate, with 30% replacement (by mass) by recycled coarse aggregate
(RCA); natural sand, with 30% replacement (by mass) by IOT. In addi­
tion, polypropylene fibers (PP) were used as a complementary material
in different contents (0.3%, 0.6%, 0.9% and 1.2%). The results at ages of
7, 14, 28, and 90 days showed that the use of recycled coarse aggregate
reduced the concrete strength and that the addition of IOT can
compensate for this loss of strength. According to those authors, as the
IOT has much finer particles than sand, it filled the RCA pore structure
and improved the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone. Be­
sides that, the decrease of the total pore contents was observed with the
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Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072
addition of IOT and PP fibers [11].
Shettima et al. [12] evaluated the impact of using IOT in the sub­
stitution of natural sand on the mechanical properties of concrete. The
mixtures were designed at a water/cement ratio of 0.5 and levels of
replacement of fine aggregate by IOT equal to 0, 25%, 50%, 75%, and
100%. The compressive and splitting tensile strengths of concretes with
IOT were higher than those of the reference concrete after 7, 14, and 28
days of curing. The increases in compressive strength compared to the
control concrete were 12.9% (25% IOT), 10.5% (50% IOT), 10.2% (75%
IOT) and 1.3% (100 % IOT) at 28 days. Those authors evaluated that the
benefits in compressive strength of mixtures with IOT can be partially
attributed to the presence of IOT particles finer than sand, which filled
the pores and optimized the pore structure. Besides that, the results
indicated that the splitting tensile strength increased considerably in the
mixture containing 25% of IOT, which obtained a result 20.5% higher
than the control concrete. The highest results of modulus of elasticity
were also obtained by concretes containing IOT, with emphasis on the
mixture with 100% replacement, whose result was 41.3% higher than
the control concrete [12].
Vilela et al. [9] investigated the properties of bricks produced with
soil–cement and IOT at different levels of partial soil replacement. The
ratio between cement and soil adopted for the production of bricks was
respectively 1:9 and the levels of soil replacement by IOT were equal to
0, 10, 20, 30, and 40%. The soil used was classified as A-4 (according to
AASHTO guidelines) and presented the plasticity index of 9.9%, and the
liquid limit of 30.6%. The mining tailing from the Fundão Dam in
Mariana (State of Minas Gerais, Brazil) was used in the study. The IOT
presented in its chemical composition 84.79% of silica, 14.52% of iron,
and 0.46% loss of ignition (LOI), and particle size composition con­
taining 52.0% clay, 16.0% silt, and 32.0% of sand. The waste density (by
Chapman flask) and the specific surface area (by Blaine method) were
equal to 2.703 g/cm3 and 193.2 ± 5.8 m2/kg, respectively. Using optical
microscopy analyses, those authors compared a reference soil–cement
brick sample with a 40% IOT soil–cement brick sample. Some empty
pores were identified in the first sample, while in the second sample it
was verified that the pores were filled by fine mining residues. The re­
sults of the compressive strength of the bricks after 28 days of curing
indicated that there was no significant variation in this property with the
variation of the IOT content in the mixtures. The maintenance of the
strength of the mixtures with IOT concerning the reference mixture is
related to the refinement of the pores provided by the IOT. In addition,
those authors also attribute this behavior to the high content of SiO2
present in the IOT, which reacts with calcium hydroxide forming new C-
S-H phases [9].
Despite the different forms of application for the residue presented in
the literature, there is a gap in the performance studies of soil–cement
mixtures with the addition of IOT for application in paving. In this
context, the main purpose of this article is to evaluate the technical
viability of the use of IOT in soil–cement mixtures suitable for the base,
subbase, and sub-grade layers of the pavement. Mixtures containing
different contents of IOT (obtained with sediments) were evaluated
concerning mechanical performance, to verify compliance with the
minimum compressive strength established by the Brazilian standard
NBR 12,253 [13].
Soil-cement mixes with the addition of IOT have the potential to
reduce consumption of natural materials and road construction costs. It
also brings an alternative use for the IOT, reducing the amount of tailing
that is destined to dams and consequently, increasing the safeness of the
whole mining activity.
In general, the use of IOT in pavements promotes sustainable
development and potentially favors the economic viability of road
construction.
2. Applications of IOT in pavements
Brazil’s transportation system relies mostly on the road system,
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al.
which represents 61% of the cargo and 95% of passengers transported
[14]. In 2017, the Brazilian highway network extension was 1,735,621
km, of which only 12.3% (212,886 km) were paved. This means that the
Brazilian highway network is very small, containing 25.0 km of high­
ways for every 1,000 km2 of area. Meanwhile, the USA and China have
437.8 km and 421.6 km, respectively, of paved highways to every 1,000
km2 [15]. Considering the territorial extension of the country, those are
very low numbers when compared to other countries of similar
proportions.
Furthermore, the road conditions in Brazil are mostly in bad condi­
tion of use and conservation. In 2019, 52.4% of the pavements evaluated
in all highways were considered in terrible, bad, or regular conditions.
When also considering signalization and road design, this number in­
creases to 59.0%. To the freight transportation companies, this means an
increase in operational costs by 28.5%, on average [16].
Most of the highway network (77%) was paved during the 70 s
(37.2%), the 80 s (28.1%) and 90 s (11.7%), and most of those (96.4%)
consisted of flexible pavement. Only 3.6% (7,650 km) of all the Brazilian
highway networks are considered rigid pavement [15]. As the flexible
pavements are designed to have a lifespan of 10 years, most of the
highway network built between 1970 and 2000, should have already
been reconstructed or, at least, reinforced to attend to the nowadays
traffic [17]. However, that is not what happened. That causes the low
quality of the pavements and the yearly high investments needed for
maintenance services [15]. These services utilize more than half of all
investments available for the highway infrastructure.
The bad conditions of the current highway infrastructure increase
the chances of vehicle accidents. In 2018, 69,206 accidents on federal
highways were registered, making an impact of R$9.73 billion for so­
ciety [16].
The construction of pavements requires high consumption of natural
resources, especially for soil and granular material, and, consequently,
financial resources. The mining tailings, if used as an alternative mate­
rial for the construction of the base, subbase, and subgrade layers, have
the potential to reduce the consumption of natural resources, and to
promote sustainable development. In addition, this means less mining
tailings being disposed of in dams, reducing, again, the environmental
impact caused by the activity, and increasing the safety for the popu­
lation and the mining corporations.
Several tailings have already been studied for pavement applica­
tions, such as iron ore tailings [18,19,20], copper [21,22], and bauxite
tailings [23,24].
However, in Brazil, the IOT studies have a greater potential of
mitigating the environmental impact, due to its higher share of the
mining tailings production. The main applications of iron ore tailings in
the pavement have been studied as:
• Soil and iron ore tailings mixture;
• Hemic established mixtures (iron ore tailings + cement or lime);
• Granulometric established mixtures (iron ore tailings + aggregates);
• Concretes;
• Interlocked pavement (Pavers);
• Asphalt mixtures.
In some studies, the properties of IOT mixtures stabilized with
cement, lime, blast furnace slag, or bentonite for road application were
analyzed, and the following results were obtained:
Bastos et al. [19] studied the use of IOT as a material for road con­
struction. The author evaluated the benefits of chemical stabilization of
iron ore tailings through the addition of cement, lime, or blast furnace
slag (BFS), with contents (by mass) of 1%, 2%, 5%, and 10%. The
compressive strength results at 7 days indicate better results with 5%
cement (1.44 MPa), than with 10% lime (0.89 MPa) and 10% BFS (0.75
MPa). Among the studied binders, the cement was the most efficient
binder for soil–cement mixtures, achieving better performance with
lower contents of material. None of the mixtures attend the minimum
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Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072
strength for a base layer application, and, for the cement mixtures, a
higher cement content could improve the mixture performance.
Oliveira et al. [25] researched the geomechanical properties of IOT
mixtures with cement, on contents of 3% to 5%, to compose structural
layers of paved roads. The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) analyses were
performed with mixtures with 5% and without cement, and also using
the normal and the intermediate energy. The researchers observed a
great increase of CBR values on the mixtures with intermediate energy,
and in the mixtures with the addition of cement. The compression test
showed that 5% cement (0.89 MPa at 7 days) was not enough to attend
the minimum strength (2.1 MPa) required by the Brazilian standard
[13], to be used as a base layer. Those authors estimated that content of
8.5% of cement was necessary to attend the standard.
Barati et al. [26] studied the stabilization of IOT with cement or
bentonite, on contents of 5%, 10%, and 15 %. The bentonite mixtures
and cement-based mixtures with 5% showed a low compression
strength, but the cement-based mixtures with 10% and 15% present
strength of 4.0 MPa and 6.5 MPa at 7 days, respectively, which is suit­
able for a base layer application.
Ojuri et al. [27] evaluated the applicability of lime-cement stabili­
zation of lateritic soil-IOT mixtures. The lime and cement were mixed in
a corresponding ratio of 1:2 and used in contents of 4%, 6%, 8%, and
10% by mass of soil-IOT. The soil-IOT were studied on proportions,
respectively, of 90–10, 80–20, 70–30, 60–40, and 50–50. The greater the
amount of IOT, and the amount of binder, the greater were the CBR
values. Only the mixture with 90% lateritic soil and 10% IOT, did not
achieve the minimum value (80%) of CBR for base layer application. For
the compression tests, the results showed the same tendency, with better
performances on the mixtures with greater proportions of IOT and
binder. However, all the results presented a compression strength lower
than 0.5 MPa, which is very low for road structures.
Based on previous studies, it is possible to conclude that cement is
the most promising binder for the chemical stabilization of IOT for road
application. However, low cement contents (less than5%) were not
sufficient to provide compressive strength above the minimum value
required by the Brazilian standard [13], while larger amounts (10%
cement) showed satisfactory results.
In other studies, the IOT were used in unbound mixtures, by mixing it
with soils. Some of those studies and its conclusions are presented
below:
Dantas [28] studied the mixture of IOT with soil, with 15%, 25%, and
50% of IOT by mass, for base or subbase layers of pavements. The
mixture with 25% of IOT presented a CBR value 30% higher than the
other mixtures. However, all the studied mixtures did not achieve the
minimum value for its use as a base layer, limiting it for subbase layers.
Galhardo [18] also studied the granulometric stabilization of IOT
with soil, for pavement application. Two different soils were used: a silt-
rich residual soil, and a clay-rich soil. The IOT was added with 20%,
40%, and 50% by mass. The author concluded that only the mixture with
40% IOT and clay-rich soil could be used as a subbase layer, and the
mixture with 50% IOT and the residual soil could be used as subgrade
reinforcement. The remaining mixtures did not achieve the desired re­
sults for CBR and expansion, being classified as inadequate for pavement
applications.
The study from Agência Nacional de Transportes Terrestres, ANTT
[17], evaluated the technical viability of the use of IOT on pavements
infrastructure, especially for the base layer. The IOT was mixed with
lateritic soil, using 10%, 20%, and 30% by mass of IOT. Mixtures with
20% and 30% of IOT presented an increase in the CBR value, but the
addition of IOT decreased the resilient modulus.
Based on the conclusions above, the granulometric stabilizations can
potentially benefit the performance of IOT mixtures, and the chemical
stabilization allowed the material to be used as a base layer.
In this context, this study proposes the combination of both stabili­
zation methods to obtain mixtures with sufficient performance for a base
layer application and, consequently, contribute to the development of
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

Fig. 1. Iron Ore Tailings Homogenization: (a) Pile in a straight line; (b) Separation of the extremities; (c) Unwanted particles removed; (d) Bigger rocks removed.

is used in paving works in Brazil due to its high availability and the
Table 1
lowest price. The IOT were obtained from the dredging activity done in
Soil characterization results [22].
the hydroelectric power station Risoleta Neves (HPS-RN), also known as
Parameter Value Reference (technical specification) Candonga. In November of 2015, the Fundão Dam collapsed releasing a
Dry Bulk Density (g/cm3) 2.01 ASTM D1883-16 [31] large volume of sludge into all the areas downstream, including rivers,
Optimal Water Content (%) 9.80 ASTM D1883-16 [31] valleys, and villages. The HPS-RN was installed in the Rio Doce, between
CBR (%) 42.80 ASTM D1883-16 [31]
the boundary of Rio Doce and Santa Cruz do Escavaldo cities, and it was
Expansion (%) 0.28 ASTM D1883-16 [31]
Plasticity Index, PI (%) 13.3 ASTM D4318-17 [32] the second hydroelectric power station to be flooded by the sludge of
Liquid Limit, LL (%) 25.3 ASTM D4318-17 [32] iron ore tailings from the mining company Samarco Mineração S.A. The
MCT Classification LA’ DNER-CLA 259–96 [30] distance between the Fundão Dam and the HPS-RN was 77 km. The HPS-
HRB Classification A-2–6 ASTM D3282-15 [33] RN dam worked as a blockade to the sludge, and it is estimated that it
blocked 10 million cubic meters of solid material. The IBAMA (Brazilian
IOT in road construction. Additionally, the application of the IOT pro­ Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources)
posed in this research can contribute to the mitigation of environmental determined that the mining company removed that material from the
problems arising from the accumulation of this tailing in nature. HPS-RN. For the research, 150 kg of iron ore tailings dredge were pro­
vided and the first step was to homogenize the material. All the material
was displaced over a plastic, little by little, going back and forth, making
3. Materials and methods
a pile in a straight line (Fig. 1a). The beginning and the end of the pile
were separated and distributed, once again, through the pile (Fig. 1b).
The following materials were used to produce the mixtures of the
During the homogenization process, small unwanted particles were
research: soil, cement, and IOT.
removed, such as roots, plastics, and some bigger rocks (Fig. 1c and 1d).
The soil is from the Begot deposit, located in the city of Marituba, in
Pará state, Brazil. The soil was collected from the layer between the
depths of 1.00 m and 1.50 m. The high final strength Brazilian Portland 3.1. Materials characterization
cement CP-II E was used, composed of 51–94% of clinker and calcium
sulfate, 6–34% of granulated blast furnace slag, and 0–15% of carbonate The soil characterization results are shown in Table 1. From the re­
material [29]. This type of cement was chosen for the research because it sults in Table 1 of granulometry, Plasticity Index (PI), and the Liquid

Fig. 2. Particle size distributions of soil, IOT, and cement.

4
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

Table 2 loss on ignition (LOI) of the IOT and the cement were determined by X-
Particle sizes of granular materials. ray fluorescence spectrometry and following Brazilian standard NBR
Diameters Cement IOT Soil NM18 [36], respectively. The density test, the specific surface test, and
(μm) (mm) (mm) the LOI test were done three times for each material and the mean value
D10 2.675 0.299 0.159 is shown in Table 4. Comparing the physical properties of the tailings in
D50 16.201 4.067 0.401 this research with the results from the literature [9], the IOT presented
D90 50.751 15.727 0.971 approximately the same density value, while the specific surface was
slightly higher. The chemical composition of cement and IOT is also
presented in Table 4. The chemical composition of CP-II E cement
Table 3 complies with the chemical requirements of the Brazilian standard [29],
Soil and IOT particle size fractions. and the predominant constituents in the chemical composition of IOT
Material IOT Soil are SiO2 (50.80%) and Fe2O3 (39.69%). The high contents of silica and
iron of the IOT are convergent with the results of the literature on
Gravel 68.32% 2.46%
Coarse Sand 16.81% –
tailings from the same region of Brazil [9,37]. The tailings LOI result
Medium Sand 6.37% 65.51% [36] (5.08%) indicates the presence of a small amount of organic matter.
Fine Sand 6.50% – Despite the similar physical and chemical properties observed between
Silt 2.00% 9.07% the IOT in this research and other studies, it is important to emphasize
Clay 22.96%
that the compared tailings have different origins since the IOT used in
Total 100.00% 100.00%
this research was obtained from the dredging of a hydroelectric plant.
Mineralogy of the IOT and soil were investigated by X-ray diffraction
diffractometer operating with Cu-Kα radiation (λ = 0.1789 nm) and its
Table 4
results are shown in Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b, respectively. The predominance
Chemical composition, density, and specific surface area of cement and IOT.
of silicates (Quartz and Coesite), iron (Geotite), and kaolinite can be
Parameter Cement CP-II E IOT noted in the mineralogy of the IOT. Meanwhile, the main minerals
CaO (%) 59.33 0.60 presented on the soil was quartz and kaolinite.
SiO2 (%) 17.97 50.80
Al2O3 (%) 8.69 -
3.2. Mixtures definition
SO3 (%) 3.72 -
Fe2O3 (%) 2.65 39.69
K2O (%) 0.53 1.56 To measure the cement content of the soil–cement mixture, the
TiO2 (%) 0.45 1.45 standard dosage and test methods of Brazilian Portland Cement Asso­
MnO (%) 0.37 0.28 ciation (Associação Brasileira de Cimento Portland - ABCP) were used
SrO (%) 0.23 -
Sm2O3 (%) - 0.39
[38]. The Brazilian method was developed from the Portland Cement
ZrO2 (%) - 0.07 Association (PCA) method presented in the Soil-Cement Laboratory
V2O5 (%) - 0.06 Handbook [39]. The method considers the composition of the soil,
Y2O3 (%) - 0.04 amount of silt, clay, gravel, and sand as the main parameter to determine
LOI (%) 6.09 ± 0.07 5.08 ± 0.14
the cement content.
Density (kg/m3) 2969.7 2801.0
Specific surface area (m2/kg) 520.02 ± 16.53 163.95 ± 13.56 The ABCP standard defines two methods: Method A (or Simplified
Standard A), in which 100.0% of the material passes through sieve #4
(4.75 mm), and Method B (or Simplified Standard B), when it contains
Limit (LL), the soil was classified as A2-6 in the HRB (Highway Research material larger than 4.75 mm (that is, if there is a portion retained in the
Board) classification of soils for road purposes. Class A2-6 corresponds #4 sieve).
to silty or clayey sand, considered good for subgrade, but not for base Considering the composition of the soil, in which 100.0% of the
layer and subbase. However, as the values of PI and LL were above the material is less than 4.75 mm, Method A was adopted. However, the use
allowed limit (PI ≤ 6% and LL ≤ 25%), it was verified if the soil pre­ of Method A is restricted to soils containing at most 50.0% particles with
sented a lateritic behavior. For this, the MCT methodology (miniature, a diameter less than 0.05 mm (silt plus clay) and at most 20.0% particles
compacted, and tropical) of the classification of tropical soils was used. with a diameter less than 0.005 mm (clay). The soil used in this research
As a result, it can be seen that the soil is classified as LÁ , which according had more than 20.0% of particles with a diameter less than 0.005 mm
to Brazilian standard DNER-CLA 259 [30] corresponds to a fine sandy (clay = 22.96%). Therefore, the soil correction was made, in which part
lateritic soil. As previously mentioned, as the PI and LL values are above of the soil was replaced by iron ore tailings. For this, taking as a refer­
the specification limits, it is not recommended to use the material ence the work carried out by ANTT [17] who studied a soil with similar
without any stabilization. Furthermore, the CBR value is high, but not characteristics, the values of 10.0% and 20.0% of iron ore tailings were
high enough for a base layer material (CBR ≥ 60%). adopted.
Fig. 2 shows the particle size distribution curves of the materials, Initially, the reference mixture was measured, containing only soil
obtained for cement in a laser granulometer and other materials and cement. The probable cement content obtained, considering the
measured according to Brazilian standard NBR 7181 [34]. Table 2 amount of silt + clay and fine gravel + coarse sand, was 7.0%. Cylindric
presents the typical particle sizes of the materials, which indicate the specimens, with 100.0 mm of diameter and 200.0 mm of height, were
largest granulometry of the IOT, whose D50 is about 10 times larger than molded using the optimal moisture and the probable cement content.
that of the soil. Table 3 shows the granulometric fractions of the granular After 7 days of humid cure, the specimens were submitted to compres­
materials, which indicates that the IOT and soil are mainly composed of sion resistance tests. As the results obtained (mean = 0.6 MPa) were
gravel and sand (amount of 85.13%) or sand and clay (amount of below the minimum limit recommended (2.1 MPa) by the NBR 12,253
88.47%), respectively. [13], the norm recommends that 2.0% of cement content was added.
The density test of the IOT and the cement were realized in a Helium However, the content of 10.0% was used, as it was already used in other
pycnometer, and the specific surface area test of the IOT and the cement studies [19,26].
were performed following American standard ASTM C204 [35]. Before Three different mixtures were defined to be studied: the first being a
those tests, the IOT sample was ground and oven-dried for 72 h at a reference, containing only soil and cement; the second, containing soil
temperature of 105 ◦ C. The chemical composition in terms of oxides and and cement, with an addition of 10.0% of IOT; and the third, containing

5
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

Fig. 3. Soil and IOT XRD diffractograms: (a) IOT; (b) Soil.

per 3 layers (ABNT NBR 7182:2016). This compaction energy is widely

Table 5
used in Brazil and is the main reason for the choice. A specific procedure
Compositions of mixtures.
was developed for the mixture preparation of mixtures with the
Nomenclature % of Cement % of IOT following steps:
C10IOT00 10.0% 0.0%
C10IOT10 10.0% 10.0% • Measurement of soil, cement, and IOT masses required for three
C10IOT20 10.0% 20.0%
specimens per mixture;
• The granular materials were added to the mixer bowl (20-liter ca­
soil and cement, with an addition of 20.0% of IOT. Table 5 shows the pacity) and then blended for 1 min;
denominations and compositions of the mixtures. • Mixing was stopped to remove the material adhered to the surface of
the bowl with a spatula;
• With the mixer on, water was added to the granular materials, with
3.3. Specimen molding and cure the homogenization being maintained for 1 min;
• The mold masses were determined;
The specimens chosen for this study were cylinders with 10 cm of • The molds of the specimens were filled with compaction of the
diameter and 20 cm of height. The material was compacted using the mixture, based on the Proctor compaction test, using the interme­
intermediate energy, from the Proctor compaction test. This compaction diate energy. Each mixture was added to the mold in 3 layers and
energy utilizes the AASHTO compactor with 4.5 kg and a drop height of each layer received 21 S. During the molding of each mixture, a small
45.7 cm, which hits the material inside the specimen 21 times per layer, portion of the material was set aside for measuring the water content;

6
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

Fig. 4. Uniaxial compression test: (a) Test equipment; (b) Set-up of uniaxial compressive test.

Fig. 5. Stress–strain curves for specimens of the C10IOT00 mixture. Fig. 7. Stress–strain curves for specimens of the C10IOT20 mixture.

Table 6
Mechanical properties of a uniaxial compression test.
Sample Ultimate compressive Axial strain at Elastic
strength (MPa) ultimate strength (µε) Modulus (GPa)

C10IOT00 5.3 2461 7.5

C10IOT10 5.7 2224 9.1
C10IOT20 4.5 4711 5.7

Table 7
Water content and dry apparent density.
Sample Water content (%) Dry apparent density (g/cm3)

C10SD00 10.18 2.24

C10SD10 8.89 2.31
C10SD20 9.58 2.29

• The mass measurement of each mold with specimen was performed;

• The specimens were kept in moist curing for 24 h, with relative
humidity (RH) equal to 100%;
Fig. 6. Stress–strain curves for specimens of the C10IOT10 mixture.

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T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

Table 8 Table 11
Properties of Asphalt Binder. Fatigue Models of Mixtures with Different Types of Binders.
Test AC AC Ecoflex Method HMA 12.5 mm with AC 50–70 N = 51,624 (1/Δσ)4.851
30–45 50–70 B
HMA 12.5 mm with AC 30–45 N = 98,795 (1/Δσ)4.328
Penetration (100 g, 25 ◦ C, 5 44.0 47.0 59.0 ASTM D5 HMA 12.5 mm with ECOFLEX B N = 57,533 (1/Δσ)5.124
seg), dmm [43]
Softening Point, ◦ C 56.0 52.0 58.0 ASTM D36
[44]
Elastic Recovery, % – – 69.0 ASTM D6084 Table 12
[45] Hypothetical Pavement Structures 1 to 8.
Saybolt Furol Viscosity, 284 172 – ASTM E102
135 ◦ C, s [46] Structure Layer Thickness, Coefficient of MR
Saybolt Furol Viscosity, 138 81 – cm Poisson (MPa)
150 ◦ C, s 1 Surface 15 0.35 Variable
Saybolt Furol Viscosity, 45 33 – Base 25 0.40 300
175 ◦ C, s Sub-base 30 0.40 200
Brookfield Viscosity, 20 – – 1.585 ASTM D4402 Subgrade Semi-infinite 0.42 50
rpm, 175 ◦ C, cP [47] Surface 15 0.35 Variable
Density, g/cm3 1.050 1.010 1.030 ASTM D70 2* Anti-Reflective 12.5 0.40 300
[48] Cracking Layer
3** Base of soil–cement 25 0.20 Variable
4*** Sub-base 30 0.40 200
Subgrade Semi-infinite 0.42 50
Table 9 5 Surface 10 0.35 Variable
Volumetric and Mechanical Parameters. Base 25 0.40 200
Sub-base 20 0.40 150
Parameters AC 30–45 AC 50–70 ECOFLEX B
Subgrade Semi-infinite 0.42 50
Content of Asphalt Binder (%) 4.9 4.2 5.3 Surface 10 0.35 Variable
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gmb (g/cm3) 2.482 2.467 2.460 6* Anti-Reflective 12.5 0.40 300
Maximum Specific Gravity, Gmm (g/ 2.586 2.591 2.554 Cracking Layer
cm3) 7** Base of soil–cement 25 0.20 Variable
Air Voids, Va (%) 4.0 4.8 3.7 8*** Sub-base 20 0.40 150
Voids in Mineral Aggregate, VMA (%) 15.8 14.9 16.3 Subgrade Semi-infinite 0.42 50
Voids Filled with Asphalt, VFA (%) 74.6 67.8 77.5
*Base of soil–cement; **Base of soil–cement with 10% of IOT; ***Base of
Resilient Modulus, MPa 7.795 6.878 4,585
Tensile Strength, MPa 2.10 1.67 1.44 soil–cement with 20% of IOT.

Due to the lack of collar in the molds during molding, the top of the
last layer was not compacted properly. The solution adopted for this
Table 10
problem was to perform a manual cut with a metallic saw at the top of
Results of Fatigue Test of the Mixtures with Different Types of Binders.
each specimen, with a thickness of 5.0 mm. Therefore, the cylindrical
Binder Height Loading Load (N) N Δσ εi
specimens adopted in the uniaxial compression tests had a height of
(cm) Level (MPa)
195.0 mm. To guarantee the parallelism between the top and the base of
AC 30–45 6.40 10.0% 1,540.6 86,097 0.61 3.36E-05 the specimen and the uniformity of its surfaces, before being submitted
AC 50–70 6.32 15.0% 2,323.1 29,260 0.92 5.05E-05
ECOFLEX B 6.32 12.0% 1,825.6 238,455 0.73 4.04E-05
to mechanical tests, the specimens were capped with a mixture of sulfur
and fly ash.

3.4. Test procedure

The uniaxial compression tests of the mixtures were performed in a

1000 kN test machine (Fig. 4a), with a cross-head displacement rate of
0.1 mm/min. Three cylindrical specimens of 100 mm diameter and 200
mm height cured in a humid chamber for 7 days were evaluated for each
mixture, following the Brazilian standard NBR 12,025 [40]. Two linear
variation displacement transducers (LVDTs) fixed opposed on the
specimen center (Fig. 4b) were used to measure axial displacements
between two points at the height of the specimen (at a gauge length of
50 mm). From the stress–strain curve of each specimen, the modulus of
elasticity (Young’s) was calculated according to the American standard
ASTM C469 [41], by Equation 1.
( )
σ2 − σ1
E= (1)
εa2 − εa1
where: E = Elastic Modulus (GPa).
Fig. 8. Chart of Fatigue Test.
σ2 = Stress correspondent to 40% of the maximum stress (MPa);
σ1 = Stress correspondent to strain εa1 (MPa);
• After 24 h of humid cure, the specimens were demolded sealing with
εa2 = Axial strain correspondent to stress σ2 (mm/mm);
plastic film;
εa1 = Axial strain of 5 × 10-5 (mm/mm).
• Finally, the sealed specimens were cured for 6 days in a humid
chamber at 21 ± 1 ◦ C and 100% RH.

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T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072

Fig. 9. Schematic Drawings of the Evaluated Pavement Structures: (a) Structure 1; (b) Structures 2, 3 and 4; (c) Structure 5; (d) Structure 6, 7 and 8.

IOT), while Figs. 6 and 7 show the stress–strain curves of the specimens
Table 13 CP1 and CP2 of the mixtures C10IOT10 and C10IOT20, respectively,
Resilient modulus of soil–cement. obtained from the same test. Although three specimens per mixture were
Materials MR (MPa) subjected to mechanical testing, for each mixture there was a specimen
* Soil-cement 6,823 whose result was sufficiently dispersed from the others causing its
** Soil-cement with 10% tailings 7,906 disposal.
*** Soil-cement with 20% tailings 5,664 Table 6 summarizes the unconfined compressive tests results with
regards to compressive strength, elasticity modulus, axial strain at peak
stress. Results correspond with the average of two tests. Table 7 shows
4. Results and discussion
the water content and the dry apparent density results.
From the stress–strain curves, it can be noted that the mixtures
4.1. Mechanical properties
C10IOT00 and C10IOT10 shared similar behaviors, with a low strain
until the ultimate strength (around 2200 and 2500 µε), a peak formation
Fig. 5 shows the stress–strain curves under uniaxial compression of
and a strength decrease after the peak. The mixture C10IOT20 presented
the specimens CP1 and CP2 of the reference mixture C10IOT00 (without

Table 14
Results of Mechanical Analysis with Structures.
Structure Binder k1 k2 MR σt σc Δσ N
(MPa) (MPa)

1 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 139 − 10.1 0.994 1.01E + 05

AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 131 − 10.8 0.945 6.78E + 04
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 107 − 13.3 0.802 1.57E + 05
2 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 91 − 15.3 0.708 4.40E + 05
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 86 − 16.2 0.680 3.35E + 05
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 70 − 18.9 0.594 6.18E + 05
3 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 90 − 15.4 0.702 4.57E + 05
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 85 − 16.2 0.673 3.52E + 05
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 70 − 19.0 0.590 6.37E + 05
4 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 92 − 15.1 0.716 4.19E + 05
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 87 − 15.9 0.686 3.21E + 05
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 71 − 18.7 0.598 5.99E + 05
5 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 207 − 17.7 1.498 1.72E + 04
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 194 − 18.8 1.419 9.46E + 03
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 154 –22.7 1.178 2.73E + 04
6 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 161 − 21.0 1.213 4.28E + 04
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 152 –22.0 1.160 2.51E + 04
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 128 − 25.4 1.023 5.19E + 04
7 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 160 − 21.1 1.207 4.37E + 04
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 151 –22.1 1.154 2.58E + 04
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 128 − 25.4 1.023 5.19E + 04
8 AC 30–45 9.88E + 04 4.328 7,795 162 − 20.8 1.219 4.20E + 04
AC 50–70 5.16E + 04 4.851 6,878 154 − 21.8 1.172 2.39E + 04
ECOFLEX B 5.75E + 04 4.558 4,585 128 − 25.2 1.021 5.23E + 04

9
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al.
Fig. 10. Results of Analysis of Fatigue Test.
a greater axial strain at ultimate strength and a slower decrease in
strength after the ultimate strength was reached. The mixture C10IOT20
showed greater variability in the results, which could be related to the
greater content of coarser material.
The NBR 12,253 [13] standard determines that the cement soil
mixture must present a minimum compression resistance after 7 days of
curing of 2.1 MPa to be used in pavement base layers. By the results
shown in Table 6, all the mixtures surpassed the minimum value of
compression resistance (2.1 MPa). It can be seen that the mixtures with
10.0% IOT showed an increase of 6.40% in compressive strength (5.65
MPa) when compared to the reference mixture (5.31 MPa). However,
there was a decrease of 15.63% in strength with the addition of 20.0%
IOT (4.48 MPa). These results may have occurred as a function of the
water content and dry apparent specific gravity of the mixtures since the
mixture with 10.0% IOT has the lowest moisture content (8.89%) and
the highest dry apparent specific gravity value (2.313 g/cm3) when
compared to the other mixtures.
4.2. Fatigue test and simulation
To evaluate the behavior of the use of a soil–cement-IOT mixture as a
base layer, a simulation of hypothetical structures was done in the
software ELSYM 5. The software ELSYM5 (Elastic Layered System) de­
termines the structural responses in a three-dimensional system (X, Y, Z
coordinate system) of linear-elastic layers, subject to up to 10 vertical
loads applied in the system surface (Z = 0). The program’s input data are
layer properties (thickness, modulus of elasticity, and Poisson’s coeffi­
cient), location and magnitude of loads (evenly distributed over iden­
tical circular surfaces, perpendicular to the pavement layers), and
coordinates for determining structural responses (maximum of 100
different points). The program assumes that each layer is formed by
homogeneous, isotropic, weightless, and linear-elastic material. Each
layer has a uniform thickness and an infinite extent in the horizontal
direction, and the surface of the system is free from shear forces [42].
Eight different pavement structures were elaborated, with three
different asphalt mixtures. Table 8 presents the results of the volumetric
parameters of the three different asphalt mixtures and Table 9 presents
the results of the volumetric and mechanical parameters (resilient
modulus and tensile strength).
Structures 1 and 5 are reference structures (usual flexible pavement
with granular base layer); structures 2 and 6 contain a base layer of
soil–cement; structures 3 and 7 contain a base layer of soil–cement with
10.0% of IOT. And the structures 4 and 8 contain a base layer of
soil–cement with 20.0% of IOT.
The three asphalt mixtures went through a fatigue test. In the fatigue
10
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 128072
test, the specimens were subjected to diametral loading and 25 ◦ C of
temperature. Samples have been subjected to three levels of tension and,
for each, there was determined the number of cycles required for rupture
(displacement greater than 3.5 mm). Table 10 presents the results of
fatigue tests.
Charts were elaborated in the number of cycles due to stress differ­
ence, on a logarithmic scale (Fig. 8). For each binder fatigue curve, the
regression equation was obtained and presented on Table 11. HMA
stands for hot-mix asphalt concrete, AC for asphalt cement, and ECO­
FLEX B for rubber-modified asphalt.
With the obtained results, there was made a comparison of the
mixtures evaluated through a simulation of eight hypothetical pavement
structures (Table 12). Fig. 9 presents the schematic drawings of the
structures adopted in the simulation of pavement performance using
cement soil mixtures in the base layer. The pavement structures selected
are common in the construction of pavement on roads in Brazil. Table 13
shows the soil–cement base characteristics from the hypothetical pave­
ment structures and their resilient modulus. The tensional analysis was
performed using the ELSYM 5, which is a program that models a three-
dimensional idealized elastic layered pavement system, and the results
are presented in Table 14 and Fig. 10.
where: MR = resilient modulus obtained from laboratory test;
σt = tensile stress in the surface of the pavement obtained in the
program ELSYM 5;
σc = compressive stress in the surface of the pavement obtained in
the program ELSYM 5;
Δσ = difference between the strains of tension and compression (σt -
σc);
N = number of cycles.
The number of cycles (N) indicates the resistance of fatigue of
pavement structures. The greater the number of cycles, the longer the
fatigue life. The soil–cement structure (2) presented a fatigue life 4.2 to
4.6 times higher than the reference (structure 1). The soil–cement
structure (6) showed a fatigue life 2.3 to 2.4 times higher than the
reference (structure 5). The structures with 10% of IOT presented an
increase in fatigue life of 3% to 5% (structure 3) and 2% to 3% (structure
7). The structures with 20% of IOT showed a reduction in fatigue life of
3% to 5% (structure 4) and 4% to 7% (structure 8). It is also noticeable
that the asphalt mixture quality plays a major role in the number of
cycles of pavement, with the ECOFLEX B showing the best results and
the AC 50–70 the worst, in all cases.
Based on these results, the addition of 10.0% and 20.0% of IOT didn’t
practically change the number of cycles of the pavement structure,
ensuring its durability throughout its life cycle, similar to the usual semi-
rigid pavement.
T. Schatzmayr Welp Sá et al.
5. Conclusions
The number of mining tailings that are yearly produced in Brazil,
especially the iron ore tailings, shows the need for alternative use and
disposal methods. The use of iron ore tailings has been studied in many
different ways, such as alternative pavement material.
The consumption of natural resources (soil and aggregates) on
pavement layers is high, reaching 9800 tons/km. Frequently, the re­
sources available near the road construction do not meet the re­
quirements to be used solely. Therefore, stabilization is needed using
materials that will increase the resistance and improve the properties of
the material, making the road construction technically viable.
The results of the iron ore tailings addition on soil–cement mixtures
showed that it is an excellent alternative material for pavements. The
addition of 10.0% and 20.0% of iron ore tailings showed a compression
resistance above the minimum required (from 2.1 to 2.7 times more),
and the mixture with 10.0% of iron ore tailings showed an increase of
6.33% in the compression resistance when compared to the reference
mixture. This can be related to the new particle size distribution and,
consequently, better packing.
The fatigue test and the simulation of hypothetical pavement struc­
tures, using soil–cement with iron ore tailings, showed that the struc­
tures with the addition of 10.0% (3 and 7) and 20.0% (4 and 8) of IOT
had about the same results of the structures of soil–cement (2 and 6)
with no addition of IOT. It is also noticeable the difference in the per­
formance, in terms of fatigue resistance, from the usual flexible pave­
ments (1 and 5), and the semi-flexible pavements (2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8).
Moreover, the use of iron ore tailings in pavements layers also con­
tributes by creating a new disposal method to the tailings, reducing the
environmental impact related to the mining activity, and can possibly
reduce the costs related to the pavement construction, as fewer natural
resources are needed for the construction.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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