All text types + features (for analysis)

Review
1. Intro

2. Explanation

3. Opinion

The register is usually informal but can change depending on the audience

The emotive language used to persuade the reader

A catchy hook, in the beginning, may be required

Varied sentence structures to create a tone of excitement (to create any tone)

Imagery is required to some extent to set the scene for the reader

The main purpose isn't persuasion but some persuasive techniques are used to
convince the reader of the review’s validity

When analysing:

Is the language catered to the audience/ purpose of the review

Grammar/ intertextuality (esp. 1b)

Editorial
1. Lead with an objective explanation of the issue/ controversy

a. Include 5Ws and H

b. Use relevant facts and quotations from the sources

2. Present opposition first

a. Identify those who disagree with you

b. Use facts and quotations to state their opinions

 c. Give a strong stance for the opposition

3. Refute the opposition’s beliefs

a. Put in counter facts/ quotations supporting your position

b. Concede to a point of the opposition, thus making you seem more rational

4. Give other reasons/ analogies

a. From strong to strongest ideas

b. Use literary/ cultural allusion

5. Conclude with a punch (strong)

a. Give solutions to the problem/ challenge the reader to become informed

b. Quotations will be effective

c. Rhetorical questions to conclude are effective

When analysing:

Look for strong points

Formal language

Aggressive tone and register through questions/passive-aggressive statements

Use of facts and opinions

Clear explanations of the problem in the introduction

Sociolect, jargon, specialised language

Leaflets
Full sentences and shorter paragraphs

Long sentences are more serious/ informative & short sentences are
humourous etc.

Informal language

Varied vocabulary (no slang)

Bullet points can be used to set out key points (end/ near end of the leaflet as
long as each point has been explained fully earlier in the leaflet)

Facts and opinions (+statistics)

Subheadings to divide/ organise ideas (+clear flow of ideas)

A FOREST DRIP

Anecdotes

Facts/ statistics

Opinions
Rhetorical questions

Emotive language/ exaggeration

Sarcasm/ humour
Triples

Direct language/ inclusive language

Repetition
Imperatives

Punctuation for effect

When analysing:

Look for whether the audience is spoken to directly and whether there is a call
for action present

Look for specialised language specific to the audience and topic at hand (jargon,
sociolect
Discursive & Argumentative
Discursive Common Argumentative Checklist for both

• Audience is
• Neutral/ unbiased • Analytical • One stance
addressed
• Statements like • Specific vocabulary
• 5 paragraphs • Reiterate stance
‘people do believe..’ is used
• Open-ended • Stylistic features are
• Statistics/ facts • Rebuttal
discussion identified
• Subjective/ • Rhetorical devices
• Tone-rigid/ aggressive
personal are used
• Persuasive (ethos/ • PEEL paragraphs
• Tone/ voice
pathos/ logos) are implemented
• Personal • Personal pronouns • Topic sentence is
pronouns such as ‘i believe’ etc. included
• Argument-specific
language
Scripted Speech
Form:

Has argumentative/ persuasive aspects to it; relates to the context

Mode:

Planned

Auditory

Spoken

Transactional

Structure:

Engaging, motivational opening:

Hook

An objective understanding of the topic

2 body paragraphs

1-3 arguments (400 words)

Conclusion

Conclude with a memorable idea of your speech; similar to a hook

Varied sentence structures (long sentences for more developed points, shorter
sentences to keep variety + emphasis)

Language:

Handling objections

Anecdotes

Hyperbole

Personal pronouns
 Rhetorics

Rule of 3

Emotive language

Ethos, pathos, logos

Anaphora/ Epiphora/ Hypophora

Article
Target Audience: Identify the concerning reading group (form)

Purpose: Find the objective or aim of writing the article (form)

Organize: Arrange the information and the facts in a logical way (structure)

Topic-specific language; jargon, sociolect etc.

The opening must be eye-catching; hook, rhetorics etc.

Unique, catch, title

Discursive Article:

Paragraph 1: Introduction

Paragraph 2: Advantages/’For’

Paragraph 3: Disadvantages/’Against’

Paragraph 4: Conclusion- Summary and final opinion

Argumentative Article:

Paragraph 1: Introduction

Paragraph 2: First point with justification (or counter-argument)

Paragraph 3: Second point with justification (or counter-argument)

Paragraph 4: Opposing point which you contradict (here, you state a point
said by people who have a different opinion from yours and explain why they
are wrong. This is called argument and counter-argument)

Paragraph 5: Conclusion- summary, (solution?), repeat your opinion

Diary
Date at the top

First person

Include personalisation

Topic sentences to begin each paragraph

Showcase the author’s personality and inner emotions through writing

Provide a sense of time/ sequence (aim for a chronological pattern)

Varied sentence types

Informal text so slang, colloquialism etc. is important

Sociolect should be present (eg. for a teenage girl specific slang etc.)

Blog
Address audience: most often, the blog audience requires a more relaxed,
cheery register

The purpose should be fulfilled clearly (if the question asks for advice, ensure
you stay on topic)

Catchy heading; with pun, sarcasm, humour, wordplay etc. (only in a blog post,
not review)

Opening should have a brief introduction to the topic, alongside an intriguing

opening.

Organise each idea in paragraphs with subheadings

First person, informal, specific language

Advertisements
Propaganda Techniques

Bandwagon → hopping onto a trend, keeping up with pop culture, weasel

words

Testimonial → by celebrities, people in authority/ influence

Snob Appeal → catering to higher class society, luxury, elite class

Plain folks → common man, anyone can buy this

Patriotism → ‘made in the USA, stamps, branding of the country etc.

Facts and Figures → statistics, logos, done by an expert usually, truth &
facts

Expert →

Logical appeal → hierarchy of needs pyramid, caters to must-haves/ needs

Glittering Generalisation → deception, may not be true to what is being

advertised

Transfer/ Emotional → catering to emotions

Name-calling → comparisons, bringing down other competitors to bring

their products up

Repetition → slogan, word to catch attention ‘fall for the advertisements

Humour → memorable, connection to the audience

Card Stacking → only presents information that is positive to a product and

omits negative information

Use slogans, puns, anything memorable

Think of the audience and the result you wish to come from the advert

Rule of 3

Imperative writing

Persuasive techniques (ethos, pathos, logos)

Letters
Topic sentences for each paragraph

Think about the audience (language varies depending on the audience)

Difference in sentence types

Depending on the purpose, tone and register should be implemented (reply

letter → can be aggressive; persuasive letter; friendly/ informal letter)

Adressing the recipient in the beginning and end

If the letter is informal → colloquial writing; inside jokes; background context

Brochures
Stick to the specific topic given and not the broad image

Catchy title

Mix both informal and formal styles of writing (one to persuade/ include and one
for the information)

Call for action

Headers

Bullet points

Testimonials

Target audience/ consumers (focus on social class and gender)

5W 1H

Brief/ concise writing

Facts/ statistics

News Stories
Reports an event/ personality (not discursive/ argumentative)

Headline + Byline (?)

Layman language for the common person

Paper 1- form, structure, and language

Form
start with TAPG.
• Tone- from the author to the reader
• Audience
• Purpose- convey, inform, persuade, etc.
• Genre- context and content
Structure
• Ellipsis: leaving out words rather than repeating them unnecessarily; for example, saying 'I
want to go but I can't instead of 'I want to go but I can't go'
• Elision: Elision is the omission of sounds, syllables, or words in speech. This is done to
make the language easier to say, and faster. 'I don't know' /I dunno/ , /kamra/ for camera,
and 'fish 'n' chips' are all examples of elision.
• Shared Resources: References to wider ideas or works, understanding concepts with
similar meanings, and to infer to similar understandings. -Similar to allusion however
allusion is used in reference to poems.
• Intertextuality: Intertextuality refers to those interrelationships among texts that shape a
text's meaning. The recognizable echoes of other texts in a text intensify the experience of
the text by adding layers of meaning. Eg- The main plotline of Disney's The Lion King is a
take on Shakespeare's Hamlet.
• Denotation: Denotation means the literal definition of a word. To give an example, the
denotation for blue is the color blue. For example The girl was blue. You mean the girl was
quite literally the color blue.
• Connotation: Connotation is the use of a word to suggest a different association than its
literal meaning, which is known as denotation. For example, blue is a color, but it is also a
word used to describe a feeling of sadness, as in: “She's feeling blue.
• Hypernym: In this case, a hypernym is the name of a broader category of things. Dog, for
example, is a hypernym for a dachshund, Chihuahua, and a poodle. Superhero is a
hypernym for Batman and Spider-Man. A word can't be a hypernym if there are no other
words that can be classified under it.
• Hyponym: In simpler terms, a hyponym is in a type-of relationship with its hypernym. For
example pigeons, crows, eagles, and seagulls are all hyponyms of birds and their
hypernym; which itself is a hyponym of animal, hypernym. Hypernymy or hyperonymy is
the converse of hyponymy.
• Prosodic features: accent, stress, rhythm, tone, pitch, and intonation - and shows how
these connect to sound systems and meaning.
• Paralinguistic features: the ways in which people show what they mean other than by the
words they use, for example by their tone of voice, or by making sounds with their breath:
The study of paralanguage deals with the non-verbal qualities of speech, which include
pitch, amplitude, rate, and voice quality.
Language
• Semantic field
is a set of words united by meaning; the set of meanings a word can have in the different
contexts in which it finds itself. Words related in any sense belonged to the same semantic
field.

• Why use a Semantic Field?

o Explore a theme or atmosphere:
A semantic field is a great way to help create an effective theme or atmosphere in
literature. Words need to have consistent connotations in order to build realistic
scenarios, whether that be an author describing settings and environments, or
emotions and thoughts. Words distinctly outside of the semantic field would stick
out (although this could be a deliberate choice in some scenarios) and could be
less effective.
o Build an emotion:
Semantic fields also help to create undertones to pieces of literature. This
effectively builds emotion, and provides subtle indications to a reader as to what
may be about to happen.
o Shock or surprise:
The actual semantic field is unlikely to shock or surprise readers because it has to
be built up through the use of multiple words, however a contrast to the chosen field
could be effective at helping impart a message or make the piece of work more
memorable.

• Lexical field
Set of words associated, by their meaning, with a given conceptual domain. The set of
words player, referee, ball, goal, team, and stadium is part of the lexical football field". The
set of words father, mother, son, daughter, sister, uncle, and aunt is part of the lexical
family field.

• Sociolect is a variation of language between different social groups, whereas Dialect is a

variation of a language from region to region. Sociolect links individuals with the community
of its users and assigns prestige to a group. It also serves as an important identity marker,
distinguishing thus a particular group from others.

• Dialect can be a powerful tool to help writers bring the characters they have created to life.
A writer might use dialect, along with accent, to distinguish a character's unique way of
speaking—and in doing so, illustrate their place of origin, cultural background, or social
class
Paper 1- detailed notes
• Section A: Directed Response
• Section B: Text Analysis

SECTION A: Q1 is divided into 2 parts (a & b)

1a) Directed writing task in response Requirements:
to a text 1. Read and understand one of a range of text
• Marks: 10 types
• Word Limit: 150 - 200 2. Decode the text you are asked to read:
• What is the text about?
• What type of text is it?
• Who wrote it?
• Purpose?
3. For the text you are asked to write, focus on:
• What will the new text be about?
• What different form or type will it be in?
• Who will it be written for and by?
• Purpose?
4. 150 - 200 words long so you will address a
maximum of 5 - 6 points
5. Understand the key points of the text:
• Tone/attitude of writer
• Elements of form, language and
structure
6. Choose an appropriate tone and register

Sample structure:
• (salutation if necessary)
• Intro: mention purpose/type
• Paragraph 1
• Paragraph 2
• Conclusion
• (sign off if necessary)

Things to consider when writing from a perspective:

1. Audience
• Who are you addressing?
• What pronouns will you use?
2. Perspective
3. Opening
4. Structure
5. Ending
6. Rhetorical devices
7. Tone
8. Dealing with opposing viewpoints
9. Sentence patterns
10. Word choice
 Requirements:
1b)comparison of the form, structure and • Write about effects produced by form,
language of the candidate’s response in structure and language in both texts
part (a) with that of the original text Provide a succinct overview of both pieces of
writing
• Marks: 15 • Include the sense of the overall tone,
• Word limit: approach and style of the text, not just the
ability to list individual snippets and comment
Things to consider when comparing texts: on them
1. Word choice • Explain the effects of different linguistic and
2. Sentences structural features and explain how they affect
3. Development the tone and purpose of the text and also
4. Voice/tone explain how they create a particular impact on
5. Audience the reader
6. Purpose • Quote each evidence from text
7. Language features • Relevant reference to text

Sample structure:
• Sum up the overall focus of text
• Deal with use of conventions
• Use of language
• Form and structure
• Develop my explanation and explore all
relevant details

Useful Phrases:
For comparison:
• In the same way, both, similarly, likewise, as
well as, have in common
For differences/contrast:
• However, yet, in contrast, on the other hand,
although, unlike, whereas, on the contrary

SECTION B: Text analysis: In Question 2, candidates are required to read a text of

approximately 550–750 words, and comment on the form, structure and language of the
text.
Overview of given text What overall view or sense of the text do you get?
Is there any specific theme?
Distinctive features of form, Language used
language and structure Form, language, structure and chronology

Effects What effects do these specific choices of form, structure and

language have?
Why have these words been chosen?
Are they positive, negative or neutral

Explain, explore and evaluate What can be inferred?

Valid interpretations

Contrasts Is the mood consistent?

Shifts of tone/focus
Word → language usage → specific effect → overall effect
Paper 2- detailed notes
• Section A: Shorter writing and reflective commentary
• Section B: Extended writing

SECTION A: Q1 is divided into 2 parts (a & b)

1a) Shorter writing Requirements: with a given prompt

• Marks: 15 7. Read and understand one of a range of text types
• Word Limit: 400 8. Decode the text you are asked to read:
• What is the text about?
• What type of text is it?
• Who wrote it?
• Purpose?
9. For the text you are asked to write, focus on:
• What will the new text be about?
• What different form or type will it be in?
• Who will it be written for and by?
• Purpose?
10. 150 - 200 words long so you will address a maximum of 5 - 6
points
11. Understand the key points of the text:
• Tone/attitude of writer
• Elements of form, language and structure
12. Choose an appropriate tone and register

Sample structure:
• (salutation if necessary)
• Intro: mention purpose/type
• Paragraph 1
• Paragraph 2
• Conclusion
• (sign off if necessary)

Things to consider when writing from a perspective:

11. Audience
• Who are you addressing?
• What pronouns will you use?
12. Perspective
13. Opening
14. Structure
15. Ending
16. Rhetorical devices
17. Tone
18. Dealing with opposing viewpoints
19. Sentence patterns
20. Word choice
 Requirements:
1b) Reflective commentary • Write about effects produced by form, structure and language
in both texts and reasons for choosing the techniques, word
• Marks: 10
choices and form of writing
• Word limit:
• Include the sense of the overall tone, approach and style of
the 2 texts, not just the ability to list individual snippets and
Things to consider when comment on them
reflecting on text: • Comment on the different forms and styles of both passages
8. Word choice • Identify the particular differences and express those differing
9. Sentences qualities clearly and analytically
10. Development • Explain the effects of different linguistic and structural
11. Voice/tone features
12. Audience • Explain how they affect the tone and purpose of the text
13. Purpose • Explain how they create a particular impact on the reader
14. Language features • Quote each evidence from text
• Relevant reference to text

Sample structure:
• Sum up overall focus of both texts (key ways in which they
are same or different)
• Deal with use of conventions in both texts
• Use of language in both texts
• Forms and structure
• Additional structural/linguistic devices
• Thoughtful connections (drawing close attention to details)
• Develop my explanation and explore tone

SECTION B: Extended writing: You'll be given three prompts. Pick just ONE of these three
prompts.
• Word limit: 600-900
• Narrative/ Descriptive or Review or Argumentative/ Discursive
Theories:

Deborah Tannen Tannen argues that men use more direct imperatives to give orders,
while women suggest things in a more indirect way. Tannen said men
are more likely to resist a marriage proposal at work or at home, while
women are less resistant and less assertive. Tannen also argues that
there are gender differences in speech and that we need to recognize
and understand them in order to avoid needlessly blaming others or
ourselves.

Status vs. support

Tannen claims that men grow up in a world in which conversation is
competitive and therefore strive to ensure that others don’t dominate
them. Women however, use conversation to gain support and
confirmation rather than status.
Independence vs. intimacy
Tannen claims that due to the fact that men are concerned with status,
they focus more on independence. Women, on the other hand, think in
terms of intimacy, seeking support and closeness from their partner.
Advice vs. understanding
Men like to find solutions whereas women seek sympathy and
understanding. Whilst a man might seek to find a way of solving a
problem that their wife or girlfriend might have, Tannen claims that what
the wife or girlfriend really wants is sympathy.
Information vs. feelings
Men exchange information briefly, for example in a telephone
conversation to arrange a meeting. However, women will spend an hour
on the telephone talking about feelings and emotions.
Orders vs. proposals
Tannen claims that men make orders by using more direct imperatives
whilst women suggest things in more indirect ways.
Conflict vs. compromise
Whilst men are more likely to voice their opposition to a suggestion in
the workplace or home, according to Tannen, women are less likely to
object and assert themselves. They might delay their opposition to the
suggestions and complain later.

David Crystal David Crystal explains how shifting the focus from technology to "people
and purpose" (x) is helping to make the Internet a language revolution.
The purpose of Languages and the Internet is to clarify the role of
language in the Internet and the impact of the Internet on language. She
says that english is made up of over 120 borrowed languages. on the
prescriptivist view that texting is destroying language.
- It gives younger people practice in writing
- It is older people that use non-standard forms
- To use acronym or abbreviation, you need to know how to spell it in
the first place

Peter Trudgill Peter Trudgill's Norwich study was a large sociolinguistic study of the
influence of social class on language use. Trudgill theorized that the
higher the social class, the closer the form of prestige to English
speakers. I wanted to find out if Norwich's study looked at various
linguistic variables, such as the pronunciation of word endings such as
 "walk" and "eat." The results of this study concluded that people of
lower social class were more likely to use non-standard forms, while
people of higher social class were more likely to use language
associated with types of prestige. Men are generally found to use more
non-standard language than women, regardless of social class. He
believed that men use more non standard forms

Piaget’s Theory In short, Piaget's theory was that children initiate the process of reading,
writing, and language acquisition by first gathering sensory and motor
information. This is information about how things feel, taste, smell, and
look. Their motion information tells us how to move and manipulate
objects in space.
Jean Piaget theory consisted of 4 main stages and each stage stated is
correlated with an age period of childhood.
According to him the 4 stages are as follows:
1. Sensorimotor intelligence
2. Preoperational thinking
3. Concrete operational thinking
4. Formal operational thinking

Burrhus Fredric According to B. F. Skinner's theory of learning, a stimulus is shown to a

Skinner subject, which prompts a response. The response is then reinforced
(stimulus, response, reinforcement). In the end, this is what influences
how we behave. The behaviorism ABCs were created in order to make
this procedure simpler to memorize.

Labov’s Theory The research of Labov shows that linguistic variation is wide and highly
structured, and it also reveals predictable patterns of co-occurrence
between language features, such as how a vowel is pronounced, and
social categories, such as socioeconomic classes. Such understandings
result from researching language from a socially realistic angle that
considers how a wide spectrum of speakers utilizes the language in
commonplace contexts. Labov has argued for a better empirical
foundation for linguistics, casting doubt on analyses based on native
speaker intuitions and highlighting the need of listening to
spontaneously occurring speech. His approach's dependence on
quantitative techniques sets it apart from other sociolinguistics
approaches. He said that we subconsciously change our language to
identify ourselves with one group rather than another

Zimmerman and In their study, Zimmerman and West found that "men deny equal
West’s Theory: standing to women as discussion partners." Men can "construct female
silence" by interrupting women in order to silence them and take over
the conversation. Any woman who tries to interrupt a male is perceived
as impolite, dominating, and bitchy, according to Dale Spender in her
analysis of the Zimmermann and West study.

Noam Chomsky The foundation of Chomsky's theory is the notion that all languages
share a universal grammar, or comparable structures and rules.
According to this theory, while there are some alternatives and
restrictions for variance in grammar and characteristics between
languages, all languages share formal universals and principles in
common.
 Chomsky's theory of language acquisition views language acquisition as
a biologically determined process that uses neural circuits in the brain
which have evolved to contain linguistic signals. Chomsky concluded
that language acquisition requires an inborn faculty in children, a
concept known as the language acquisition device. In other words,
humans are born with an innate language ''device'' that enables them to
learn any human language. Prior to Chomsky, it was widely agreed that
language was acquired through experiential learning, but his theory
argues that human brain structures naturally allow for the capacity to
learn and use languages.

Universal grammar is defined as ''the system of categories,

mechanisms and constraints shared by all human languages and
considered to be innate.'' This system is thought to include formal
universals and principles, with specific options and parameters for
variation in grammar and features between languages. Chomsky's
theory of universal grammar thus argues that all languages contain
structures and rules. For example, most languages contain the word
classes of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Another shared commonality in
language is recursion, or the repetition of a particular linguistic element
or grammatical structure in sequence.

Micheal Halliday
Halliday's systemic functional linguistics understands texts as pieces of
communication constructed for social purposes. When we listen to, read
or view a text, and when we speak, write or create a text, we are
drawing on three systems of culturally constructed meaning from which
we simultaneously make our choices. The first is the topic, what the
social group regards as important to talk and write about (called the
field); the second is interpersonal, the words we choose that position us
as authoritative or kind or fearful and that position the audience as
colleagues or novices or enemies (called the tenor); and the third are
the language choices that make our text sound formal and written-like,
or informal and spoken-like (called the mode).

There are 7 functions of language

1. Instrumental- is used to express people's needs or to get things
done
2. Regulatory- this language is used to tell others what to do
3. Interactional- language is used to make contact with others and
form a relationship
4. Personal- the use of language is used to express feelings,
opinions, and individual identity.
5. Heuristic- this is when language is used to gain knowledge about
the environment
6. Imaginative- language is used to tell stories and jokes, and to
create an imaginary environment
7. Representational- the use of language to convey facts and
information

Kachru Model- the ENL: English as a native language, these are native speakers born in
three circles an English-speaking country, having then this language as their mother
 tongue or first tongue.
ESL: English as a second language, these are the non-native speakers
who have learnt English almost at the same time as their mother
tongue.
EFL: English as a foreign language, these are the non-native speakers
who learnt English in a country where English is not usually spoken.

The Inner Circle is made up the traditional bases of English and its
speakers are the ones in charge of providing the norms. These places
are where the norms are created and from which they spread to the
other circles. Some of the countries that conform the Inner Circle are
USA, UK, and Canada.
The Outer Circle represents the places where they speak official non-
native varieties of English because of their colonial history. The
speakers of these places are the ones who challenge the norms and
develop them. They are mainly ESL. Some of the countries that belong
to this circle are India, Pakistan and Egypt.
The Expanding Circle is made up by EFL speakers where English is not
usually spoken. In this circle the speakers have to follow the rules
established by the Inner Circle and developed or challenged by the
Outer one. Some examples of countries that belong to this circle are
China, Russia and Brazil.

David Crystal (2)- 1: Where children say things for 3 reasons:

Child Language • to get something they want
Acquisition Theory • to get someone's attention
• to draw attention to something holophrastic

2: children ask questions (starting with where)

• questions will begin with interrogative pronouns followed by a
noun/ verb
• children taught to learn things in opposite pairs
3: children ask many questions, but signal their questions by intonation
(tone applied)
• more grammatically correct language
• refer to events in the past more rather than future, and talk of
continuing actions
• basic sentence structure: [subject]+[verb]+[object]+[adverb or
any other element used] or [preposition]+[article]+[noun]
4: when children use increasingly complex sentence structures
• beginning to explain things
• ask for explanations using the word why
• making a wide range of requests
• replace imperatives with questions
• use of negotiation
• able to use auxiliary verbs + can duplicate modal verbs
5: regularly use language to do all the things that they need it for (give
information, asking and answering questions, requesting directly and
indirectly, suggesting, offering, stating and expressing)
• can speak hypothetically and conditionally
• can explain conditions required for something to happen
• general references to past/ future
Grice Maxims theory 1. The maxim of quantity, where one tries to be as informative as
one possibly can, and gives as much information as is needed,
and no more.
2. The maxim of quality is where one tries to be truthful, and does
not give information that is false or that is not supported by
evidence.
3. The maxim of relation is where one tries to be relevant, and says
things that are pertinent to the discussion.
4. The maxim of manner is when one tries to be as clear, as brief,
and as orderly as one can in what one says, and where one
avoids obscurity and ambiguity.

As the maxims stand, there may be an overlap, as regards the length of

what one says, between the maxims of quantity and manner; this
overlap can be explained (partially if not entirely) by thinking of the
maxim of quantity (artificial though this approach may be) in terms of
units of information. In other words, if the listener needs, let us say, five
units of information from the speaker, but gets less, or more than the
expected number, then the speaker is breaking the maxim of quantity.
However, if the speaker gives the five required units of information, but
is either too curt or long-winded in conveying them to the listener, then
the maxim of manner is broken. The dividing line, however, may be
rather thin or unclear, and there are times when we may say that both
the maxims of quantity and quality are broken by the same factors.

Communication Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) is a general theoretical

Accommodation framework for both interpersonal and intergroup communication. It
Theory- professor seeks to explain and predict why, when, and how people adjust their
Howard Giles communicative behavior during social interaction, and what social
consequences result from those adjustments. There are two types of
accommodation processes explained in this theory
▪ Convergence– convergence is a process where people tend to
adapt the other person’s communication characteristics to
reduce the social differences
▪ Divergence-the process contradicts the method of adaptation
and in this context the individual emphasize is on the social
difference and nonverbal differences between the interactants.

Lev Vygotsky - He argued that children learn from the beliefs and attitudes modeled by
Language is the their culture. Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was
foundation of the basis of learning. His points included the argument that language
learning: supports other activities such as reading and writing.

In Vygotsky's viewpoint, language is critical for cognitive development.

He argues that language in the form of private speech guides cognitive
development. The cornerstone of Vygotsky's theory is the social
significance of education and its relation to societal involvement.

Vygotsky's theory has been used to inspire a focus on interactive and

collaborative organizations of teaching and learning that encourage
students to learn from social interactions with peers and with the
teacher.