FTTH Handbook 2021

FTTH Handbook
Edition 9
D&O Committee
Foreword
The mission of the FTTH Council Europe is to encourage the rollout of fibre-optic access networks to every
home, business and antenna in several ways. Fibre is essential to accommodating the applications and
technologies of today and the future. This foundational technology will allow Europe to become a true
Gigabit society.
Fibre brings a wide range of benefits, such as providing economic and educational opportunities and
improving GDP. Thanks to lower energy consumption and CO2 emissions, combined with reduced work-
related travel and lower space requirements, fibre also directly and indirectly supports sustainability goals.
For years, everything from video streaming, Internet of Things, and the uptake of mobile computing and
smartphones have been driving the need for ultra-fast, low-latency, always-on connectivity. In the current
post-pandemic world, in which we will continue to work and learn from home, demand for bandwidth and
Quality of Service requirements are greater than ever.
We are now seeing fibre being rolled out across Europe at unprecedented scale and speed. These
deployments are being driven by a wide variety of operators, including incumbents and new players.
In this context, expert guidance about FTTH technologies, designs and operational tactics are essential to
ensure infrastructure we build today will last for decades. With this in mind, the FTTH Council is offering
this document to the fibre community, as a key asset that supports informed decision-making.
I would like to extend our gratitude to all those

who have contributed to the creation and evolution
of this Handbook, and to the Deployment and
Operations Committee that has compiled and
written this comprehensive document. Of course,
we welcome your questions, feedback and
suggestions.
Eric Festraets
President, FTTH Council Europe
Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe 3

Index
Chapter 1: FTTH Description and Overview 7
Section 1.1: Why Fibre Networks? 8

Section 1.2: Why this Handbook? 11
Section 1.3: Planning the Network 12
Section 1.4: Building the Network 16
Section 1.5: Network Operations 17
Section I: Plan 18
Chapter 2: Strategic Network Planning 19
Section 2.1: Introduction 20

Section 2.2: Business Case 22
Section 2.3: Geography and Demography 24
Section 2.4: Technical Considerations 26
Section 2.5: Wholesale Business Models and Unbundling 31
Section 2.6: Costs 32
Section 2.7: Partnerships & Infrastructure Sharing 35
Section 2.8: Regulatory Framework 37
Section 2.9: Summary 38
Chapter 3: Physical Layer Technology Summary - Passing Homes 39

Section 3.2: Ducts, Microducts and Chambers 43
Section 3.3: Fibre Optic Cables for FTTH 49
Section 3.4: Connections and Terminations 55
4 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

Chapter 4: Physical Layer Technology - Connecting Homes 64

Section 4.2: Connecting Multi-Dwelling Units 66
Section 4.3: Alternative Solutions and Innovations 75
Section 4.4: Connecting Single Dwelling Units 79
Chapter 5: Active Equipment 83

Section 5.2: The Basics 85
Section 5.3: Central Office 87
Section 5.4: Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) 91
Section 5.5: Fibre Extension Options 95
Chapter 6: Fibre Management 99

Section 6.2: Connectivity Basics 101
Section 6.3: Optical Distribution Frames 108
Section 6.4: Cable Management and Routing Within the ODF 130
Chapter 7: Digitalisation Workflow 134

Section 7.2: Power of Digitalisation 136
Section 7.3: IT System Strategies 146
Section 7.4: Conclusion 149
Chapter 8: Strategic Design 150

Section 8.2: Key Architecture Decisions 152
Section II: Build 156
Chapter 9: Network Design 157

Section 9.2: Detailed Network Design 159
Chapter 10: Installation Techniques 164
Section 10.1: Fibre Deployment 165

Section 10.2: Underground Installation 171
Section 10.3: Aerial Installation 186
Section 10.4: Customer Connection 192
Chapter 11: FTTH Test Guidelines 195

Section 11.2: Connector Cleanliness & Fibre Inspection 197
Section 11.3: Testing FTTH Networks During and After Construction 200
Section 11.4: Service Activation 204

Chapter 12: Geographic Information System 208

Section 12.2: Data Quality and Management 216
Section 12.3: The Plan > Design > Build > Operate lifecycle 219
Section 12.4: Summary 224
225
Section III: Operate
Chapter 13: Geographic Information System 226
Section 13.1: Introduction - Why OSS/BSS atters 227

Section 13.2: What are OSS/BSS? 228
Section 13.3: OSS/BSS Landscape Strategy 231
Section 13.4: What can OSS/BSS do for you? 233
Chapter 14: Operations & Maintenance 238

Section 14.2: Strategy for Network OAM 240
Section 14.3: Operation the Network 245
Section 14.4: Maintaining the Network 251
Section 14.5: Network Upgrades and Expansion 257
Chapter 15: Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting 258
Section 15.1: Centralised Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting 259

Section 15.2: Troubleshooting 266
Section 15.3: Optical Testing Tools 268
Section 15.4: Optical Instruction Detection Monitoring 269
Appendix I: Fibre, Connectors and Splicing 272
Section A1.1: Optical Fibre 273

Section A1.2: Connectors, Patchcords and Pigtails 278
Section A1.3: Fibre-Optic splicing 288
Appendix II: FTTH Standardisation and Terminology 297
Section A2.1: Introduction 298

Section A2.2: Major Standardisation Activities and Guidelines 300
Section A2.3: Selection of Relevant Standards 305
Appendix III: Subsidy Programs: Germany as a Case Study 302
Appendix IV: OSS BSS 306
Section A4.1: Introduction 207

Section A4.2: Older Standards 208
Section A4.3: Emerging and Current Standards 210
Appendix V: Network Evolution Impacting Active Equipment 314

Chapter 1
FTTH Description
and Overview
1.1 Why Fibre Networks?
1.2 Why this Handbook?
1.3 Planning the Network
1.4 Building the Network
1.5 Network Operations
Section 1.1
Why Fibre Networks?
A FTTH network is a system of interconnected elements in which end-users are connected to a central
point using only optical fibre cabling. This is the key differentiator to other types of broadband network.
In this section, we will be taking a closer look at these elements and how they are connected. Each central
point - also known as an access node or Point of Presence (POP) - contains electronic transmission (active)
equipment required to deliver applications and services to subscribers. End users of FTTH networks are
primarily located in their residences. However, a plethora of other end user locations are also possible,
including offices and wireless antenna sites.
Fibre offers the highest available bandwidth today and can transport huge volumes of data with the lowest
latency. Fibre can transport data faster than any other medium. It works well across long distances without
signal degradation or the need to boost the signal along the path. After installation, the performance of
fibre can be improved by changing the electronics while continuing to use the existing cable.
Unlike copper cables, fibre is immune to electromagnetic interference and weather conditions. This makes
fibre networks inherently more reliable and secure. Fibre cable can also improve CAPEX/OPEX thanks to
its relatively low cost, durability, and the fact it offers scope for adding services in future. In short, fibre-
optic cable is key to accommodating today’s increasingly bandwidth-hungry applications, as well as future
technologies.
Numerous studies indicate that fibre broadband brings a wide range of benefits, from increasing GDP and
employment to supporting job retention and new business creation. In fact, fibre networks - the ‘fourth
utility’ - are vital to our long-term economic and social future.
What do FTTH access networks connect?

• Fixed wireless network antennas, for example wireless LAN or WiMAX
• Mobile network base stations
• Subscribers in SDUs (Single Dwelling Units) or MDUs (Multi-Dwelling Units)
• Larger buildings such as schools, hospitals and businesses
• Security and monitoring (surveillance cameras, alarms, control devices…)

What are the key attributes of a FTTH network?
• Provide high-bandwidth services and content to each subscriber
• Flexible network architecture design with capacity to meet future needs
• Direct fibre connection of each end-user to the active equipment, ensuring maximum
capacity for future service demands
• Support for future network upgrades and expansion
• Minimal disruption during network deployment
• Open Access capability
What are the main influences on the method of infrastructure

deployment?
• Type of FTTH site - dense urban, suburban, or rural
• Size of the FTTH network
• Initial cost of the infrastructure deployment (CAPEX)
• Running costs for the network operation and maintenance (OPEX)
• Network architecture, for example PON or Active Ethernet
• Local conditions, such as labour costs, local authority restrictions
• Is this a ‘brownfield’ or a ‘greenfield’ development?
Types of Fibre Network Architecture.

Fibre to the Home (FTTH) – In a Fibre to the Home (FTTH) network, the fibre runs from a central
office to the home or business where it is distributed over coaxial, wireless, or fibre connections.
Fibre to the Building (FTTB) – Fibre to the Building (FTTB) connections are used to connect MDUs or
office blocks to an access network. A fibre line runs to the fibre node in the building, and from there
each apartment is connected via some form of copper based connection.
Fibre to the Curb (FTTC) – FTTC uses fibre and copper wire cabling to connect homes to broadband
internet. The fibre is taken to a connection point on the curb from which homes and business are
connected via copper cabling.
Fibre to the Distribution Point (FTTDp) – The POP is linked to the Distribution Point via optical
cable and then from the Distribution Point to the end-user premises via existing copper infrastructure.
The Dp is typically further away from the end user premises than the curb.
A building that contains a number of individual dwellings is often referred to as a Multi-Dwelling Unit
(MDU). A MDU can be connected by FTTB or FTTH. In the FTTB scenario the connections between
subscribers and the building switch are not fibre and involve some form of Ethernet transport suited
to the medium available in the vertical cabling. In some cases building switches are not individually
connected to the POP but are interconnected in a chain or ring structure in order to utilise existing
fibres deployed in particular topologies. This also saves fibres and ports in the POP. The concept of
routing fibre directly into the home within a MDU from the POP or through the use of optical splitters,
without involving switches in the building, brings us back to the FTTH scenario.

This Handbook focuses on FTTH/B deployments, as in the long term, these are considered the best
target architecture due to their virtually unlimited scalability.
Figure 1.1
Different types of fibre networks

Section 1.2
Why this Handbook?
The FTTH Council Europe represents a wide range of stakeholders involved in the planning, design,
construction and operation of fibre networks. Education is a key part of our work in accelerating the
deployment and adoption of fibre networks. Our Guides act as a forum for sharing experiences and
approaches, supporting those who aim to drive pure fibre networks across Europe.
The FTTH Handbook, first published in 2007, is a resource for the fibre community. It covers every aspect
of the network, from central office to subscriber equipment; from passive to active equipment choices. The
experience of the FTTH Council Europe’s members ensures it delivers vendor-neutral information based on
best practices and real-world lessons from the industry. This edition provides up-to-date knowledge about
fibre technology and includes the latest innovations, trends and solutions to plan, build and operate highly
efficient, future-capable, automated fibre networks.
Extensive additional resources, case studies, reports and opinion pieces are all available on our website.
The aim of the FTTH Handbook is to offer insight into, and understanding of the technical requirements
related to planning, building and operating a FTTH infrastructure. With this in mind, the Handbook is
divided into three sections as described below:
Plan
The factors that must be taken into account when preparing a network, from building a business case to
making informed technology and topology choices.
Build
In this section, we will examine network design and deployment techniques, testing and record keeping.
Operate
A detailed look at operating, maintaining, monitoring and troubleshooting.
Figure 1.2
Plan. Build. Operate.

Section 1.3
Planning the Network
A fibre network is a long-term investment. The anticipated lifetime of cable in the ground is 25 years or
more. However, the working lifetime will probably be longer. During that time the active equipment will
be upgraded several times. That means decisions made at the start of a FTTH project will have long-term
consequences. This section discusses some of the key questions that need to be addressed during the
planning phase. Whatever network architecture is chosen, it is vital to consider how the design may affect
the future evolution of the network.
The choice of fibre deployment method and technology will determine CAPEX and OPEX, as well as the
reliability of the network. These costs can be optimised by choosing the most appropriate active solution
combined with the most appropriate infrastructure deployment methodology.
A detailed analysis of the main influences on the business case for FTTH networks is available in the FTTH Business Guide
from the FTTH Council Europe.
ftthcouncil.eu
Network Environments
The physical environment usually falls into the following categories:
• Dense urban
• Suburban
• Rural
When it comes to broadband access, a ‘digital divide’ exists between rural and urban areas in most countries.
The greater uptake potential in more densely populated urban environments makes the investment case
more attractive. However, there may be construction challenges, especially where there is limited space in
existing duct infrastructure. In low-population, rural areas, uptake numbers are smaller and distances to be
bridged are much longer. Although new techniques and investment models are making rural deployments
increasingly feasible, it remains more costly here.
Is the Development ‘Greenfield’ or ‘Brownfield’?

A ‘brownﬁeld’ deployment utilises pre-existing infrastructure such as a fixed broadband network, built using
copper cabling, or another type of infrastructure, such as the electricity network. The ‘brownfield’ network
will replace the copper cable and use as much of the existing infrastructure as possible. In a ‘greenﬁeld’
development the entire network is built from scratch.
Infrastructure Sharing
Installing new FTTH networks requires civil works for deployment of cabling in outside plants, MDUs,
and homes. The high costs of these civil works can inhibit the deployment. One way in which regulators
can encourage new FTTH deployments and meet national targets is by effectively sharing infrastructure
costs amongst competing operators. This may provide an opportunity for non-telecom players, such as
utilities, municipalities, and real estate developers, to participate in FTTH buildouts. Cooperation among
competitors may need to be facilitated or mandated by regulatory authorities.

FTTH infrastructure may be shared or ‘unbundled’ at different layers. Network sharing will also play a key
role for fixed and mobile networks in the future.
FTTH Topologies
It is important to make a clear distinction between topologies used for the deployment of the fibres (the
passive infrastructure) and technologies used to transport data over the fibres (the active equipment).
P2MP topology P2P topology

Point-to-multipoint, often Point-to-point, which typically
combined with a passive optical uses Ethernet transmission
network (PON) technology. technologies
Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) Point-to-point (P2P)
Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) - This Point-to-point (P2P) - Dedicated fibres

architecture utilises unpowered fibre-optic run from the Point of Presence to each
splitters which allow a single optical fibre subscriber. Each subscriber has a direct
to serve multiple end-points. Point-to- connection. Because bandwidth is not
multipoint topologies provide a single shared, each port offers uninterrupted high
feeder fibre from the Point of Presence speeds. Active Ethernet technology can
(or POP, the location where two or more be used to control subscriber access in a
networks or communication devices P2P topology requiring the placement of
share a connection) to a branching point Ethernet switches at the Point of Presence.
where the splitter is located. From there,
one dedicated fibre is deployed to the
subscriber. This solution is cost-effective,
reliable and covers long distances while
also offering convenience with regard to
installation, maintenance and repairs.
Network Layers
A FTTH network comprises a number of discrete layers:
• Passive infrastructure involving ducts, fibres, enclosures and other outside plants
• Active network using electronic equipment
• Services providing internet connectivity and managed services (IPTV, etc).
• Optional content layer, which can be commercially exploited by’over the top’ (OTT) content providers

Each network layer (See Figure 1.5) has a corresponding function. The network owner is in charge of the
first layer, although they may outsource its construction to a third party. The network operator owns the
active equipment (the operator can be a separate entity from the owner), while retail services are provided
by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). This technological structure has implications for the way a FTTH
network is organised and operated. This Handbook primarily focuses on the Passive Infrastructure and
Active Equipment layers.
Figure 1.5
FTTH network and all components
Passive Infrastructure
Physical elements required to build the network including fibre, trenches, ducts and poles, enclosures,
optical distribution frames (ODF), patch panels and splicing shelves. The organisation responsible for this
layer usually takes care of network route planning, right-of-way negotiations, and civil works. This layer is
the primary infrastructure of the FTTH network and must be designed for a long, reliable operating lifetime.
Passive infrastructure is generally installed in two phases: ‘homes passed’ and ‘homes connected’. These
are addressed in Chapters 3 and 4 respectively.
Active Network
Electronic network equipment is needed to bring the passive infrastructure to life, and operational support
systems (OSS) are required to commercialise fibre connectivity. The ever-increasing demand for bandwidth
drives constant innovation and evolution of this technology. Therefore, it is likely that several generations
of electronic equipment will be deployed and replaced on the passive infrastructure to meet changing end-
user demands. A detailed description of current and emerging Active Equipment technologies is provided
in Chapter 5. OSS are discussed in Chapter 13.
Point of Presence (POP) or Access Node

POPs can be incorporated in existing buildings or located in new buildings or shelter structures. They
house the active equipment and the necessary optical distribution frames to distribute the signal to the
network.
The POP acts as the starting point for the optical fibre path to the subscriber and holds the active
equipment bays (Optical Line Termination (OLT) and backhaul transmission equipment) as well as ODFs
that link it to the outside plant network. Its size depends on the number of homes served and can vary from
a few hundred homes to over 10,000. Each POP in a large municipality or region is connected to a larger
metropolitan or urban fibre network.

Feeder Network
This part of the network, also called trunk network, is comprised of fibre cables and appropriate ducting
systems. The majority of these cables offer high fibre densities, typically ranging from 288 fibres to
864 fibres and run from the POP to the Fibre Distribution Point (FDP). As most feeder networks are
underground it is important to not only consider the cabling but also the design and dimensions of the
digging and duct infrastructure. The design phase can be complex. It is often a compromise between
CAPEX expenditures and a future-capable network.
Fibre Distribution Point (FDP)

After the FDP, a single feeder cable is connected to several smaller cables that can go deeper into the
neighbourhoods and reach end-user premises. The first split point to the homes is known as a Fibre
Distribution Point. This is often a cabinet, above ground, or a multifunctional closure, below ground. An
FDP can house splitters in a P2MP topology.
Distribution Network
This part of the network brings fibre to buildings (Multi Dwelling Units or MDUs) and individual homes
(Single Dwelling Units or SDUs). It includes closures and ducting systems and ends at fibre terminal boxes
(FTB). Distribution cables usually contain 12 to 96 fibres to connect the FDP to terminal boxes and can
be up to one kilometre in length. Larger cables are gradually split into smaller cables through the use of
distribution closures, which are typically quite different from feeder closures. Distribution closures require
more cable inputs and must be easily accessible.
MDU Vertical Distribution and Drops

Unlike SDUs, there is a distribution requirement within MDUs. The Distribution Network terminates in a
Fibre Termination Box (FTB). A fibre cabling structure with small floor distribution boxes and flexible cables
brings fibres to individual apartments. Most MDUs have an indoor distribution, while in some countries
outdoor façade distributions are allowed and, in such cases, also preferred as this reduces deployment
cost.

Section 1.4
Building the Network
Network operators face a variety of challenges related to the construction of the network. A really good,
detailed design process is essential. Attention must be paid to informed decision making, careful planning
and execution with regard to installation methods, availability of existing infrastructure and labour. In this
way, the desired levels of ROI, CAPEX and OPEX can be achieved.
Deployment speed is essential to realising the business case. Supply chain issues or a shortage of skilled
labour can result in missed deadlines and reliability issues. After installation, testing and certification also
require considerable time and effort. This is described in greater detail in Chapter 10.
It will be necessary to obtain all required permits and licenses for civil works in advance and factor in any
existing activities in the area where the rollout is to take place. This can be extremely time-consuming.
Right of way and permission inside premises, such as apartments, also needs to be organised.
Another important element of network construction consideration for IT systems and tools. This is covered
in Chapter 7.
Figure 1.6
High level network overview

Section 1.5
Network Operations
As FTTH networks grow, the number of customer connections increases. Bandwidth requirements will
continue to change as a result of application innovation and technology developments. Accordingly,
Operation and Maintenance (OAM) of networks is becoming increasingly important.
Developing an effective OAM strategy needs to start during the initial stages of network planning and
design. Well-documented policies, procedures, and processes are required to help deliver on Quality of
Service. It is vital to consider different rollout and access models, business aims, OPEX, the possibility of
sharing the network, and communication with service providers.
The operations structure needs to ensure FTTH networks are up and running 24/7/365, delivering the best
possible service to all users.
All of the above must also be considered when planning network upgrades and expansions. Regular
preventive maintenance needs to be scheduled and processes for this and corrective maintenance need to
be designed and implemented.
Health & Safety considerations are also important throughout the entire planning, building and OAM cycle.

Section I:
Plan
The first of this Handbook’s three sections focuses on all of the considerations that need to be taken into
account when preparing to develop and market a FTTH network. Good preparation ensures easy, timely,
and cost-effective network installation and operation.
In this section, we will examine:
• Reasons for creating the network, why good planning is essential, and which factors
determine the network specification
• Developing a solid business case, including different cost aspects to consider
• The importance of local geography and demography in determining potential take-up and
suitable network topology
• Technical considerations, network deployment methods, and obtaining permissions
• Business models: wholesale and infrastructure sharing & partnerships at different layers
• Civil infrastructures, fibre-optic cables, and connectivity equipment used to reach the end
user, with descriptions and application scenarios
• Insight into connecting and terminating cables
• Widely used and alternative methods and components used to connect single family
homes and multi-dwelling units
• Choosing and implementing active network equipment and topologies required to realise
subscriber services
• Extending the network after is has been built
• Processes and equipment for connecting and managing fibre-optic cable at strategic points
throughout the network
• Selecting and using digital tools to enhance a variety of processes
• Selecting network architectures and topologies (Strategic Design)
Once all of these factors have been taken into account, a preparatory design is created. This provides the
input for a highly detailed Network Design including specifications, which is the first step in the ‘build’
phase, which is the next section of this Handbook.

Chapter 2
Strategic
Network
Planning
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Business Case
2.3 Geography and Demography
2.4 Technical Considerations
2.5 Wholesale Business Models and Unbundling
2.6 Costs
2.7 Partnerships & Infrastructure Sharing
2.8 Regulatory Framework
2.9 Summary
Section 2.1
Introduction
Telecommunication services have been changing at a breathtaking rate for years, with no slowdown in
sight. Countries, regions and cities continue to increasingly understand and embrace the competitive
advantages best-in-class telecommunication infrastructure can provide. New services, visionary applications
and fast changing technologies create a highly dynamic environment that keeps opening up new
opportunities for business to grow and thrive. Dynamic companies, set up to react quickly, have the best
chance of grabbing these opportunities.
Common to all of these developments is an ever-increasing volume of data that needs to be transported,
shared, managed and stored. Fibre infrastructure is essential to supporting technologies required to
deliver this. It supports, for example, Internet of Things - linked sensors that extend deep into the network,
Machine-to-Machine communication, autonomous traffic, smart city services, and much more. 5G will be
a key driver of bandwidth requirements. It is expected to deliver speeds in excess of 10 Gbps with data
transfer rates up to 150 times faster than 4G. However, performance associated with 5G, such as low
latency, high capacity and extreme reliability depends on having sufficient fibre in the backhaul and access
network.
Network providers – who provide the foundation for this connectivity – have always faced the challenge
to keep up. When the World Wide Web was introduced in 1993, speeds were limited to 56 kbps over
phone lines. Around the year 2000, broadband was introduced, enabling speeds up around 4 Mbps by
2010, and 25 Mbps by 2015. By 2018, speeds of 100 Mbps were commonly available and more recently
1Gbps. 10G broadband is currently being developed to deliver speeds 10 times faster than today’s - and
100 times faster than what most consumers currently experience. Fibre networks have been essential in
accommodating these changes – and will be for future changes.

FTTH networks need to provide customers with a number of basic services:
• Best-in-Class latency
• Reliable bandwidth
• Secure connections
• Options to upgrade services
• Scalability and flexibility
Strategic network planning is essential to deploying successful, optimised and effective networks that
meet these requirements and will continue to meet them for the foreseeable future. It is important when
embarking on a new network deployment to think ahead about several aspects of the network, such
as technology choices, customers served, spare fibre capacity, and duct reserves required for future
technologies.
This is important because even small miscalculations can lead to budgets being exceeded - sometimes
very significantly. In this respect, it is important to remember that the construction of the passive part of
fixed access networks accounts for more than 50% of the overall access network costs. A range of aspects
directly impact estimated project costs. These include include the selected technology, infrastructure
sharing availability, the percentage of ‘new’ civil works needed, planning for future use cases (such as 5G
mobile stations and small cells), planning for future residential expansion of the area covered and labour
costs. Therefore, a future proof design is imperative. Key points covered in this chapter include:
• Long-term strategy:
- where to build the network
- what architectures to use
- how to plan a network that is ready for expansion
• How to efficiently estimate project CAPEX and OPEX
• Deployment techniques and how to deal with existing infrastructure
• Potential obstacles such as regulatory issues and infrastructure sharing
• Recent technological developments that need fibre-rich networks such
as 5G and Edge Computing
Strategic fibre network planning is essential to making sure the network continues to serve its purpose in
the long term and accommodate upcoming technologies - while ensuring that the business case will be
profitable and the TCO does not exceed planned budget. Infrastructure Sharing (Section 2.6) and Network
Design (Chapter 9) are closely related, as both discuss essential elements that can significantly affect the
budget and which should be considered carefully prior to actual deployment.
This chapter elaborates on the importance of building future-capable networks, taking into account the
customers’ need to avoid costly new civil works in the future. We hope it helps you obtain a better, broader
perspective on everything to consider before deploying a network.

Section 2.2
Business Case
Strategic network planning has two main goals:
• Determine if, where and when FTTH should be rolled out. This is clarified by the
business case.
• Determine which type of architecture to implement and which cable and duct
technologies to use.
Given the long lifetime of fibre networks and the time required for rollout, strategic considerations need to
lead the planning. Key questions to be answered include:
• How soon is the fibre network needed?

• What is the competitive situation?
• Who currently has fibre in the ground?
• What are the fibre network use cases?
• Where is the highest (and most profitable) demand for fibre and when?
The Fibre Business Models Committee has developed a document describing eight real-world proven fibre
business models involving and rewarding private financing.
Fibre Business Models
Figure 2.1
Succesful Fibre Business Models

After identifying an opportunity to build a fibre network, a couple of key questions are:
• Which architecture is the most suitable?

• What capacity does the design need to take into account?
There are no easy answers to these questions. The architecture needs to ensure efficient operation during
the lifetime of the network and planned capacities should satisfy the demand for fibre, taking into account
flexibility of demand variations.
In the past, demand has been determined by identifying network users (typically homes and businesses)
and requirements for different user classifications within these two groups. Today, we are seeing more
dynamic demand as a result of new, diversified user types, locations and services. Smart City use cases that
require fibre include smart street furniture, surveillance, and traffic management, while high bandwidth
mobile services require increased numbers of fibre-connected nodes. New services may even require direct
fibre connections between the user and central systems, to satisfy very low latency requirements.
This requires a high degree of flexibility from the fibre network, which will have a rigid structure by nature.
Adding spare fibres helps to ensure the model adopted is future-proofed.
Networks that best address the flexibility challenges are dense, fibre-rich architectures with direct fibres
between users and network nodes (central offices). The disadvantage of this increased flexibility, however,
is the higher build cost.

Section 2.3
Geography and
Demography
Key factors impacting the network architecture include local geography and demography. Networks
planned for an area with a high or low population density will be completely different as the optimal
architecture and design rules vary considerably.
In a densely populated area, a greater number of subscribers can be grouped on a single aggregation
point to achieve a relatively high usage density.
In rural areas with lower population density, distances between buildings and aggregation points may
become a more important design constraint constraint in the design than capacity of each aggregation
point. This can result in a broader variation in aggregation point usage density in rural areas, so defining
aggregation points is a more complex task.
Generally, dense areas offer more options for grouping buildings around aggregation points, as well as
for routing the cables between aggregation points and buildings. In rural areas there are fewer equivalent
alternatives. Rural areas will have more available options for placing cabinets, while in urban areas space is
limited and more constraints apply for cabinet placement.
Unit costs for deploying cables can differ significantly between urban and rural areas. Typically, aerial
deployments are used in rural areas as poles are widely available and accepted landscape features. Aerial
deployment on these poles is easily planned. Furthermore, poles used for electricity transport can be re-
used for rural fibre rollout. All these factors impact the relationship between labour and material costs for
both types of deployment, thus requiring a different set of design rules to be used for achieving optimal
costs.
Another topic to be considered is crossing of landscape obstacles. In rural areas specific deployment
technologies that enable this to be achieved are now mature. Examples are micro trenching and directional
drilling. Combining existing ducts and newly installed ducts and aerial infrastructure are other solutions.
Planning and design software products excel at providing rapid multiple scenarios. The generated network
design can be optimised to comply with different parameters and restrictions, with cost being the most
obvious but not the only one.
Demography
Different customer types require different kinds of connections. Public buildings, factories and big
enterprises usually have Point-to-point (P2P) connections. Multiple fibres can be used for such customers.
Small and medium-sized enterprises are usually connected to the network in the same way as household
users with Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) connections.

Advantages of P2P topology are:
• Higher bandwidth capacity

• Wider range of services
• Easier planning process
• Quicker detection of the failure
• Simpler documentation
Advantages of P2MP topology are:
• Fewer POP locations

• Smaller POP locations
• Lower price of network construction
• Easier to upgrade the network

Section 2.4
Technical Considerations
Passive Optical Network Lifetime
In this section, we examine technical considerations for the passive side of the fixed access network.
Construction of this passive part typically contributes more than 50% of the overall cost. Therefore, a
future-capable design is imperative. This can be achieved with a ‘fibre rich’ design, where the optical fibre
count required is supplemented with additional spare fibres for future demand. This will provide flexibility
when new requirements occur in the future.
Fixed access networks together with POPs should be planned with a very long time horizon that exceeds
the planning horizons of active equipment.
Element Planning Horizon

Duct System and ODF rack space 20 years
Microducts, manholes and handholes, POP installations
Distribution and drop cables 20 years

Distribution cables, drop cables, splice closures, splitter closures,
building termination boxes
Feeder cables 10 years

Feeder cables, feeder splice closures, optical splitters
Passive Networks – Advanced Deployment Techniques

A range of deployment techniques are available that support faster, easier, and more cost-effective
deployment of passive networks. Solutions for reducing installation time, skill requirement, component
complexity, cost, and other factors continue to become increasingly important, as demand for fibre keeps
growing.
Mini / Micro Trenching – Optimised duct deployment method

suitable for fibre systems
Minitrenching or microtrenching replace ‘traditional’ trenches with
excavations that are often just centimetres wide and deep. This
brings several advantages. It helps speed up deployment and reduce
trenching costs. Less excavation is needed, as well as less backfill
material and tarmac or asphalt. Risk of striking other services during
digging is reduced.

Micro-cabling / microduct systems
Microducts are relatively narrow ducts in which slim fibre optic cables can be installed. These are usually
installed in larger (existing or new) ducts in bundles. The use of microducts also contributes to making
networks future-capable, allowing additional fibre cable to be placed without civil works. Several
deployment options are available. For P2P networks fibres can be blown into standalone micro-pipes
or microduct bundles that have previously been rolled out (ducts, hanholes/handholes). Another option
is using pre-connectorised cables or fibres with a preinstalled ferrule (in which case the connector is
assembled after blowing). Microcabling and microducts offer a range of benefits. These proven and widely
deployed products speed up deployments, reduce costs and allow
better utilisation of existing infrastructure. There are fewer splicing
points, so the number of drop closures can be reduced, and cables
can be replaced more easily during Operations & Maintenance.
Pre-installed retractable fibre

The required amount of fibre is retracted from the distribution cable and installed towards the user.
• Avoids need for field splicing

• Faster deployment
• Easier installation
• Savings on installation as well as product costs
• Reduced disruption
Pre-connectorised in-line drop closures

In-line drop closures fitted with connectors in the factory offer several advantages:
• Quicker installation
• Ability to identify fibre easily
• Pre-connectorised ends guarantee factory loss specifications and
lower total installation cost
Pre-fabricated plastic manholes and handholes

Being able to manipulate fibres after rollout is vital and this requires access via manholes and handholes.
These can be prefabricated from the latest durable plastics.
• Fast and easy deployment

• No concrete is required
• Resistant to corrosion and abrasion

High-density feeder cables
Technology and manufacturing developments have made it possible to fit the same number of fibres into
slimmer cables, without compromising performance. This brings several benefits:
• Size requirements for new trenches may be minimised

• Existing duct space can be reused. This is particularly important when we consider that
2 to 5 additional fibres are required for future 5G small cell deployments.
Aerial fibre cables

Where digging is an issue due to vast distances, uneven terrain, or rocky soil, for example, suspending
cables on posts or other supports can be highly efficient deployment techniques, suitable for rural areas.
However, this does require special attention to a number of factors, such as tension, strength (weight,
span...), compression, and environmental conditions (wind, ice, vegetation…). The right choice of the cable
accessories is crucial. For certain environments, hybrid overhead cables - self-supported overhead fibre
cables with power transmission – are a particularly good option. Advantages of aerial fibre cables include:
• Stable connectors and efficient deployment methodologies

• Can use existing pole infrastructure
• Reduction of CAPEX compared to alternatives
Other Technical Considerations

Redundancy/Protection Topology options
Subscribers that require high availability of telecommunication services might want to select a product with
enhanced redundancy and connection protection. Costs for protected passive fibre network solutions can
vary substantially depending on the level of redundancy implemented. If redundancy requires new duct
routes for just a single subscriber, the cost per connection will be particularly high.
A balanced approach provides enhanced protection to certain users types. This delivers higher availability
of services while avoiding additional trenching.
Passive optical network protection schemes provide protection against:
• Mechanical cable cuts

• Fibre degradation and connector issues
In addition, protection schemes and redundancy minimise maintenance outages, such as for upgrades and
re-configurations

There are three options for protecting a connection in the passive optical network:
Route redundancy
Secondary connection provided via another
fibre, from a different cable at a safe
distance from the primary fibre connection
(e.g. trench at a distance of at least 20m).
Cable redundancy Fibre redundancy

The secondary connection is The secondary connection is
provided via another fibre, from a provided via another fibre, which
different cable. can be in the same cable.
The protection options used on the feeder, distribution and drop network sections can be different.
POP Optimisation
Reducing the number of POPs brings certain advantages. A fibre POP covers the equivalent of four copper
switches, with the following benefits:
• Reduction of power consumption and reduction of CO2 emissions

• Eliminate legacy equipment as well as copper cables
• Reduction of OAM (Operations and Maintenance) Costs
• Improved Security
• Reduction of rental costs
Copper switch-off
As countries and regions reach a ‘critical mass’ of fibre availability and homes passed, it can be assumed
that they will switch off copper as soon as regulatory and economic conditions permit. Furthermore,
managing a future capable second network alongside a fibre network takes up time and valuable resources.
Migrating the customer base to fibre offers significant gains in efficiency, scalability and revenue. Copper
switch-off significantly enhances the business case for fibre and the transition to fibre is a win-win for
consumers and investors.
In Europe, progress towards copper switch-off has been delayed for several reasons, including:
- Slow progress towards fibre ubiquity

- Lack of understanding of the benefits of fibre
- Migration challenges
- Regulatory constraints
- A desire on the part of investors to maximise the return from legacy networks

Benefits of copper switch-off:
• A fibre POP covers the equivalent of four copper switches

• Access technology equipment for fibre occupies 15% of the space occupied by
copper – real estate savings of 60-80%
• Copper switch-off saves 40-60% energy cost
• Fibre is 70%-80% more reliable than copper resulting in lower fault rates
• 40-60% lower maintenance costs for fibre compared to copper
• Better deal for consumers - Surveyed consumers were more satisfied
with fibre (82% happy vs. 50% on DSL). Key benefits mentioned included:
- higher bandwidth
- wider range of services
- better value for money
• Better deal for investors - Evidence suggests clarity regarding copper switch-off
can improve the business case for fibre
Reference:
Copper switch-off, A European benchmark, FTTH Council Europe conference, WIK-Consult

Section 2.5
Wholesale Business
Models and Unbundling
Wholesale models provide non-discriminatory network access to multiple telecom service providers. There
are a number of technical options for delivering this access:
Dark fibre – Local loop unbundling (LLU) (Layer 1)

In many regions, telecommunication networks have traditionally been created, owned and operated
by a single provider. In support of competition and service diversification, government regulators
have introduced ‘local loop unbundling’ (LLU). This allows multiple operators to make use of existing
connections from an exchange to the customer premises. (The physical connection between the local
exchange and the customer is referred to as the ‘local loop’). Each operator places its own equipment at
the local exchange. In this way, operators can provide differentiated services over a single network.
With FTTH, retail service providers (RSPs) can also deploy their own equipment at the physical Layer 1,
or ‘dark fibre’ level. This wholesale model is known as dark fibre unbundling. Dark fibre can be leased
between central office and customer premises – suitable for P2P Ethernet technology or PON technology
if the centralised splitter location is in CO. Dark fibre can also be leased in the distribution part of the
network between the splitter location and customer premises – suitable for PON technology when the
centralised split is implemented in a remote location (such as street cabinets).
Connection to the provider’s fibre access network can be achieved in several ways. For example, a
wholesale customer can co-locate their own active equipment (OLTs) and cross-connect to the provider’s
ODF in the CO. Alternatively, wholesale customers deploy their own feeder network between OLTs and
access the network provider-planned splitter location.
Duct Unbundling
In this case, one party rents a duct and another provider blows in their own fibre.
Wavelength unbundling: wholesale at the physical layer

With the ratification of the new NG-PON2 (G.989.2) standard in December 2014, multiple network
operators were given the opportunity to use the same PON fibre infrastructure and operate their own
wavelength on top of it – this is known as wavelength unbundling. This approach is suitable for NG-PON2
TWDM technology and can support up to four SPs over conventional splitter-based PONs. Four pairs
of upstream and downstream wavelengths are used with one fibre. ONTs tune to the wavelength pair
associated with the SP.

VULA – Virtual Unbundled Local Access:
wholesale access at Ethernet level protocol (Layer 2)
VULA provides virtual, bitstream-type local interconnection and access along the lines of unbundled
local physical access. In this way, alternative operators have access to end-users. VULA doesn’t require
co-location at the central office and investment is lower because passive infrastructure doesn’t need to
be scaled to support multiple active equipment operators. This approach partly virtualizes the line by
terminating the subscriber line on the OLT of the access network provider. Wholesale customers can access
the network at cabinet or POP level, avoiding the access provider’s aggregation network.
Next-Generation Bit-stream Access:

at Ethernet level protocol (Layer 2)
Bitstream access (BA) is based on leasing a Network Provider’s passive infrastructure and active equipment
to multiple parties. This gives service providers access to the NP’s equipment and bandwidth resources.
BA virtualises the line further by pushing the interconnection point to the edges of an aggregation network
operated by the access provider. The access network provider assumes more responsibilities from the
wholesale customer in terms of service / subscriber management, as compared to VULA.

Section 2.6
Costs
The biggest business decisions regarding whether or not to invest in a FTTH network are generally made in
the initial stages of planning. To answer these questions, the planner needs:
• Cost estimates for network deployment

• Cost estimates for activating subscribers
• Cost estimates for operating and maintaining the network during its lifetime
• Forecasts for subscribers’ adoption of services and related revenues
Estimating project costs

When building a business case:
• FTTH project CAPEX and OPEX costs need to be estimated through a

cost model that includes all possible expenditures.
• Extensive and detailed planning with a robust investment model helps

mitigate the risk of costs spiralling out of control - crucial for network
owners and subcontractors especially on fixed-price projects.
• Cost analysis based on real local data since major differences between
geographical areas may exist – even with similar population densities
and demography. Extrapolations and benchmarking are to be
avoided where possible.
Technology and architecture choice can also have a big impact on expenditure. Costs of deploying and
maintaining the FTTH network include:
• Labour cost for civil works

• Material cost per equipment type
• Installation, test and measurement service costs
• Network maintenance costs
• Energy costs for active equipment
• Costs related to establishing and maintaining POPs, FCPs
• Costs related to rights of way
A number of different parties might be responsible for building the various FTTH networks in different
regions. Depending on the type of contract with these parties, their input may be based on a fixed price
or on some relevant variable such as time or distance. This will impact the cost model. In addition, not all
activities will be carried out at the same time; perhaps some parts might only be built when activating the
subscriber, such as the last mile fibre. This all needs to be included in the cost model.
However, not all costs may be the responsibility of the infrastructure owner. As outlined earlier in Section
2.2, a wide range of business models can be applied to FTTH networks. These range from infrastructure
owners possessing only the passive layer, relying on other companies to manage and commercialise the
access network (often the case for rural publicly-funded networks), to integrated operator models, where
the infrastructure is owned by the commercial operator. Any type of intermediate model is possible.
Depending on the applicable business model, some parts of the network will be built by the infrastructure
owner and other parts by the service provider (active equipment).

A good cost model is a flexible one. As indicated above, multiple parties may be involved in the project
due to the different commercial, technical and regulatory requirements that need to be taken into account.
Throughout the project, different situations might impact the cost model. Therefore, flexibility is key in
managing the project efficiently.
Deployment Sequence
If a FTTH project covers a large geographical area, deployment can take several years. The longer the
deployment time frame is, the more important it is to determine the order for rolling out the network
in a series of sub-areas. Several options are available. Optimising the P&L margin over time is certainly
important but should not be the only consideration. A number of options (possibly depending on the type
of area) are:
- Economic: areas with best revenue generation potential first -

connect business users first etc.
- Visionary: areas with higher growth potential first
- Pragmatic: areas easier to deploy first - for example where other
infrastructure works are planned
- Political: areas with worst existing connectivity first
- Financial: areas where co-investment agreements are possible
- Technical: Broadband technology cost points and performance
constantly evolve, therefore business cases may change over time.
If optimising the P&L margin by selecting the right sequence is the main focus, one can maximise the take-
up rate of the initial deployments, increase the initial revenues and maximise the positive message that
can be spread when convincing other potential subscribers and investors in later phases by showing high
take-up rates.

Section 2.7
Partnerships &
Infrastructure Sharing
Telecom network planners and construction companies are aware that new FTTH network build costs
are dominated by civil works - the installation of basic infrastructure under or above ground. Build costs
vary tremendously depending on factors such as population density, projected uptake, urban or rural
environment, and other local factors.
New deployment techniques such as slot cutting, directional drilling, and mole ploughing can dramatically
decrease the costs. However, wherever possible, planners aiming to reduce costs will try to remove the
need for new civil builds entirely through shared infrastructure. Sharing infrastructure can take many forms,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Telecoms duct
The simplest form is sharing existing large diameter telecoms ducts with the original network operator by
installing a duct divider. However, while it is technically easy to share an existing telecom duct, the reality is
that a new operator will be competing with the incumbent owner of the ducts. This means that agreeing on
access is difficult or that the rent costs of the ducts will usually be high.
Electricity lines
If telecoms ducts are out of bounds, the next most popular sharing technique involves turning to electrical
utilities to provide a pathway. High voltage and low voltage (distribution) power lines can be used, with
fibre cable strung between existing poles. These shared aerial solutions have the advantage of (usually)
being easy to access without the need for additional ducts. However, certain limitations apply - safe
working may mean restricted access for specific personnel, jointing is more complex, and specialist
equipment (from All-dielectric Self-supporting (ADSS) cable to fibreglass ladders) may be required. Also,
given that they are exposed to the elements, aerially deployed cables can suffer potential damage from
wind, rain, ice, birds, and even vehicles.
Sewers
Installation into sewer systems was one of the first underground deployment options to be considered.
Cable and ducts can be fixed to the roof or walls of sewers. For smaller conduits, specifically-designed
robots can deploy cable and duct. Although sewers are protected from the outside world, their interior
environment is hostile. Chemicals are present, and the cable fixings need to be able to withstand (high-
pressure water and mechanical) sewer cleaning.
Water supply
Another option is the use of potable (drinkable) water pipelines. Cables and ducts need to meet stringent
requirements if they are to be certified as safe to insert into potable water ducts. Flowing fluid systems,
such as water pipelines, provide another benefit alongside avoidance of new civil works. Cable, or
preferably microduct, can be ‘floated’ into the pathway using the fluid itself, meaning that subsequent
cable installation (through blowing) is normally relatively easy.

Within existing copper networks
In many cases, incumbents have a huge base of installed main duct. Unfortunately, many of those ducts are
filled with copper cables, particularly on the exchange (central office) side of cabinets. Those cabinets now
require fibre feeding. Copper cable de-coring has emerged as a way to free space for small fibre cables.
The technique involves pumping a reagent into the cable core that detaches it from its jacket, allowing
it to be pulled away. The remaining jacket is then effectively a small duct into which a fibre cable can be
installed.
If duct systems are in good condition they can be used for fibre. However, available duct space is often
a constraint. An area-by-area approach can solve this problem by including full migration from copper to
fibre and subsequent removal of copper cables. Free ducts can then be used to accommodate fibre cables
for the next area. Planning and deploying such scenarios is, on the one hand, very challenging, on the
other hand it provides a clean migrated network without new civil works.
Integrated deployment of different utilities

Several utility companies may decide to build the infrastructure together for example, because they want to
use the same trench. To a network planner, the choice of deployment methods for fibre networks through
shared infrastructure may seem complicated. However, in most cases, there is a very limited choice of
partners and economics rapidly identifies the best, and most cost-effective option.
Find out more in the document linked below. (Case Study Page 8)
FTTH Council Europe: Creating a brighter future
With most fibre networks being deployed in brownfield areas, consideration of existing telecommunication
infrastructure is essential. The use of central office buildings and duct systems - representing the
highest cost elements in fibre rollouts - should be studied. Migration from copper to fibre also provides
an opportunity to make network architectures more efficient. Central offices can be consolidated by
eliminating buildings close to end of their life or in expensive locations. Large duct systems can be
replaced by microduct systems that can be operated at lower costs.
Shared Infrastructure Principles

In recent years, the cost of bandwidth in the active layer has been dropping continuously, but other
costs, such as civil works and ducts, represent a significant barrier for infrastructure deployment. Sharing
infrastructure can help reduce or eliminate these costs, supporting a more level playing field for operators
and service providers. This requires:
• Coordination between utility companies in order to share trenching costs

• Access to cable infrastructure, owned by Significant Market Power (SMP) operator, under
fair and non-discriminatory principles
Advantages: The concept of sharing infrastructure leads to lower deployment costs for all parties.
Utilisation of common duct leads to optimum trenching costs.

Section 2.8
Regulatory Framework
Regulatory frameworks differ from country to country. This can have a big impact on the cost of the
network, as well as the decision whether to build a network or not. Some countries require fibre access
networks to be open on different levels, whereas other countries do not have such regulations in place.
If fibre access networks need to be open at the physical layer, the build budgets will be larger. It is typical in
this case, that the operator builds the network as a P2P network to the POP location, while other operators
connect to customers.
Depending on regulation and legislation, the operator building the fibre network needs to calculate the
percentage of spare fibres and surplus space required for other operators in the POP location, allowing
them to install their equipment and connect to customers. As a result, demand will grow for the installation
of more fibre optic cable and ducts from customers to the POP location. The size of the POP increases and
fibre density becomes higher than in other cases, affecting the cost of the network.
Sometimes, local regulations require infrastructure owners to lease their infrastructure in order to reduce
construction costs, if that infrastructure can withstand the overlay of new network cabling and other optical
equipment. In some countries, laws and regulations require telecommunications infrastructure planning
to be included in spatial development plans in order to facilitate the rational use of space and expedite the
construction of infrastructure.

Section 2.9
Summary
The FTTH network design phase is essential to the network installation and operation. This requires
a detailed analysis of intended usage, geography, potential takeup, as well as required permits and
permissions. Based on the input from preliminary studies and scenarios, high-level network planning is
carried out. Decisions are made about architecture, required components, installation practices, testing,
maintenance, and possible infrastructure sharing. All of this needs to be carefully documented. Next, a plan
is created, including detailed requirements and calculations.
Once these steps have been covered, it’s time for the next stage: bringing fibre from the central office right
up to the properties that are to be connected.
European Commission Subsidy programs

The European Commission’s 2013 Broadband State aid Guidelines enable Member States to provide
support for the deployment of broadband networks. Public investments are made in unserved and
underserved areas to bring a significant improvement in terms of service availability, capacity, speeds
and competition. This ensures that public interventions focus on areas that would otherwise be left
behind due to the absence of commercial interest.
These guidelines define rules to facilitate development of access networks that rely wholly or partly on
the support of public funds (Digital Agenda for Europe 2020). The goal is to implement future-capable,
sustainable, user / vendor neutral, fibre-based open-access passive networks in underserved so-called
‘white areas’ and ‘grey areas’.
In Appendix 3, you can find a case study describing how these subsidies have been utilised to develop
Next Generation Access (NGA) networks in Germany.

Chapter 3
Physical Layer
Technology
Summary -
Passing Homes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Ducts, Microducts and Chambers
3.3 Fibre Optic Cables for FTTH
3.4 Connections and Terminations
Section 3.1
Introduction
Chapter 3 provides a description of the civil infrastructures, optical cables, and connectivity equipment
used to build the Homes Passed part of the Optical Distribution Networks (ODNs) in FTTH deployments.
This chapter covers the physical elements of the FTTH network between the central office and the
customer. The content is relevant to anyone deciding how to build the external elements of a FTTH
network. It is also relevant to civils contractors, installers and vendors of outside plant cable and
connectivity hardware.
Descriptions of the civil infrastructures, optical cables and connectivity equipment used to build the Homes
Passed part of the Optical Distribution Networks (ODNs) in FTTH deployments are included, along with
information on a range of available technology options and options for network build methodologies and
implications on network operations. As such, this chapter relates to the high level planning part of the build
process. Deployment techniques are described in Section 2 of the Handbook.
As the solutions selected for the Homes Passed stage directly influence those needed for connecting the
homes, this Chapter is closely related to the ‘Physical Layer – Connecting Homes’ Chapter as well as all
aspects of the Build phase. Fundamental aspects of fibre and fibre management are covered Appendix 1
and Chapter 6 respectively.
The options described in this chapter can also influence network reliability and subsequently impact OPEX.
The biggest influence on CAPEX for any network build is also covered.
It is important to point out that there is not one single best practice for outside plant deployment. There
are many factors which influence the preferences of one solution over another and each case is unique.
Civil Infrastructure
The choice of civil network has the greatest influence on the cost of any FTTH build. The cost of building
a new network of underground ducts and chambers to support a FTTH network can amount to 80% of the
total network cost. For that reason, operators seek to use whatever civil infrastructure is already available.
For incumbent operators, this infrastructure will often be ducts and poles housing the copper network
cabling. Alternative operators may utilise infrastructure originally built to deploy HFC networks, for
example. It is common for national telecom regulators to mandate incumbent operators to provide access
to their civil infrastructure for alternative operators.
Operators that want full control over their network will choose to dig new trenches along roads, pavements
and verges, in accordance with local authority infrastructure regulations. Smaller community operators may
seek permissions from local landowners to lay cables by whatever method is most convenient.
A mix of civil infrastructure may be used in a FTTH network. It is common for the customer drop part of the
network to use a different civil infrastructure to the Feeder and Distribution network.
The civil infrastructure has a marked influence on the suitability of selected optical cables and connectivity
products.
Local conditions in a rural or urban area determine whether underground, aerial or ‘attached’ fibre
deployments are most suitable.

Burying fibre cable means the fibre is protected from environmental factors and deliberate or accidental
damage. In some cases, cabling can be added to existing underground ducts. Space-saving (blown) micro-
cables may housed in small, flexible, lightweight microduct tubes. Alternatively, cables may be buried
without any additional covering or sheathing.
Furthermore, civil works need to be organised and executed with minimal impact on communities.
Using aerial cable is a fast, cost-effective deployment method. In many cases operators can use existing
infrastructure, and can avoid the cost of erecting a new set of poles. However, aerial cables are exposed to
the elements such as wind and ice and must be designed to prevent excessive sag during such events or
over time.
Typical civil infrastructure types used for FTTH deployments are:
1. Aerial
Aerial infrastructures use wooden, steel or concrete poles to support cables, closures and terminations.
Longer spans are used for high voltage power distribution networks. These generally require higher
specification cables with high tensile ratings and properties to withstand the effects of high voltage
electrical fields. However, for FTTH applications the spans for aerial telecom networks are typically 30 to
50m and generally below 100m, allowing the use of more basic cable constructions.
2. Existing conventional duct

The most conventional method of underground cable installation. A duct network is created and cables are
installed using pulling, blowing or floatation techniques.
Existing underground telecom networks built for copper telecom distribution networks generally use ducts
with a diameter of 100mm (approx.), each containing multiple cables. Cable is usually installed by pulling
and underground chambers are normally built at route direction changes, or every 100m in straight runs.
Existing copper cables often cause duct congestion, which may require duct and chamber upgrades.
3. New Underground Duct Including Microtrench and Microduct

Where new underground routes are required, some operators use microtrenching (25mm - 150mm)
techniques. Microduct bundles - each of which is normally designed for one microcable – are installed.
Microducts can also be installed into existing main duct.
4. Direct buried cables in new trench

In some rural areas or in regions with sandy soil such as The Netherlands, suitables are sometimes direct
buried in new trenches.
5. Façade
Where local regulations allow, for example in Spain, operators may build the distribution and drop
networks on the façades of buildings. Façade is commonly used where no existing ducts or overhead
networks are available, normally in heavily built up or historic areas. Generally, if the copper telecom
network already uses the façade pathway, the FTTH network will follow the same routes.

6. Shared aerial or underground power infrastructure
Some regions have aerial or ducted power distribution networks that are suitable for the provision of
optical distribution and drops.
7. Specialist Right Of Way

Since the start of FTTH deployments there have been many proposals to use gas, water and sewer pipes
for the route to the customer premise. However, the technical challenges have proven to be difficult and
these specialist Rights Of Way have been used only on a limited scale.

Section 3.2
Ducts, Microducts
and Chambers
Ducts and microducts are the most commonly used method of underground cable installation. This involves
creating a duct network, either in a conventional trench or shallow microtrench to enable subsequent
installation of cables using pulling, blowing or floatation techniques. Duct infrastructure can be constructed
in several ways:
1. Main conduit for sub-ducting (100-110mm; PVC)

2. Sub-ducts (18-63mm; HDPE)
3. Microducts (3-16mm; HDPE)
4. Microduct Bundles (tight, loose, flat; HDPE)
These can be direct buried or direct installed ducts.
Direct buried/thick walled ducts can be laid directly

into the ground and do not need additional
mechanical protection. Direct installed/thin walled
ducts cannot be placed directly in the ground but
are installed inside the bigger ducts or cable trays
using the blowing, pushing or pulling method.
Conventional Sub-ducts vs Microducts

The main - but not only - difference between sub-ducts and microducts is size. Telecom ducts have gone
through the same process of size reduction as fibre optic cables over the past 20 years.
Since microcables offer ~50 percent reduction in size and 70 percent reduction in weight compared with
standard cables, the duct size has also been reduced over the years.
Conventional sub-duct
• 18 - 63mm Outer Diameter
• Only single cable capacity*
• Branching route = fibre joints
• Can be used with standard loose tube cables
* Two or more cables can be installed in limited length

Conventional microduct
• 3 - 16mm Outer Diameter
• Higher density of independent duct routes
• Branching route => inter-connecting microducts
• Accommodates micro-cables so delivers lower installation costs
• Smaller and less expensive
• Easy duct routing/high network flexibility
• Increases capacity of existing sub-duct
Microduct Solutions
Microducts are defined in IEC 60794-5-20 as a ‘small, flexible, lightweight tube with an outer diameter
typically less than 16 mm’. These accommodate micro-cables, which rely heavily on microducts for
mechanical protection. Thus a microduct must meet adequate impact, compression and bending
requirements.
A - Thick-Walled/Directly Buried microducts

These do not need to be placed or blown inside another duct or tube. These microducts can be direct
buried into the ground as single microducts or in various bundle configurations. A range of products is
available:
Tight bundles
Thick-walled microducts are assembled into bundles,
surrounded by a thin jacket that holds them together.
Microduct bundle stiffness is broadly the same as the
equivalent HDPE duct diameter. Bundles of thick-walled
microducts offer the most efficient, installation-friendly
solution. Bundles can comprise various microduct sizes and
are available in a wide variety of shapes. When these bundles
are installed around corners or bends, tubes on the inside of
the corner/bend will take a shorter route than tubes on the
outside. This will cause excess length of tubes taking the short
route and lead to undulations.
Loose bundles
Loose bundles of thick walled microducts are installed inside
thin sleeves allowing them to move freely inside. This solution
is mainly used for pulling into existing main conduits and
ensures maximum occupation of these conduits. Due to
the stiffness and tension of the thick walled microducts, the
achievable pulling length is limited (300-400m). Also, the cable
blowing distance is limited because of microducts crossing
within such bundles. Suitable for short distance connections.

Flat bundles
Bundles of thick walled microducts can vary in design
(microducts surrounded by a thin jacket as a group, or
individually and connected). A flat bundle eliminates crossings
of individual microducts. The individual microducts are easily
accessible for connecting or branching. The bundles with
individual microduct jacketing can also be folded which helps
to minimise the occupied space and provides additional
rigidity. Flat bundles can be direct buried or pulled into main
conduits to increase a conduit capacity. They can also be used
for micro-trenching applications.
B - Thin walled/Direct Installed microducts

Sometimes called protective microducts. These are microducts that need extra mechanical protection and
are usually installed inside buildings or blown inside the sub-duct increasing its capacity. They can also be
assembled into bundles.
Tight Bundles
The thin-walled microducts are assembled into bundles,
surrounded by a thin jacket that holds together all microducts.
These bundles are typically pulled inside the main conduits to
increase the duct route capacity. Bundles can be assembled in
different microduct sizes and are available in a wide range of
shapes.
Loose bundles
Loose bundles of thin-walled microducts are individual
microducts installed in sub-ducts. This can be done in the
field by blowing/pulling, or bundles are pre-installed during
production. Because the tubes are loose in the sub-duct they
have some freedom to move when forces are applied (‘impact
resistance’). This improves impact resistance and offers better
cable jetting performance. If the sub-duct is hit by something
that causes it to be compressed in some way then the tubes
may be able to move and avoid becoming damaged by the
compressive force.
Flat bundles
Bundles of LSZH (Low Smoke Zero Halogen) thin-walled
microducts are used for indoor applications including within
existing pre-occupied conduits. As these bundles are flexible,
they can fit in very congested spaces.

All microduct solutions can be reproduced in a variety of materials, colours, and with special additives.
Operators often use Anti-rodent or Low Smoke Zero Halogen variants for indoor applications, for example.
Special inner layers provide better cable blowing performance. Variations in material, colour, diameter,
inner layer, application and print stream make it possible to provide a wide variety of products, providing
the freedom to choose the best solution for each unique project.
Duct and microduct selection options

Application Material Inner Layer Colour
Direct Install HDPE Smooth Transparent
Direct Buried LSZH Ribbed Striped
UV Stabilised AntiStat RAL colour codes
Anti-rodent Low Friction
Aerial microducts
Aerial microduct applications can bring benefits in terms of quick and inexpensive installation methods
that do not involve digging. Aerial microducts are ideal for short subscriber end connections involving pole
spans of less than 50m.
Microducts can be designed in a Figure-8 shape that is then compatible with standard aerial accessories
used with aerial cables. (See Section 3.3 Aerial cable).
Microduct accessories
A complete system of accessories is available for microduct networks; from basic connectors, gas-blocking
end caps and special branching boxes to tailor-made sealing systems.
An essential part of duct networking is ensuring its quality and performance for a long period of time. Duct
networks should always be designed to include a complete set of accessories, such as connectors, end
caps, reducers, duct and cable sealers, and branch and cable loop boxes.
Branching elements

Branching elements
Individual sections of single microducts can be joined together using special connectors. For thick walled
microducts buried in the ground, special Direct Buried connectors should always be used.
Straight Connectors
A selection of accessories is also suitable for flat-bundles, making it a very cost-effective solution.
End caps
At all access points and buildings, gas - and water - stop connectors and end-caps are used for
safety purposes.
Gas blocks and bundle sealings protect duct network integrity and safety

Underground Chambers
Suitably sized access chambers should be positioned at regular intervals along the duct route and located
so as to provide a good connection to the subscriber´s drop cables. The duct chambers must be large
enough to allow for all duct cable installation operations, storage of slack cable loops for jointing and
maintenance, placing cable hangers and bearers, as well as storage of the cable splice closure.
The chambers may be constructed on site or provided as pre-fabricated units to minimise construction
costs and site disruption. Modular modular chamber units are also available. Where existing legacy access
chambers are unsuitable due to size or overpopulation of cables/closures, an ‘off-track or spur’ chamber
should be considered.
Pre-fabricated Chamber Brick Chamber (Source: Openreach Developer Guide)

Section 3.3
Fibre Optic Cables
for FTTH
A wide variety of standard fibre optic cables can be used in FTTH Networks.
Terrestrial Cables
Fibre cable designs can vary, but they are all based on a small number of common elements. The first and
most common building block is obviously optical fibre. Fibres are typically encapsulated in a loose tube
which is a plastic tube containing the required number of fibres (typically 12). Filling compound that buffers
the fibres is inserted into the tubes. This helps fibres to move within the tube as the cable expands and
contracts according to environmental and mechanical extremes. Other building blocks include multiple
fibres in a ribbon form or a thin easy-strip tube coating.
Traditional loose-tube cable
Tubes containing multiple fibres or ribbons are laid around a central cable element comprised of a strength
member with plastic jacketing. Water swellable tapes are included to prevent moisture permeating radially
or longitudinally through the cable, which is oversheathed with polyethylene (or alternative materials) to
protect it from external environments. Fibres, ribbons or bundles (protected by a coloured micro-sheath or
identified by a coloured binder) may also be housed in a large central tube. This is then oversheathed with
strength elements.
If cables are installed by pulling with a winch, they may need to be stronger than those that are installed
using a blowing technique as the tensile force applied can be much higher. Blown cables need to be
lightweight and possess a degree of rigidity to aid the blowing process.
The presence of the duct affords a high degree of crush protection, except for where the cable emerges
into the footway box. Duct cables are normally jacketed and non-metallic, which negates the need for
them to be earthed in the event of lightning. However, they may contain metallic elements for remote
surface detection (copper elements). Duct environments tend to be benign, but the cables are designed to
withstand possible long-term flooding and occasional freezing.

Microduct Cables
Microcables are small, lightweight fibre optic cables designed for air blown installation into microducts. The
use of these cables has increased significantly in recent years.
Traditional microduct cable
Advances in cable technology in recent years have focused on optimising duct capacity by reducing the
outer diameter of cable for a given fibre count i.e. increasing the fibre density. This has been achieved by
using smaller fibre tubes and increasing the number of fibres per tube e.g. 24 and 36 fibres per tube. In
these cases fibre identification is achieved with the standard 12 colours plus ring marks.
One particular advance has been the reduction of coating diameters from 250μm to 200μm and below.
The table below shows a range of typical constructions along with various parameters including cable
diameters and duct diameters for fibre counts up to 432 fibres.
The microducts and microcables act together as a system. The cables are installed by blowing and may be
coated with a special layer to improve blowing performance.
Typical microcable dimensions and properties

Blown Fibre Units
Blown Fibre Units are specifically engineered for
blown fibre applications. The fibres are contained
within a soft inner acrylate layer. An outer harder
layer protects the fibre from damage. These blown
fibre units are generally less robust than microduct
cables.
Blown fibre unit with 4 fibres
Micromodule Cables
Cables using Micromodules instead of the more
rigid loose tubes were originally developed for the
French market but are now being deployed more
widely. In these constructions, fibres are bound
within a soft coating which is normally strippable
using one’s fingernails. These cables can offer
benefits in terms of fibre packing density and easier
storage of unbroken fibre loops in pass-through
closures. Micromodule cable
Ribbon cables
Ribbon cables enable reduced diameters particularly
for high fibre count cables and significantly faster
installation times as all fibres in the ribbon can be
spliced at the same time. Ribbon cables have been
used widely for many years, particularly in the US,
but less so in Europe. However, that is starting
to change with some operators starting to adopt
ribbon cables in parts of the network.
Flat ribbon cable
Recent advances have seen the

introduction of ‘rollable’ ribbon
where the individual fibres in
the ribbon are intermittently
bonded. This means the ribbon
can be rolled into a circular
bundle, enabling even greater
fibre density and allowing the
use of conventional splice trays
and closures.
Rollable ribbon cable

Direct Buried Cables
Direct buried cables are similar to duct cables as
they also employ filled loose tubes. The cables
may have additional armouring to protect them,
although this depends on the burial technique.
Pre-trenching and surrounding the buried cable
with a layer of sand can be sufficient to allow for
lightweight cable designs to be used, whereas
direct mole-ploughing or backfilling with stone-
filled soil may require a more robust design. Crush Cable with corrugated steel protection
protection is a major feature and could consist of a
corrugated steel tape or the application of a thick
sheath of suitably hard polyethylene.
Non-metal direct buried cable
Optical fibre
Regarding fibre technology, recent advances have focused on improving optical performance for real world
applications. Fibres based on G.657 standards with improved bend performance were introduced over 10
years ago but the focus has been around maintaining backward compatibility with standard G.652 fibres
while maintaining bend performance. Optical loss is important in FTTH networks, particularly for high split
ratio PONs and in low-density areas. The quest to improve attenuation continues. Loss at wavelengths
above 1550nm and below 1310nm is becoming more important as the next generation transmission and
test equipment uses that wavelength band. For further information please see Appendix 1.
Cable
Other advances in cable technology have been around Fast Access
cables where the jackets and binders can be removed quickly to gain
access to the fibres for termination and jointing thereby reducing
installation time at each closure and terminal.

Aerial Cables
Aerial cables can have similar cable elements and construction to those of duct and buried optical fibre
cables described previously. Circular designs, whether self-supporting, wrapped or lashed, may include
additional peripheral strength members plus a sheath of polyethylene or special anti-tracking material
(when used in high electrical fields). Figure-8 designs combine a circular cable with a high modulus
catenary strength member. They are supported on poles or other tower infrastructures.
The main benefit of using existing pole infrastructure to link subscribers is the fact that this avoids the need
to dig in roads to bury cables or new ducts and is therefore cost effective. Aerial cables are relatively quick
and easy to install, using hardware and practices familiar to local installers and represent one of the more
cost-effective methods of deploying drop cables in the final link to the subscriber.
Extra consideration needs to be taken of environmental extremes that aerial cables can be subjected
to including ice and wind loading. Cable sheath material should also be suitably stabilised against solar
radiation. Installation mediums also need to be seriously considered (such as poles, power lines, short or
long spans, loading capabilities).
Types of aerial cable include:
• All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS)

• Figure-8
• Wrapped or lashed
All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS)

ADSS (All-dielectric Self-supporting) cable can
support itself between structures without containing
conductive metal elements. Both single-mode and
multimode fibres can be used.
ADSS is useful where electrical isolation is

important. For example, on a pole shared with
power or data cables. This type of cable is also
favoured by companies familiar with handling
copper cables, as similar hardware and installation Image provided by AFL
techniques can be used.
ADSS cables have the advantage of being independent of the power conductors as together with phase-
wrap cables they use special anti-tracking sheath materials when used in high electrical fields. With the
ADSS cable design, the strength member is part of the cable.
Figure-8
Figure 8 Cables allow one-step installation and
stable performance over a wide temperature range
in medium-span aerial installations (although they
are not suitable for use along power lines). The
optical fibres are protected in loose tubes that
are filled with a protective compound and water-
blocking tape. The Figure-8 design allows easy
separation of the optical package, avoiding contact Image provided by Prysmian Group
with the strength member.

Wrapped or lashed
Lashed or wrapped cable is created by attaching
conventional cable to a separate catenary member.
This is done using specialist equipment. Wrapping
machines are used to deploy cables around earth or
phase conductors.
Image provided by AFL
Cables installed later can be ‘overlashed’ to existing aerial cables on messenger poles, which takes out the
cost of adding a suspension strand. It is vital to ensure that the weight of the lashes/wrapped cables is fully
supported by the existing infrastructure.
Support hardware can include tension clamps to anchor a cable to a pole or to control a change of pole
direction. Intermediate suspension clamps are used to support the cable between the tensioning points.
The cable may be anchored with bolts or with preformed helical accessories, which provide a radial and
uniform gripping force. Both types of solutions should be carefully selected for the particular diameter
and construction of the cable. The cable may need protection if it is routed down the pole, for example by
covering with a narrow metal plate.
Cables Deployed on Other Infrastructure

In addition to traditional cabling routes, infrastructure and other right of way (RoW) access points can be
exploited. By deploying cables in water and sewage infrastructure, gas pipe systems, canals and waterways
as well as other transport systems, savings can be made in time as well as costs. However the technical
challenges are considerable and these specialist Rights Of Way have been used only on a limited scale in
FTTH deployments.
Cable installations in existing pipe-networks must not intrude on their primary function. Restrictions to
services during repair and maintenance work have to be reduced to a minimum and coordinated with the
primary network operators.
Fibre-Optic Cables in Sewer Systems

Sewers may be used for access networks as they access almost every premise. In addition, the utilisation of
the sewage system negates the need to seek digging approval and reduces the cost of installation.
Tunnel sizes in the public sewers range from 200mm in diameter to tunnels that are accessible by boat.
The majority of public sewer tunnels are between 200mm and 350mm in diameter, which is a sufficient
cross-section for installation of one or more microduct cables. Various installation schemes are possible
depending on the sewer cross-section.
Fibre-Optic Cables in Gas Pipes

Gas pipelines can also be used for deploying optical fibre networks without causing major disruption to
the community or requiring extensive road works, which is the norm in the case of conventional cut and fill
techniques. The fibre network is deployed using a specially developed I/O port that guides the cable into
and out of the gas pipe, bypassing the gas valves.
The cable is blown into the gas pipes by means of a stabilised parachute either by using the natural gas
flow itself or by using compressed air, depending on the local requirements. The gas pipeline system
provides good protection for the optical fibre cable, being situated well below the street surface and other
infrastructures.

Section 3. 4
Connections and
Terminations
Optical Joint Closures
Within any FTTH network there is a need to join cables. Sequential cable and fibre lengths will need to
be linked together, or feeder and distribution cables may need to be branched. Also, it will necessary to
interface different types of cable and the cables also need to be managed from end to end.
Cables need to be cut or connected in the field when rolling out new fibre networks or expanding existing
networks. Careful splicing, connecting and cable management are all essential to to avoid network
disruptions.
Closures are usually sited in underground chambers, on poles or on building façades. There are no specific
regulations relating to the spacing of the closures, however they may be placed as regularly as every 500m
in medium-density areas and every 250m in high-density areas. It is common to “mid-span” joints, which
enable fibres to be continued through the joint un-spliced; only the required fibres are intercepted for
splicing. This is sometimes referred to as ‘Pass-Through’.
The main difference between FTTH closures and traditional fibre network closures is the increased
branching requirements. There are generally more cable ports needed in FTTH closures. This is especially
the case where closures are used as terminals for the connection of spliced drop cables where up to 50
cable entries may be needed on one closure (see next section).
Closures in the distribution network generally use fusion splicing (See Appendix 1.3) rather than mechanical
splicing, and heat shrink splice protectors are mounted in stacks of splice trays. These trays safely store the
splice and slack fibre needed for splicing. Trays typically contain 12 fibres (one fibre tube). Normally, there
is a facility to route fibres from any tube to any tray.
The trays can also store splitters for both centralised and distributed split architectures.
Closures can be either dome ended or rectangular box configuration. In rectangular box configurations
cable entries can be accommodated at either end of the closure.
A selection of closures

The closure must be resistant to long term flooding and accessible if the need arises for future additions
or alterations to subscriber fibre circuits. IP68 is normally required for closures in underground applications
and IP56 for above ground.
Cable entries (see below) are generally mechanical with cable sealing using compressible grommets or gel.
The use of heat-shrink and mastic tape sealing is now uncommon.
Cable entries
Advances in closure technology have been based on incremental product developments that make
closures easier to install, more flexible and more compact. Tool-less cable entries, reduction of piece parts
and design for easy access have all played their part in reducing the installed cost of fibre closures.
Closure Storage in Access Chambers

For easy retraction (and storage) of fibre optic splice closures in access chambers during installation,
inspection and maintenance, a telescopic arm may be deployed. The closure is lifted out of its retracted
position and locked into a position suitable for easy access. Depending on the access chamber design,
a number of solutions allow for the closing of some of the access chamber covers to improve safety on
site. The closure can be locked into working position to help maintain a safe working environment for the
splicing and inspection process. Telescopic arms that facilitate the rotation of the closure away from the
access chamber further improve safety on site.
Closure lifted from its retracted position (l) and placed back after work is completed.
Street Cabinets
Street cabinets serve a number of purposes in a FTTH network
• A position to house splitters particularly in centralised split architecture. This could typically
be between 64 and 864 fibres.
• A cross-connect position which allows different operators to interconnect in shared

networks with potentially over 2000 fibres in a single cabinet.
• A termination point for the distribution cable to be connected to the drop cables. The
number of fibres can range from 48 up to 192.

Street cabinets are metal or plastic enclosures. These are usually
located to allow for relatively easy and rapid access to the fibre circuits
and are capable of handling larger capacities than fibre joint closures.
Street cabinets are always subject to local planning rules.
Street cabinets are often used for splitter location and cross connect
purposes because regular and easy access is needed
An important factor in the rollout of new networks is speed. Cabinets

can now be provided pre-stubbed and pre-terminated. These cabinets
are assembled in the factory and tested prior to delivery. They have a Typical street cabinet
cable stub that is run back to the next closure offering a patch panel
for simple plug-and-play connectivity. This provides faster installation
and reduces the incidence of installation faults. Pre-stubbed and
terminated cabinets can be combined with plug-and-play PON
splitters which can be installed as and when required without the need
for further field splicing.
Using pre-connectorised splitters in centralised split networks means

that splitters and OLT cards only need to be added incrementally as
the take rate increases. This optimisation of OLT ports and splitters can
result in lower installed costs, particularly in areas where the initial take
rate is expected to be low.
Street cabinets with higher fibre counts and with cross-connect Pre-stubbed and terminated cabinet
functionality are often based on standard 19” or ETSI rack construction
which enables a range of rack based fibre management equipment
such as Optical Distribution Frames (ODFs) to be installed. Cabinets
are often supplied with this equipment pre-installed in defined
configurations.
See Chapter 6 for a detailed description of ODFs and associated Fibre

Management.
Cross-connect cabinet showing
Distribution Terminals
cable runs between two racks
The Distribution Terminals are located at the end point of the Homes Passed Network closest to subscriber
premises and provide the facility to connect drop cables as needed. There is no agreed industry standard
term, but the terminal is commonly referred to as Network Access Point, Distribution Point, Optical
Distribution Point, Fibre Distribution Point, Distribution Terminal, or Fibre Optical Distribution Terminal,
Fibre Distribution Terminal. Acronyms are often used and all these terms are interchangeable.
Terminals serve typically 4 to 24 premises but exceptionally can serve 96 premises depending on network
design rules. The number of premises served by each terminal is a key parameter in the design of any FTTH
network, which influences the financial business case for the build. Larger terminals serving many premises
will reduce the Homes Passed cost but the distances to homes will be greater so increasing the cost to
connect individual homes.
The terminals may be positioned on wood, steel or concrete poles, in underground chambers, on building
facades or inside MDUs.

Terminal Configurations
A decision regarding terminal configuration is required at the time of design.
1. Stubbed Terminals
This is a fully branched configuration in which all terminals are positioned at the end of
each branch on the distribution network
2. Pass-Through Terminals
In pass-through configuration the terminals are in chains. Terminals are installed on a
distribution cable that passes through the terminal and continues to additional terminals
further down the line. Only the fibres needed to connect drops at a given terminal are
intercepted at the terminal. The rest pass through unbroken.

3. Stubbed and Pass-Through Terminals
The third configuration is a combination of both stub and Pass-Through configurations.
The Pass-Through terminals serve as terminal points for drop cables as well as splicing of
terminal stub cables.
There is no single preferred configuration. The decision must be based on:
- Cost of materials
- Cost and availability of skilled labour
- Layout of the streets and homes
- Availability of cable routes
Pre-terminated stub terminals can be the lowest cost solution because there is no fibre work at the terminal
location. However the topography can mean that there are many parallel runs. Pass-through terminals will
reduce parallel cables but they need fibre work to access fibres at each location.
Drop Connection Methodology

The purpose of the Distribution Terminal is to connect the drop cables. This can be achieved in three ways:
1. Spliced Drops
The drop cables are fusion or mechanically spliced to the distribution fibres inside the terminal normally
using splice trays as used in closures. The loose fibres are stored in the trays during the homes passed
phase. A wide range of spliced terminals are available for all applications from very basic simple boxes with
low ingress protection to more advanced modular solutions with IP68 rating for the harshest environments.
High fibre count terminals are available which can support up to 48 drops.
Typical pole-mounted drop closure Typical underground drop closure base

2. Enclosed Connectorised Terminals
The drop cables are connectorised, normally
with SC or LC simplex or duplex connectors. The
terminals contain adaptors to accept the drop
cables. The distribution fibres are spliced to the
connectors inside the terminals during the homes
passed phase. These are also very widely available
on the market for all applications and include higher
fibre counts up to 48 fibres.
Typical underground drop closure base
3. Hardened Connectorised Terminals

The drop cables are connectorised with environmentally hardened connectors that connect to
ports on the external body of the terminal. There is a range of connector formats, some more
widely deployed than others. Some connector formats are licensed to multiple vendors to avoid
dependency on a single source. Hardened connector terminals are generally lower port counts, for
example up to 16. Examples of terminals and hardened drop cables are shown below.

Both Stubbed and Pass-Through configurations are available for all three drop connection methodologies.
Terminals can also contain splitters. This can reduce the amount of splicing needed at the terminal during
the homes passed phase.
The optimum solution for any network operator depends on a number of factors. These typically include:
• Cost of materials
• Local labour rates
• Availability of skilled labour
• Balance of cost and speed of deployment
• Expected take rates
• Network reliability expectations
Spliced solutions generally have the lowest material costs, but higher labour costs for the homes passed
build and customer connections. Pre-connectorised solutions are the most common method used around
the world.
The main difference between Enclosed and Hardened Connectorised solutions is that with enclosed
connectors the terminal must be opened, so that the drop cable can be installed, and re-sealed for each
customer connection. This can lead to network reliability problems as terminals are continually accessed
by contract labour, often paid on a per Home connected basis. With Hardened solutions there is a fixed
demarcation between the Homes Passed and Homes Connected parts of the network such that customer
drop installers do not have access to the inside of the terminals terminals.
Hardened pre-connectorised solutions with factory pre-stubbed terminals increase the speed of the Homes
Passed phase of deployments.
Further development of hardened connectors is focused towards smaller and more aesthetically pleasing
terminals suitable for congested infrastructure and where building owners’ consent is a problem. Some
vendors have new connector formats with adaptors to enable compatibility with other connector types.
Central Office Fibre Connectivity

The primary purpose of the central office in FTTH networks is to house the OLT equipment. Central offices
can take many forms. At one extreme incumbent operators often have large central office buildings serving
tens of thousands of subscribers, a legacy of their copper networks, and may consolidate those into fewer
even larger facilities. On the other hand new operators are more likely to deploy much smaller buildings
or Points Of Presence (POPs), which may even be based in container facilities serving one or two thousand
premises. It is also possible to house remote OLTs in cabinets serving only a few hundred premises.
Within central offices and POPs there is a need to use rack based fibre management hardware to handle
the fibres between the cable entry point and the OLT cards. This connectivity equipment has three main
functions.
• To break out fibres from external cables to individual connectorised jumpers that can be
connected to the individual OLT ports.
• To provide cross-connect functionality between external fibres and OLT cards. This can be
in Cross-Connect or Interconnect configuration that is explained earlier in this handbook.
• To house components such as splitters, WDM devices and allow test equipment access.

Unlike Point-to-point (P2P) topologies that provide a one-to-one connection from the OLT active
equipment to the subscriber, a Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) architecture utilises splitters to split the
transmission signal over multiple subscribers. Often the network will be made up of a combination of
P2P and P2MP signals so that residential and commercial customers can co-exist on the same network
infrastructure. Business customers require a P2P connection because it offers higher bandwidth and
increased service level agreements with the network operator. A split signal obviously transmits less data
to the end-user than a full signal, however this bandwidth is adequate for most of today’s residential
applications. As demand for bandwidth increases, it is predicted that P2MP architectures may evolve into
P2P architectures in the future. For this reason many operators are planning flexible network designs that
allow mixed topologies to run concurrently and that allow a major shift to other topologies in the future.
Generally splitters with a low ratio will be placed closer to the OLT equipment (1:2, 1:4) and higher ratio
splitters will be closer to the end-users (1:8, 1:16 or 1:32).
Splitters
In the central office or POP area of the network there will be an active rack with an OLT placed inside of it.
This OLT will transmit a signal from one of its many ports that will be split multiple times before it reaches
the subscriber. One way of reaching an overall split ratio of 1:64 is to place a 1:4 splitter close to the OLT
in the central office or POP area and then to connect it to a 1:16 splitter further down the network in the
aggregation area of the network. In a typical example we might find that the initial signal is split as many as
128 times before it reaches the subscriber.
In order to transmit the signal from the OLT port to the splitter input, some kind of cable assembly will be
required. The connection to the OLT will need to be made with a connectorised cable.
The other end of this cable could either be a connector that patches to the input of a connectorised splitter
or it could be a non-connectorised fibre that is fusion spliced to the input of the splitter. The decision
whether to splice to the input of the splitter or to connectorise it will depend on the overall optical budget
allowed for the complete signal and the amount of loss these mated connector pairs consume from this
budget. The optical budget can be considered as the amount of light required to exit the transmit port
of the OLT to ensure sufficient light is received at the receive port of the ONU to enable uninterrupted
service. The standardisation bodies recommend that each mated pair in the network should have a loss of
no greater than 0.5dB. Connectors add flexibility but also add loss into the network that impacts on the
overall performance of the network. High-performance connectors make a difference to the effect on the
mated pair loss. However, this loss will never compare to the very low loss of a fusion splice (0.02dB).
Splicing the input of a splitter is very effective in terms of performance but does not offer a high degree of
flexibility. Operators want to be able to introduce splitters in a scalable and modular way without having to
rely on technicians with splice equipment connecting each time. Therefore connectors are preferred where
scalability/modularity is required.
Types of splitters
Most splitters used in FTTH networks today are of a Planar Waveguide Circuit (PLC) type. These splitters are
preferred over fused bi-conical types because they are extremely compact and have very good uniformity
across their output ports. Planar splitters are supplied in small rectangular metal casings and the fibres
entering and exiting the splitter are either of a ribbon construction or more commonly de-ribbonised to
single fibres. Such compact packaging makes the splitter ideal for integration into shallow splice cassettes
in the outside plant but in the central office area of the network the splitter needs to be packaged within
some kind of robust scalable housing.

Examples of splitter housings
In-line splitter assemblies encapsulate the splitter into some kind of furcation device on the mid-span of
a cable assembly. This cable assembly will have a single connectorised fibre at one end (the input) and
several connectorised fibres at the other end (the outputs). The benefit of in-line splitters is that the splitter
is discretely managed within the cable itself. There is no need for the splitter to be housed into some kind
of module or panel that consumes valuable real estate inside a rack. The limitation of such assemblies is
that the distance from the OLT to the ODF needs to be relatively short so as to capitalise on the short tail
lengths supplied on most standard splitters.
Splitters inside modules - Splitters can be supplied in dedicated modules that have the input and outputs
presented as adaptors on the front or rear of a module. The modular approach makes the whole operation
extremely flexible and the adaptors on the module make it very simple and easy to connect patch cords
from the splitter module to the OLT rack and ODF rack respectively. Modules can be mounted in many
different types of sub-racks such as horizontal 1U or 2U type or the larger vertical types of 3U or 4U. Having
adaptors on the module make the connection process simple however this approach does add additional
loss into the optical link because of the mated connector pairs required within the module.
Splitters inside panels - Splitters can be mounted inside panels whereby the inputs and outputs are
connectorised and then presented to adaptors on the front of the panel. This approach is quite common
and often the panel will be fitted with multiple splitters so as to maximise the density of the complete
panel. For example a 1U panel might have as many as 16 x 1:4 splitters fitted inside it. It should be noted
that this approach does not offer a high degree of granularity across the system and should the operator
ever want to change the split ratios at a later date, this approach would restrict this. A modular approach
allows multiple splitters of different types to co-exist in the same sub-rack.
Splitter cassettes/cartridges - Probably the most common package for splitters is to mount them inside
small rectangular plastic cassettes or cartridges. These cartridges are compact and low profile and they
have fixing holes in each corner that allow multiple cartridges to be stacked one on top of the other.
Instead of having adaptors on the front of the cartridge, the input and output fibres will be furcated
through cable tails before they are connectorised. This approach is efficient in terms of optical loss because
the mated pair inside the module is completely eliminated. A high degree of flexibility is
still achieved because the tails can be made to a
length suitable to reach all of the ODF ports to which
they are connected. A disadvantage of such ‘tailed’
splitters is the fact that unused splitter tails may need
to be stored or parked somewhere in the cabinet
before they are connected to the ODF. This additional
storage area consumes valuable space inside the
cabinet and can make the process of installation more
complicated.
Splitter integration into a cable assembly
Sometimes it makes sense to integrate the splitter directly into the fibre assembly connecting the OLT
to the Splitter rack or ODF. Subsequently this technique has led to hybrid assemblies that combine a
furcation at one end of the assembly (to connect to the OLT) and a hybrid splitter solution at the other end
of the assembly. This hybrid end could be a module, a panel or indeed another furcation with the splitter
connected in an in-line method).

Chapter 4
Physical Layer
Technology
– Connecting
Homes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Connecting Multi-Dwelling Units
4.3 Alternative Solutions and Innovations
4.4 Connecting Single Dwelling Units
Section 4.1
Introduction
In most of the topologies commonly used around Europe, customer connections (homes connected),
accessories, and installation costs represent around half of the total CAPEX involved. Therefore, it is vital
to understand the different ways in which MDU and SDU installations can be accomplished and how they
affect cost. By definition a FTTH network terminates a fibre optic cable directly to the customer premise.
The final link in this connection is referred to as a ‘Drop’. This chapter is primarily concerned with how
drops can be achieved.
It also essential to have the right tools and methods in place during the connection phase – such as pre-
connectorised drops as well as easy, clean connection methods. Once the network is up and running, this is
key to activating customers in a quick and simple manner (often to gain market share).
Network planning and dimensioning follows the path from home to central office. To accurately dimension
feeder and distribution infrastructure, cables and capacities, the first thing you need to do is properly
design the access section. Getting cluster sizes right (depending on demography, type of SDU, MDU, and
type of access infrastructure) is the first step to planning what the distribution network should look like.
In short, to properly dimension the network, the rule is to examine each individual step, from the home to
the CO, and at each step define cluster sizes, spare fibre requirements, type of infrastructure, and so on.
This chapter, which is closely related to Chapter 3, explains the various steps and considerations, as well as
recent breakthroughs, such as ferrulized drops, retractable façade cables and accessories.
In MDU and SDU installations, there is a vast cost difference between pre-connectorised riser/drop
solutions and traditional spliced solutions. Unless cost of manpower is very low, pre-connectorised
horizontal and SDU drops have proven to be the cheapest, fastest and cleanest solution in recent years.
The use of pre-connectorised risers in MDUs introduces a number of questions, but in certain countries
where manpower cost are high, this can be an excellent solution to deploy rapidly and at reasonable cost.

Section 4.2
Connecting Multi-
Dwelling Units
This Section covers the building of FTTH networks in MDUs. A sequential approach is taken: we follow the
fibre from the point where it enters the building (usually the basement) to the wall box at the subscriber’s
premises.
Figure 4.1
Main elements of MDU topology
Details are provided about each step along this path. Generally, we find three types of cabling in
FTTH Networks:
Outside Plant Feeder and Distribution Cables

From the Central Office, these cables pass through splice closures, through cabinet hubs, until they enter
the buildings.
Cabling within MDUs is primarily concerned with the Distribution and Drop elements.
There are two methods for distributing fibre connections within Multi-Dwelling Units. The optimum method
for any building is dependant on the number of floors and apartments. The methods are:
(i) Direct drops from a terminal box installed in the basement /

Building Entrance Point (BEP)
This topology is mostly used in low-rise buildings with 12/16 or fewer apartments, and usually no more
than three floors. If there are more apartments or floors, use of direct drops can very easily result in cable
congestion in the risers and ducts inside the building.

(ii) Structured cabling using Riser Cables and Distribution Boxes
Where there are more than a few floors a connection box installed in the basement interfaces with the
outside plant network / BEP. Floor Boxes are placed either on each floor, or every two or three floors in
some networks, to facilitate connection between the Customer Drops and the Riser cable. The BEP and
the Connection Box can be contained in one integrated unit or can be separate (as illustrated below).
Building Entry Point (BEP)

This is the interface between the main outside plant cable and the
internal ‘in-building’ network. The BEP is used to splice, patch and
route the fibres to the riser or drop cables. Many networks are built
and operated by only one Communications Service Provider (CSP). As
a result, only one BEP is installed in the basement, where it takes care
of interfacing between the outside plant and in-building network.
In some countries, however, regulation or agreements between CSPs

result in an open access indoor network topology. The neutral in-
building network can be accessed by different CSPs. The point where Typical mono-operator BEP
these operators have access to the open access network is a multi-
operator BEP.
Connection box at the BEP

The size of the BEP depends on the size of the building - such as
the number of apartments or floors-, the overall complexity of the
installation, and the network structure.
Typically, fibre management at the BEP uses specially designed boxes

that make it possible to run the required number of in/out cables,
splices and patch/adapter connections. This is accomplished with the Typical multi-operator BEP structure: an open
use of splicing trays, patch panel elements, and routing & storage access box is in place alongside multiple
elements for the fibre cords and cables. operator boxes - one per Service Provider.
In addition, fibre identification, locking systems and future extension

of the BEP boxes are important features to consider. In a PON
network the BEP boxes will frequently include optical splitters. Ingress
protection is important and depends on the conditions within the
space dedicated to the BEP. Typically, an in-house installation would
require an IP30 rating.

Positioning the BEP
This aspect often requires some discussion. It is affected by conditions in the field, building owner
requirements and preferences, and physical conditions. Low levels of humidity, dust and vibration
are preferable. As previously mentioned, the Ingress Protection level needs to be aligned with these
conditions.
It is important that the BEP Connection Box is positioned close to the vertical cabling path, to allow optimal
transition for the cables.
Typical mono-operator BEP
Riser Cables
Riser cables run from the BEP to floor distributor boxes located throughout the MDU and are considered to
be Distribution cables.
Some multifibre indoor riser cables installed between the BEP and floor distributors have a retractable
feature - fibres can be easily pulled out of the jacket through a small window cut. Substantial lengths of
fibre can be retracted at floor level by making a simple window cut. These cables allow fast and reliable
installation in congested shafts, and quick and easy connection to the horizontal drop cables. The need
for site surveys is reduced as the cable can be pulled through almost any duct. All this reduces the total
installation cost during the ‘homes passed’ phase of the MDU rollout.
Breakout riser cables typically contain 12 to 96 fibres in reinforced fibre elements, which provide significant
tensile strength. This avoids the need to embed strength members in the cable jacket. The cables have a
small diameter and are highly flexible. These networks can also be built with standard breakout or loose
tube cables. This requires additional installation effort.
Breakout riser cables with reinforced retractable fibre

Special indoor drop cables are used from the floor distributors to the connection point within the
apartments. These may range from single fibre cables (which are often pre-connectorised on one side,
and in some cases at both ends) to cables with up to 4 fibres. The fibre count is defined according to the
network architecture and regulation. While their design may vary, all of these cables are used in subscriber
premises and should therefore offer a form of adequate fire protection. Indoor cables are covered by IEC
60794-2-20 [8]. The operating temperature range is between –20°C and +60°C.
Example of a typical easy-to-install indoor drop cable
CPR (Construction Products Regulation)

The Construction Products Regulation (CPR) is a specification requirement that needs to be taken into
account when using riser and drop cables in all European Union countries, where it is mandatory. All
manufacturers and distributors that supply building products to European Economic Area fall under CPR
and its requirements. From July 1, 2017 permanently installed cables must meet European Standard
EN 50575:2014. All cabling products must be tested and labelled to indicate their fire behaviour.
Manufacturers must have their cables tested and certified by a Notified Body accredited by the EC. This
includes pre-assembled cabling links intended to remain in the building permanently.
Fire performance is described by seven ‘Euro classes’: Aca, B1ca, B2ca, Cca, Dca, Eca and Fca, with
Aca having the highest performance and Fca having the lowest. These Euroclasses reference several fire
test standards—specifically EN 50399, EN 60332-1-2 and EN ISO 1716. Euroclass Eca cables meet the
minimum requirement of EN 60332-1-2.
Each country can adopt whichever Euro class it deems suitable. As a result, different EU countries may
require cables with different Euroclassification for use in the same installation environment. For example,
some countries have established a minimum requirement of Cca for drops, and others leave it at Dca.
These two are the most commonly adopted levels.

In the UK where CPR also governed cabling (pre-Brexit) in respect to reaction to fire properties, a new
scheme is being introduced: UKCA (UK Conformity Assessed). This will reflect current CPR testing and
auditing and will be required on all construction products and goods placed on the market in the UK.
Strictly speaking, removable patch cords inside the house do not have to comply with this regulation.
However, many CSPs also request CPR rating for these.
Distribution Boxes
Sometimes, one floor distribution box is installed on each floor, and in some cases there may be one even
for up to three floors. This depends on maximum drop lengths, installation complexity and number of
apartments.
Floor distributors, depending on the country and topology, may hold only splices, or may also contain a
patch field and pigtails. The connection to the outlets inside the apartments is commonly made with pre-
connectorised drop cables.
In some countries, the trend is to pre-cable the floor level up to each apartment door, leaving a Point of
Entrance box next to the door. This delivers a number of benefits including fire prevention and a quicker
turn-on of service.
The link between the floor distributor and the apartment is called a ‘horizontal drop’. In the network
topology, the horizontal drop links the vertical riser cable from the floor distribution box to the subscriber
interface with the required number of fibres. Typical fibre counts for horizontal drop cable are between one
and four, depending on local regulations and the network owner’s planned future applications.
FTTH Wall Outlet:Fibre type and connection characteristics

The most common fibre types currently used in the FTTH Wall Outlet are G.657.A1 and G.657.A2/B2,
which have a small minimum bend radius. The fibre connection type to the Wall Outlet can be:
• Pre-connectorised cable assemblies

• Spliced pigtails
• Field installed connectors
Optical connectors
The type of optical connector used in the FTTH Wall Outlet is usually defined at the design phase.
Increased protection against soiling of the connector end face, integrated laser protection in connectors
and adapters as well as an automatic self-release mechanism activated when the permissible release force
on the Wall Outlet is exceeded, are the main features required.
The main recommendation with regard to the end face of the connectors is for Angled Physical Contact
(APC) with a clear specification for the attenuation and return loss (for example Grade B for IL and Grade 1
for the RL – for further details see Appendix 1.
The most commonly used connectors in FTTH drops are SC / APC and LC / APC, the latter being a small
form factor connector
The mechanical and climatic requirements typically used are as defined in IEC 61753-021-2 [15] for
category C (controlled environment) with a temperature range of -10°C to +60°C.

Detailed view of 2 different outlets: splice tray, bend radius guide, front plate with LC type
FTTH Wall Outlet

Upon entering the residence, the customer drop is typically terminated at a FTTH Wall Outlet. These are
designed to manage different fibre counts – from one to four – with a minimum bending radius protection
of 15mm.
The design should allow the housing of some excess fibre lengths and provide space for the splices. The
design of the fibre length management should guarantee long-term stability for fibres. Fatigue break
should not occur, even after 20 years in use. The outlets’ front plate should have cut-outs corresponding to
the chosen type of adapters to hold the simplex or duplex connectors according to the network design.
The fastest, simplest and most reliable way to install a FTTH Wall Outlet is to use a pre-assembled solution:
a cable already connectorised in the factory as shown below. With these ‘plug & play’ systems, time-
consuming splicing inside subscriber premises is not required and installers do not require special training or
equipment. This is especially important on large-scale projects where speed of deployment is critical.
Example of a typical easy-to-install indoor drop cable
Splicing is the joining together of two optical fibres. There are two types of fibre splicing: mechanical
splicing and fusion splicing. Fusion splicing physically fuses two optical fibres together, normally offering
better performance. Mechanical splicing holds two fibres together inside a sleeve using a mechanical
component. It is generally faster although less reliable and with inferior performance. For more details on
splicing, see Appendix 1
Positioning the FTTH Wall Outlet

Home distribution boxes, typically available in newly constructed buildings, are often used for FTTH
Wall Outlet installation. It is important that a power socket, sufficient space and adequate ventilation are
available for the ONT/CPE.

In many cases, the FTTH Wall Outlet is installed in living rooms or other spaces dedicated for work and/
or entertainment. CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) has to be optimised for residential use and should
feature the following:
• Plug & Play system

• Integrated dust and laser protection
• Self-release mechanism in order to protect the Wall Outlet in case of unintentional pulling
of the connecting cables
• Low bend radii to maintain transmission of the signal
Pre-connectorised and Retractable Solutions

MDU deployments may require a considerable amount of fibre jointing depending on the chosen technical
solution. This drives up installation costs. Compared to copper cable, fibre is inherently more difficult to
join. Fibre cores have to be aligned to sub-micron accuracy during the splice process (using either fusion
or mechanical methods), and the uncoated glass at the joint must be protected. Fusion and mechanical
splicing have been available since the early days of fibre deployment. Fusion splicing requires a high
degree of skill and equipment. As a result, pre-connectorised cables, developed specifically for installation
inside MDUs, can lower TCO by reducing the need for skilled labour in the field and moving it into
dedicated factories under quality controlled conditions.
Cables and network components can also be joined using optical connectors. Ideally, the connector
optimises optical power while minimising optical reflections within the cable. If a customer chooses
SC/APC connectors, these will be used across all elements in the FTTH network. The same would apply to
LC/APC.
In general, the more pre-configuration that can be integrated into assemblies in the factory, the greater the
opportunity for cost reduction – assuming, of course, that the ease of installation and flexibility in the field
can be maintained.
Several common examples of connectorised solutions are described below.

Pre-connectorised Drop and Riser Cables
In many traditional MDU architectures, fibre connectivity is needed
at the basement terminal, the floor terminal and inside subscriber
premises. All these interconnection points could potentially be served
by pre-connectorised assemblies.
Drop cables can be pre-connectorised at one or both ends. If both

ends are pre-connectorised, there needs to be space to store spare
(slack) cable length.
Pre-connectorised riser assemblies are available with factory-installed

connectors at the basement end. Risers are also available with Customer terminal with
breakout assemblies preconfigured for connection to terminals on pre-terminated drop cable
each floor. The riser assemblies are delivered with protective sleeves
over the breakout assemblies to avoid damage to the connectors
during installation. The assembly is simply pulled into the riser and connectors are presented at each floor
ready for connection into the floor boxes.
This enables the entire fibre network to be installed in the building with no splicing except for connecting
the fibre from the outside world to the basement box.
BEP terminal boxes in the basement can also be pre-connectorised with LC/SC or even MPO connectivity
to enable Plug & Play connection to the riser cable, making possible MDU vertical layout builds with no
splicing required.
Pre-connectorised riser assemblies and pre-connectorised BEP boxes using MPO and LC/SC connectivity
Floor Box with Reel Storage

Sophisticated solutions are available that minimise the need for
pre-engineering, while still providing an elegant way to store cable
over-length (slack). Such solutions consist of a floor box and a
pre-assembled spool of vertical (riser) cable. The ‘homes passed’
installation involves installing the floor box on the floor level and
de-reeling the riser cable to the basement. After installation, excess
vertical cable is stored within the product, which means the cable
is always at the right length. As it is a pre-connectorised product,
the fibre is immediately ready for connecting subscribers during the
‘homes connected’ phase of the rollout. Pre-fibred floor box with reel

Collapsible Reel Storage
The riser cable can be configured with an MPO connector or a single
fibre connector (to connect a splitter in the floor box in a cascaded
split topology) reducing the need for splicing in the basement.
This product drastically reduces the MDU deployment time,

shortening the time needed for preparation (planning, site inspection,
ordering and inventory), as well as the actual installation time. Skilled
labour is not required to install the product. What’s more, decreasing
the number of measurements needed and improving the consistency
of installation reduces project risk. All this results in lower installation
and maintenance costs. Multi-fibre dual-ended MPO
connectorised riser on a collapsible reel
Ferrulized Drop Cable

Ferrulized drop cables are pre-connectorised cables with a slimline profile. These allow the outer connector
housing to be ‘clicked on’ after the cable has been pulled or pushed through the duct. This results in faster
and more efficient installation.
Ferrulized drop cable
The ferrulized drop cables can be pushed from the subscriber’s apartment to either a floor box or a
basement distribution box, depending on the size of the MDU. Another approach is to employ a pullable
cable whereby the pre-installed pull cord in the microduct is used to pull the cable through the microduct.
Simplex and duplex cables of both types are currently available on the market. Ruggedised versions of
such cables can also be routed through existing electrical conduits if they provide appropriate routing
between the subscriber apartment and the BEP or Floor Box.

Section 4.3
Alternative Solutions and
Innovations
External or Façade Cabled Pre-connectorised
Solutions
The difficulty of securing cable pathways inside buildings can be overcome by using the outer wall of
the building as the cable pathway. If permission exists for copper telecom or power infrastructure on the
building’s external walls, FTTH infrastructure may also be approved. This is often the lowest cost solution,
but is normally restricted to low-rise buildings of up to five floors. The infrastructure is typically installed at
the top of the ground floor level, out of reach of passing public, but easily accessible by the installer using
a ladder.
Pre-connectorised terminals are installed at the ‘homes passed’ stage and connectorised drops are routed
from the terminals to the individual apartments along the outside of the building. The terminals can use
conventional connectors, such as SC or LC inside sealed closures or environmentally hardened connectors
on the outside of the terminal.
Hardened connectors are generally more reliable and cost effective in the long term - they do not involve
continual opening of closures and sealing of cables by residential installers.
Terminals can contain splitters so this method is suitable for a range of PON architectures.
Drop cables can be dual purpose with a rugged external jacket that can be easily peeled away over long
lengths. This reveals a small, flexible, light-coloured LSZH sub-element suitable for routing inside subscriber
premises and direct termination with an optical connector.

Façade Retractable Solutions
Some façade solutions use what is known as a ‘retractable’ cable, available from a variety of suppliers. In
these cables, the fibre units are free inside the cable, without any stranded or twist layout of the fibres, and
almost no other strength or protection elements.
This makes it very easy to make two window cuts in the cable. In one of these the fibre is cut, and in the
other window cut, the same fibre is pulled out, and worked inside a box.
The main benefit of this technology, compared to other façade solutions, is the huge reduction in the
installation time, avoiding the need to prepare cable and holding long slack lengths of fibres and tubes.
This also reduces the size of the boxes, and improves the aesthetical aspect of the façade deployments.
Retractable terminal and retractable cable
Microducts Inside the MDU

Microduct networks can be built into greenfield (new build) and brownfield (existing) environments, with
the greenfield installation representing the optimal solution as well as offering increased property value.
The CAPEX in this situation is typically spread among developer, telecom operator and owner. Any future
construction costs are also minimised. Microducts can also be installed in existing buildings, and are more
cost-effective if the utility shafts can be used for installation. These topologies are typically based on
microduct sizes of 5/3.5mm or 4/3mm, made of HDPE with LSHF additives.
Alternative Microduct Methods

High tensile strength, small diameter cables, measuring less than one millimetre across, are ideal for
horizontal applications in the ‘homes passed’ phase of the roll-out, especially when used to connect the
wall outlet inside the housing unit with the floor box, typically located in the utility shaft.
The routing path can be complicated and installation methods can include on-wall installation, in-wall
installations (typically through ducts) or a combination of both. Pulling the horizontal cable, can be very
time consuming, especially in brownfield situations. Small diameter cables with a high tensile strength
allow faster, secure pulling of the cable through congested ducts or pipes, resulting in a faster subscriber
connection and lower installation costs.
High tensile strength, small diameter cable

Adhesive Fibre Systems
Reduced bend radius technology allows installers to create tight bends in the fibre with a low risk of
attenuation loss. This has enabled suppliers to develop new adhesive-based fibre systems that provide fast,
flexible and nearly invisible installation of fibre cables inside a building. For example, installers can quickly
and easily ‘glue’ fibre around baseboards, windows and trim work.
Using heat-activated micro-cables, a lightweight, portable handheld tool activates the adhesive in the
cable jacket, allowing the cable to bond continuously to the surface area as it is applied. The heat-activated
micro-cable can be compatible with field installable connectors or can be fusion spliced in the network.
Other products are available on the market, such as miniature fibre elements that are fixed to the wall with
air-cured sealants.
These products offer installers a fast, consistent method for installing fibre throughout a building with low
visibility. The portable system can be used for any indoor installation, minimising equipment costs for the
installers. This also offers an aesthetically appealing ‘on-the-wall’ alternative to in-duct systems when shafts
are congested.
Fibre with adhesive coating
Fully-connectorised Indexed MDU Solutions

A fully-connectorised system uses fibre indexing and allows installers to use a cookie-cutter approach to
build out the network.
A key advantage is the fact that installers can connect the same components one after the other,
reducing the need for customized material. This can facilitate the adoption of a deployment type known
as ‘MDU-in-a-box’.
The overall solution is made up of a stub terminal. The cable stub has a connector and connectorised
single and multi-fibre outputs.
The indexing begins with a 12-fibre cable entering the first terminal. In the terminal, fibre 1 is routed to
a splitter for servicing local subscribers. The remaining fibres are ‘indexed’, or moved up, as they exit the
terminal to connect to the next terminal. Indexing means that the second fibre entering the terminal will
exit as the first fibre to enter the next terminal, and so on, in daisy-chain fashion.

Cascaded Splitters
In large MDUs, where high take-up rates are anticipated, a cascaded split scenario is an interesting
approach. In such a scenario, the splitters are distributed throughout the MDU, rather than being located in
the basement boxes.
The first splitter can be located in the entrance facility, with multiple fibres going out to separate floors.
Each floor is served by an installed splitter. Alternatively, the first splitter can be placed on one of the
served floors. If the building has 8 units per floor, a total of 4 floors can be handled by a 32-split ratio
system with a 4-way splitter feeding 8-way splitters on each floor. Likewise, a first 8-way splitter can be used
to serve 4 floors. Or a 16-way first splitter would serve 4 floors. The best option depends on the building
and how cabling would be installed. This scenario is most suited to high-rise MDUs where the number of
floors exceeds 12 and/or the number of subscribers per floor is higher than 8.
Cascaded split in medium to large MDUs
This method of deployment comes with some important trade-offs that need to be carefully considered.
One benefit of this technology is its capacity to facilitate fault location in high-rise MDUs and, as a result,
facilitate quicker remediation. A further key advantage is that it simplifies conditions in the basement,
where the basement box is deployed. In addition, it requires considerably less space in the vertical conduit
than other solutions. Overall, these advantages will help streamline the planning stages of deploying fibre
in medium or large MDUs. The flipside of this deployment methodology is the fact that using splitters
within the floor box means coverage at 100% take rate from day one.

Section 4.4
Connecting Single
Dwelling Units
Customer connections are usually installed separately from the main network construction project when the
resident orders the first service.
Broadly speaking the connection involves installing fibre cable and termination boxes between a pre-
installed distribution point outside the residence and the CPE located inside the residence.
We can distinguish two main ways of connecting individual family homes:
• With a demarcation box that separates outdoor and indoor cabling

• Without a demarcation box, using a dual jacketed outdoor/indoor cable that can run all the
way to the internal outlet
SDU Connections with a Demarcation Box
This approach requires the following hardware and accessories:
Aerial/UG Distribution box

A fibre termination box is used to protect and distribute optical fibre links and serve as an aggregation
point for multiple subscriber connections.
Outdoor drop cable

This cable connects the aerial or underground distribution box to the demarcation box. It may be
preconnectorised (typically at the demarcation end or both ends if the distribution box is designed for this),
spliced to a pigtail at the demarcation end (typically in order to have a test point), or directly spliced to the
indoor drop cable.

The outdoor cable from the distribution box to the demarcation box is normally a robust cable, with a
diameter of 5 or 6 mm. If the cable needs to go overhead, it will require appropriate tensile strength.
These cables have bend insensitive G.657 fibres, and most of them have an inner gel filled loose tube to
provide protection against water. They are also commonly rich in aramid yarns and glass fibre in order to
protect the cable and provide the required high pulling strength.
Typical outdoor 5 mm drop cable, single jacket, inner loose tube, gel filled. Some countries
also allow the use of outdoor cable inside the houses, as long as it is LSZH rated.
Demarcation box
This is typically installed outside the house, and provides a testing and flexibility point as well as storage
for cable slack. Demarcation boxes are usually installed on the outer walls of the house, allowing access
without entering the homes. In some countries, however, these demarcation boxes may also be installed
on inside walls. This demarcation can be connectorised (with adapters inside the box) allowing easy testing
and also flexibility to upgrade (some Service Providers bring more than one outside plant fibre to this box).
Outdoor demarcation box

Indoor drop cable
Usually, this is an ‘indoor only’ cable, but in some cases an outdoor/indoor cable is used.
Inside the home, an indoor cable is installed from the demarcation box to the FTTH Wall Outlet. This cable
is normally pre-connectorised on one side (but can be on both sides), either in the demarcation box or at
the Wall Outlet. The requirements for this cable are similar to the ones used in MDU.
Indoor drop cable, pre-connectorised SCAPC in one side
SDU Connections without a Demarcation Box

An SDU can be connected with an outdoor/indoor cable instead of a demarcation box. Typically, the cables
used have a dual jacket:
- An outdoor jacket of 5mm or 6mm diameter capable of withstanding

UV and other environmental and mechanical conditions
- An interior subunit, 2mm or 3mm diameter Low-Smoke Zero Halogen
(LZSH) jacket that is suitable for indoor use

The specifications for the outdoor jacketed cable are very similar to those of the ‘regular’ outdoor cable
described above. However, these contain an indoor sub-unit that can be routed inside the homes, allowing
an easier installation as well as better aesthetics.
Universal dual jacketed cable
Optical Termination Outlet (Wall Outlet)

The Wall Outlet used for SDU applications is the same as that used for MDUs described previously in
Section 4.2
Patched from outlet to ONT

SC / APC or LC / APC patch cords are used to connect the outlet to the ONT (see Appendix 1)

Chapter 5
Active Equipment
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Basics
5.3 Central Office
5.4 Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)
5.5 Fibre Extension Options
Section 5.1
Introduction
All the functions needed for subscriber services are realised in the active network equipment, which is
primarily the powered equipment in both the customer premise and the central office. The passive part
of the network transports signals between the active components in the central office (POP) and the
subscriber premise.
At the outset of the network planning phase, it is vital to assess many factors that impact the design of the
‘active’ parts of the network. This assessment will determine the kind of active equipment required and the
specific network locations where it should be placed. These early decisions underpin a wide range of other
choices.
This chapter offers an introduction to active equipment and its role in the network. It is mainly aimed at
anyone with a technical interest in this topic, although it also relates to the business case, investment,
operations, maintenance and fibre management.
Good planning and execution means less troubleshooting, debugging, maintenance, switching off
hardware or substitution of active equipment. It impacts everything from personnel to customer
management and technical support. Poor planning can result in increased costs and consequently lost
profits. Service providers may lose customers if service does not meet expectations. Performance can be
hampered by quality of anything from latency, to crosstalk or electromagnetic interference.
It is vital to plan the network architecture with the most suitable characteristics. There are many variables to
take into account, such as:
• Services you want to offer on the network

• Bandwidth demands required to deliver these services
• Technology and topology best suited to the geography and customer density
Power consumption is another important issue when dealing with large numbers of active devices. A full
assessment should be made in order to ensure an informed decision.
There will also be the choice between Point-to-point (P2P) or Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) network
technology, factoring in initial capacity needs and scalability. P2P makes sense when you need to address
customers in low density areas or provide dedicated unshared very high quality service. P2MP is more
suited for higher-density areas where it makes sense to share the same infrastructure amongst many
customers.
One must keep in mind that technology is constantly evolving. Certain technologies that may be
relevant today will be replaced by newer ones. So, flexibility needs to be built into the system to support
new technologies in the medium to long term and ensure integration is as easy as possible without
overspecifying and overspending. A careful balance needs to be made between too much and too little
flexibility. Therefore it is important to understand the range of current and emerging technologies.

Section 5.2
The Basics
Figure 5.1
Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) (L) and point-to-point (P2P) (R) architecture.
Since the beginning of this century, Point-to-point (P2P) Ethernet and Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) passive
optical network architectures have been deployed worldwide in FTTH networks. The choice of architecture
and equipment depends on numerous variables. These include demographics and geographical
segmentation, specific deployment parameters, and financial calculations. Although P2MP architectures
have become operators’ most popular choice for FTTH network deployment, both solutions are being
deployed today.
In FTTH networks, fibre is used to provide the connection that will be enabled by the deployment all the
way up to the customer premise. It is guaranteed to support future bandwidth requirements by introducing
next-generation active equipment at the end points. In some networks, a second fibre is provided for RF
video overlay systems. In other cases, multiple fibres (2 to 4 per home on average) are installed to support
competitiveness and future applications.
This chapter provides background information on active equipment that can be used for both network
architecture types: P2P and P2MP.

Figure 5.2
P2MP networks are the most commonly used topology as they offer specific advantages. These include:
• Reduced fibre usage between POP and splitters

• No active equipment between the OLT and ONU
• Dynamic bandwidth allocation
• Capability to processhigh bandwidth bursts
• Capacity upgrade path without changing premise equipment
• Higher user density supported from the OLT
All of these lead to CAPEX and OPEX savings.

Section 5.3
Central Office
The choice of active equipment deployed at the central office (CO) or Point of Presence (POP) depends on
the network architecture used.
P2MP Networks
An Optical Line Terminal (OLT) located at the CO or POP is a standard component in a P2MP network. This
is connected to multiple Optical Network Units (ONU) located at each customer premise to which service is
provided. One fibre runs from each OLT PON port to a passive optical splitter. In turn, the splitter connects
multiple end-users, each via a dedicated fibre running from the client side of the splitter to the ONU.
The splitter(s) can be housed at different locations in the network between the CO and the end-user. The
number of end-users that can be served by each fibre depends on several factors such as:
• The splitter itself which can have a splitting ratio ranging from 2 to 256
• The number of splitters in the outside plant (these can be cascaded at
multiple locations between the subscriber and the central office)
• The specific PON technology used
• The reach the operator plans to cover from the POP
This topic is discussed in detail in Section 3.7
Splitters divide incoming light into two or more paths. This allows individual PON network interfaces at the
OLT to serve multiple subscribers. However, network designers and operators need to consider the fact
that every end-user connection added via a splitter increases network attenuation, thereby reducing the
distance that can be bridged between the CO and the Optical Network Termination (ONT) on the Optical
Distribution Network (ODN).
Optical Line Terminal (OLT) and Optical Network Unit (ONU) are standard active equipment defined by
IEEE. ONUs are sometimes referred to as ONTs. This is a more generic term and is defined by the ITU-T. It
usually refers to a single subscriber line termination.
The IEEE definition definition of ONU is not always adhered to in other (non-PON) cases; any device that
terminates the optical network may also be referred to as an ONT. In this document no preference is
expressed and both terminologies are used and should be interpreted as such, in their broadest sense.
The ONU can incorporate existing in-building cabling (for example CAT5/Ethernet, coaxial or copper) on
the subscriber side. The ONU can also integrate residential gateway functions, i.e. NAT, L3 functionalities,
Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) connections, as well as security and firewalling features in addition to VoIP or IPTV.
The OLT - the starting point for the passive optical network
This is usually situated at the POP, which is the concentration point of the network. At the POP, the OLT is
connected to the metro network through its Ethernet uplink. It serves as the origination and aggregation
point in PON systems and manages the process of sending and receiving data to and from the end user
terminals.

Bi-directional Operation
• Upstream (Data from ONT to OLT): for example transferring different types of data and
voice traffic from end-user terminals
• Downstream (Data from OLT to ONT): for example getting data, voice, and video traffic
from the metro network, or from a long-haul network, transmitted to all ONT modules on
the ODN
Primary function
• Convert, frame, and transmit signals for the PON network

• Coordinate ONT traffic multiplexing for the shared transmission over the ODN
• Perform bandwidth allocation procedures to smooth delivery of data arriving in bursts from
customers and send this towards its uplink
OLT equipment features
• One or two aggregation control and switch modules

• One or more EPON link modules or PON cards
• One or two power supply units and the required fan units
PON Technologies
• Provide redundancy at the aggregation switch, power unit and uplink ports for improved
network and service reliability
• Understanding protection as redundancy
• Provide capacity to internally multiplex Radio Frequency overlay by incorporating specific

fibre amplifiers
OLTs usually operate at Layer 2 of the OSI protocol and are characterised by features that follow the IEEE
802.1ad and 802.1Q Standards from the Ethernet perspective.
Some OLTs on the market integrate L3 features such as Security and Synchronization over PON, the latter
usually required for mobile traffic backhauling over PON.
To find out more about OLT functionality, please refer to specific OLT vendor websites or generic sites such as:
Globalspec.com
Several types of PON technologies are commonly used. Depending on models and vendors, currently
available OLTs support GEPON, GPON, XG-PON, XGS-PON or NG-PON2.
GEPON (10G EPON)
10G EPON symmetrical supports 10G downstream and upstream, and 10G EPON asymmetrical supports
10G downstream and 1G upstream. This is a cost-effective option for realising very dense networks, with
built-in support for Triple Play, QoS, IPTV and VoiP.
GPON (Gigabit PON)
This is specified as a single and multi-fibre system but most commonly used with single fibre. The standard
offers 2.488 Gbps downstream and 1.244 Gbps upstream.

XG-PON (10G PON)
Based on the ITU-T G.987 standard XG-PON is designed to coexist on the same network as GPON
devices. XG-PON asymmetrical supports 10G downstream and 2.5G upstream.
XGS-PON
Offering 10 Gbps symmetrical, XGS-PON delivers four times the upstream speed of XG-PON technology.
XGS-PON can operate alongside current generation GPON technology.
NG-PON2
NG-PON2 provides 40 Gbps symmetrical – which may be increased to 80 Gbps in the future. NG-PON2
and GPON can share the optical distribution network. A Coexistence Element (CEx) can also be integrated
into the OLT to ease the upgrade to NG-PON2. This is a single device that makes it possible to combine
current GPON FTTH services with XGS-PON and NG-PON2 technologies. To achieve this, it utilises
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
WDM PON (Wavelength Division Multiplexed PON)
This offers 10 Gbps symmetrical and different wavelengths can run using different speeds and protocols.
PON technologies on the horizon

Even higher speeds are currently available (25 GS-PON) or on the horizon (50 GPON). These technologies
will address the bandwidth growth in residential networks, but also support 5G x-Haul scenarios.
25 GS-PON
The 25 GS-PON MSA (multi-source agreement) Group has defined the 25 GS-PON
specification, addressing the gap between 10G XGS-PON and 50G PON in the ITU-T.
25 GS-PON can co-exist on existing PONS with current GPON and XGS-PON technologies
and operates at a nominal line rate of 25 Gbit/s downstream and both 10 and 25 Gbit/s
upstream. 25 GS-PON offers service providers benefits that exceed those of existing NG-
PON technologies and the opportunity to expand the capacity of existing fibre assets.
25gspon-msa.org

50G PON
50G PON offers 50 Gbps downstream transmission rates and 25 Gbps/50 Gbps
upstream transmission rates over a single wavelength. Standards organisations,
operators, and equipment vendors have been putting 50G PON forward as as the next-
generation PON technology standard for several years.
This technology makes it possible to deploy existing fibre-optic infrastructure more

flexibly. Not only significantly increases bandwidth, but also effectively supports
innovative services such as 5G and Cloud VR that have strict requirements on delay and
clock synchronization, as well as network virtualization.
osapublishing.org - Progress of IUT-T
P2P Networks
Ethernet equipment used in P2P network usually comprises a number of Ethernet switches that can be
interconnected according to different topologies as shown below.
Chain topology Star Topology Ring Topology
The choice of topology depends on a variety of factors such as:
• Geography
• Target bandwidth to be provided at subscriber end
• Subscriber density
In the simplest architecture a single Ethernet switch located at the Point of Presence or central office
aggregates end-user lines each with one single dedicated fibre. In most cases though, further aggregation
switches are connected to the switch located at the POP. End user lines are aggregated first by one of the
switches along the path in a star, chain or ring topology.
Fibres entering the POP are terminated in an ODF (See Chapter 6). This flexible fibre management solution
allows subscribers to be connected to any port on the switches in the POP.
In general, the number of fibres/cables between the POP and the fibre flexibility point on the optical
distribution network will be higher than for a P2MP PON network. Usually, the point is located in an
underground enclosure or street cabinet, allowing connection to buildings, and from there to the homes. In
the simplest case, fibres will be connected from the POP to a distribution point in the field.
Switches along the way are active electronic devices that manage the transmission signal. At the customer
side the optical signal is converted to electrical by ONTs that have an Ethernet WAN interface, instead of a
PON interface.

Section 5.4
Customer Premises
Equipment (CPE)
As with the central office, the equipment deployed at the customer premises also depends on the
network architecture.
Home Equipment
Upon entering the customer premises, fibre is terminated at an optical network terminal (ONT). The ONT
connects to customer premise equipment (CPE). The ONT and CPE can be seperate or integrated as
shown below.
CPE combines a broad range of networking capabilities, such as optical network termination (PON or
Ethernet), L3 routing functionalities, wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), Network Address Translation (NAT) as well as
security and firewall. CPE can offer more extended Access Gateway features, and are therefore often
capable of incorporating the features required to support VoIP, IPTV and Quality of Service. They can
further provide multiple interfaces and device access including USB interfaces, telemetry dongles, storage
media and much more.
For deployment of the CPE the service providers can choose between two scenarios:
CPE as the demarcation point at the subscriber.

The CPE becomes an integral part of the service provider’s product range, terminating the incoming line
and delivering services to the subscriber. The service provider owns and maintains the CPE, and thus
controls the end-to- end service delivery, which includes the optical termination (ONT), the integrity of the
transmission as well as delivery of service. The subscriber connects their home network and devices directly
to the LAN interfaces of the CPE.
However, today devices are connected wirelessly to the home network. Since the user’s end-to-end
experience mainly depends on the weakest link in the chain (the wireless connection), it is important for
operators to ensure quality-of-service at the home interface. Therefore, operators have started to deploy
home Wi-Fi mesh networks, and no longer consider the CPE as the ‘demarcation’ point.

Wi-Fi Mesh
A Wi-Fi mesh is created through the connection of wireless access point nodes installed throughout the
network user’s premises. A wireless router can supports multiple Wi-Fi base stations, thus extending
coverage throughout the home. Users’ mobile devices connect to the Wi-Fi mesh network automatically as
they move around the house.
In a Wi-Fi mesh, CPE functionality is distributed across multiple devices. Also, the basic concept of
the presence of a demarcation point has been foregone. Service providers need to provide optimal
connectivity up to the end-user device. This improves experience, and has a net benefit on helpdesk, etc.
This model more closely aligns to the model used by mobile operators.
Network Interface at the ONT as a demarcation point

The service provider provides the ONT and the ONT Ethernet port is the demarcation point at the
subscriber side that connects the home network or service-specific devices (voice adapter, video set-top
box, etc.) to the ONT directly.
P2MP Network CPE
The Optical Network Unit (ONU) located at the subscriber side is available in several versions, including:
• Multi Dwelling Unit (MDU) types suitable for multiple subscribers in building applications
• ONTs that usually refer to a single subscriber termination as defined by ITU-T
Optical Network Units usually convert optical signals transmitted via fibres to electrical signals. In an MDU
scenario, these electrical signals are then sent on to individual subscriber lines in their LAN network. Often,
there is some distance, or another access network, between the ONU and the end user’s premises and
devices. Furthermore, ONUs can send, aggregate, and groom different types of data coming from the
customer side and send them upstream to the OLT.
Grooming is the process that optimises and reorganises the data stream to make delivery more efficient.
OLTs support dynamic bandwidth allocation that enables smooth delivery of data flows to the OLT, as these
usually arrive in bursts from the customer.
Many different types of ONU are available to suit various locations and applications:
• Indoor
• Outdoor
• Business or Enterprise
• Residential for single termination or MDU applications

Depending on the application, the ONU can do more than provide optical termination. It may also
provide Ethernet connections, copper connections (for example with G.fast or VDSL2 technology),
coaxial connections, and additional integrated services for the home network, such as analogue phone
connections (POTS/ISDN), Wi-Fi and Radio Frequency (RF) for video overlay.
P2P Networks CPE
Ethernet switches in the access

Ethernet switches originally connected two or more Ethernet LANs. This occurs at the MAC layer, Layer 2 of
the 7-layer OSI protocol model. There are two important features to consider:
• Not all traffic on either end is transported — only traffic destined for the ‘other’
LAN network.
• Collisions (and collision detection signals) are not transported; each side is its own
Layer-1 LAN.
The evolution of Ethernet technology over time allowed switches to aggregate and transport Ethernet
traffic at high speeds over long distances in full-duplex, P2P networks. This has led to the technology
becoming Carrier Grade, so it can be used in the access and aggregation networks (and even in more
extended networks that are out of scope of this Handbook.)
Recognising the need for Ethernet in access networks, an IEEE 802.3ah Ethernet in the First Mile (EFM)
Working Group was established in 2001. As well as developing standards for Ethernet over copper and
EPON, the Group created two standards for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet over fibre.
The EFM standard was approved and published in 2004 and included in the basic IEEE 802.3 standard in
2005. To separate the directions on the same fibre, wavelength-division multiplexing is employed.
Two transceiver specifications are defined for each of the defined bit-rate classes (upstreams/downsteams).
EFM also addresses other issues, required for mass deployment of Ethernet services, such as operations
and management, and compatibility with existing technologies (for example plain old telephone service
spectral compatibility for copper twisted pair).
Besides aggregation and transport, switches allow the limiting of actual delivered bandwidth as required to
embed policing and shaping functionalities and allow end-to-end bandwidth control.
Ethernet switches in the access and aggregation network usually operate at Layer 2 of the OSI protocol
(see below) and are characterised by features that follow the IEEE 802.1ad and 802.1Q Standards. The
switching capacity is a fundamental characteristic for evaluating speed and latency between the entry and
exit ports of the switch and the network element impact on the end-to-end traffic flows. Furthermore, many
switches on the market integrate L3 features such as Security and Synchronisation over Ethernet features,
the latter usually required for mobile traffic backhauling use cases.

CPE - Management and Interoperability
CPE devices can either be drop-shipped to the subscribers for
self-installation or distributed through retail channels. To help
address concerns related to home and device management,
the Broadband Forum (previously called DSL Forum) developed
TR-069, CPE WAN Management Protocol (CWMP), as a remote
management platform for service providers to be able to
automatically recognise, remotely provision and maintain the
variety of customers’ devices over their lifecycles. In order to
assure consistency and adherence to the protocol, the BBF.069
CPE certification program is also now available. For further
information on this topic the Broadband Forum Organization
website can be consulted at https://www.broadband-forum.org/
projects/connected-home.

Section 5.5
Fibre Extension Options
Fibre is not an upgrade option in every single case. There have always been scenarios in which urban
fibre trenching is prohibited by municipal regulations. In some cases, obtaining the necessary installation
permits is so costly that a business case for doing so cannot be made. In more rural scenarios, meanwhile,
population density may be so low that the Return On Investment on fibre may take too long to make
providing coverage worthwhile. In other scenarios, man-made or natural obstructions may block intended
fibre routes, preventing the installation - regardless of cost.
To overcome fibre deployment challenges such as those described above (mainly construction restrictions,
population density, terrain or cost issues) a number of next generation fibre extension technologies that
allow faster broadband service rollouts are available on the market.
This section deals with technologies and solutions that can help operators reach the bandwidth targets set
by governments and regulators and offer competitive services to their subscribers.
FTTDP Equipment (G.fast)
Short distances and advanced technologies are key to being able to provide services that approach
Gbps bandwidth, using existing home, apartment building and other infrastructure wiring. One of those
advanced technologies is G.fast. This relies on a fibre connection to a neighbourhood Distribution point
(Dp) and uses copper or coaxial wiring from the drop point to the customer premise. It aims to offer speeds
approaching those of FTTH up to 1 Gbps and beyond.
G.fast allows fibre performance at the cost of a simple DSL installation. It fosters OPEX / CAPEX savings by:
• Delivering data at fibre speed to subscribers using telephony copper wires or coaxial cabes
• Allowing subscriber self-installation
• Avoiding costs related to bringing the fibre infrastructure inside the subscriber’s house
• Enabling the Distribution Point Unit (DPU) to be powered from the subscriber side (Reverse
Power Feeding) if desired

As they need to be in close proximity to subscriber premises, DPUs are installed in a variety of non-
traditional locations:
• Attached to external walls of buildings

• In the basement of apartment buildings or at the level of the apartment floors
• On telephone poles
• Under manhole covers
• In pedestals
However, in many of these locations, access to power is difficult and/or expensive. Reverse power feeding
(RPF) addresses this difficulty. RPF (standardised by ETSI) draws power from the active subscriber premise
equipment, over the same copper pair used for data service and was standardised by ETSI.
The benefits of RPF:
• Flexibility of choice at the installation site (no need to worry about power supply presence)
• AC source proximity or safe location for AC not necessary
• Installation by electrical company not necessary
• Batteries at DPU made superfluous
• Cost advantage in case of low port count MDUs
• Costs relating to Smart Meter Installation avoided
• OPEX reduction as maintaining aging long copper wires is avoided
• PON Budget optimisation (eliminating optical splitters and extending optical cable reach
when installing DPUs at the drop point)
In general, the reference scenario for G.fast solution use cases can be described as in the picture below:
A typical G.fast topology
DPU models with single or multiple ports are available on the market. Choice depends on the target use
case, needs, and subscriber density of the area to be covered by the Service Provider using this technology.
G.fast (Standardised by ITU-T G.9701/3), as opposed to other forms of DSL, uses TDD (Time-division
duplexing) with a flexible Downstream/Upstream rate ratio. Furthermore, its powerful vectoring mechanism
and low power spectral density allows for a very reliable technology to address the last few hundred metres
and uses the frequency spectrum up to 212Mhz (Amendment 3 of the ITU-T Standard).
TU-T Q4/15 has introduced enhancements. MGfast (G.9711) has been consented in April 2021. MGfast
technology provides aggregate bit rates of up to 8 Gb/s (Full Duplex (FDX)) or 4 Gb/s TDD. Multi-gigabit
per second access to the customer premises is achieved by substantial expansion of frequency spectrum,
advanced coding, and use of full-duplex transmission. In addition, MGfast can provide sub-millisecond
latency, enhanced support of multiple quality of service grades, and point-to-multipoint operation.

Fixed Wireless Access and FWA 5G network equipment
Until recently, there was no ultra-high bandwidth alternative to fibre. With the advent of 5G, high data
rate Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) has emerged to fill the Gigabit broadband need when fibre is not an
option. 5G FWA is based on mmWave spectrum that falls roughly into the 26GHz–30GHz frequency
range, corresponding to wavelengths that span from 1 mm to 10 mm (thus, the spectrum name). mmWave
technology is an essential component of 5G because this spectrum is uniquely capable of delivering the
multi-gigabit data rates that 5G promises.
While midband spectrum provides (typically between 1 GHz and 6 GHz) range (and is therefore suitable for
providing coverage in suburban/rural areas), high band provides capacity (and is therefore suitable for high
band (mmWave) true fibre extension in dense urban areas).
Midband spectrum provides coverage enhancements due to the extended range. Higher spectrum can
provide a true fibre extension in dense urban areas, where range is less important.
The majority of mmWave attention focuses on licensed spectrum bands that offer dedicated operator use
but at a very high cost for broad national coverage. In contrast to licensed spectrum, unlicensed spectrum
is available for use free of licensing fees. Unlicensed spectrum is not reserved for any specific user, thus
allowing shared use. Within the mmWave bands, the 57 GHz–71 GHz spectrum range is unlicensed and
requires no government license for operator deployment. This unlicensed spectrum lies in the IEEE V-band
range and is commonly called 60 GHz.
ieeexplore.ieee.org
FWA is used by Service Providers today for various applications. These range from residential Broadband
services, to enterprise and business services to small cell backhauling, which includes 5G backhaul,
but could also include 4G, CCTV feeds (for security and surveillance), and whatever other traffic needs
backhauling G.fast DPUs themselves.
FWA for residential broadband

Various models of FWA solutions are available on the market, with different supported frequency spectra.
A range of network topologies such as Point-to-point, Point-to-multipoint or Multipoint-to-multipoint Mesh
can be adapted to meet the Service Provider’s needs.
RFoG (Radio Frequency over Glass)

One of the main challenges cable operators face in converting their access networks to fibre is the need
to minimise upgrade cost and complexity by maintaining their existing headed and customer premises
equipment.
When deploying fibre-based access networks, one approach used to preserve the usability of the headend
and customer premise equipment is to employ a technology called Radio Frequency over Glass (RFoG).
RFoG is a fibre-deep network design in which the coaxial portion of an HFC (Hybrid Fibre Coaxial) network
is replaced by a PON architecture. RFoG eliminates the need for HFC nodes, RF amplifiers, and taps and
passives in the network, while utilising the existing cable head-end and subscriber equipment (modems,
gateways and set top boxes) and back-office support systems. In this model, the RF signals generated by
the headend and customer premises equipment are converted at the customer premises and headend to
the optical domain for transmission over fibre. The conversion at the customer premises is done by a FoG
micronode.
An RFoG network is capable of seamlessly delivering functionality and services to subscribers in a manner
that is comparable to current HFC systems as is shown in the comparison picture here below:
RFoG network providing functionality similar to that of an HFC network

Chapter 6
Fibre
Management
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Connectivity Basics
6.3 Optical Distribution Frames
6.4 Cable Management and Routing Within the ODF
Section 6.1
Introduction
This chapter is of particular interest to network planners and engineers working with high-density fibre
management systems (FMS) in the central office and outside plant environments. The reason for dedicating
a complete chapter to this topic is because a ‘properly implemented’ FMS has a direct influence on an
operator’s ability to build FTTH networks that are reliable, agile and financially viable.
This chapter introduces the basics of connecting fibres and the requirements of effective connectivity. We
also take a closer look at Optical Distribution Frames, components, access, installation and more. The latter
part of the chapter looks at hardware components, splicing, cable management, and routing.
Throughout this chapter, we highlight some of the challenges facing operators when they deploy high
density fibre networks. At the same time, the chapter aims to provide some guidance on how to avoid
certain pitfalls during the roll-out process. We will take a deep look at the different hardware types that
have evolved in this area. Furthermore, we aim to provide some practical advice as to how such hardware
can be deployed. Of course, every environment and application is slightly different so be advised that each
scenario should be assessed on its own merits.
Fibre management has become an increasingly important topic for network owners. Not only because
it represents an area of the network with a high concentration of fibre optic connectivity, but it is also an
area where there is a frequent human interaction. Humans are progressively becoming the highest single
contributor to rising operational costs and network downtime. Everyone makes mistakes, but when you
consider that we also produce contaminants that affect the performance of fibre connectors, you have a
potential cost-adder that can easily escalate out of control.

Section 6.2
Connectivity Basics
Fibre management is the broad term used to describe how fibres are connected and managed at strategic
points across the network. Currently there are two main methods for connecting fibres in the central office
and outside plant areas of the network: ‘direct splicing’ and ‘pigtail splicing’.
Direct Splicing
Two fibre ends are joined by means of a fused connection. This fused connection, though fast, compact
and precise has significant limitations in situations where regular moves, adds and changes (MACs) need to
be made over the lifecycle of the network.
Image provided by R&M
Pigtail Splicing
The limitations of direct splicing as described above have resulted in pigtail splicing becoming the standard
for flexible and reliable connections. This utilises the same fusion method as direct splicing except that
a factory-assembled connector is added to the end of the fibre. This connector introduces a flexible
access point into the network allowing technicians to make changes to the network with standard factory-
assembled patch cords and multi-fibre assemblies such as harnesses or breakout cables. It can also be used
for testing and troubleshooting.

Optical Fibre Connectors
The use of connectors that mechanically couple and align fibre cores to terminate the end of an optical
fibre is faster than splicing. Operators need to think carefully about where they want connectivity to be
placed across the network. Even though connectors offer huge advantages in terms of flexibility and
scalability, they incur higher up-front costs and challenges in terms of serviceability and maintenance. They
also introduce additional optical loss, so should be deployed only where necessary.
Fibre optic connectors require a highly precise mating of the internal cores. Any dirt or debris that finds its
way onto the surface of the fibre core can have a detrimental impact on the optical performance of the link.
Connector cleaning equipment and strict standardisation processes have helped to mitigate this problem
but despite best efforts, field connectivity still poses significant challenges for FTTH network operators.
See Appendix 1 (Section A1.2)
Patch Cords
Patch cords are the most common cable assembly for connecting ODF ports to OLT ports or splitter ports. The patch
cord has a connector on each end and is described as a ‘simplex’ patch cord because it contains a single fibre. FTTH
transmission is made over a single fibre whereas data centre or LAN networks often use two fibres or ‘duplex’ patch
cords for transmit and receive over the same cord.
Patch cords range in diameter from 3mm down to 1.2mm in diameter. The smaller diameter patch cords have been
designed for ultra- high-density applications where there is a need to reduce cable bulk in front of the ODF sub-rack.
Patch cords inside the building are commonly Low Smoke Zero Halogen. They often contain ‘bend-insensitive fibre’ to
facilitate enhanced performance under tight bending conditions.
The connectors of Patch cords to active equipment are generally UPC

Ultra Physical Contact (Blue). All other connections are Angle Physical
Contact or APC (Green). Patch cords can be supplied in any length but
are commonly only used for shorter connections up to 15m. For longer
connections it may be deemed more practical to use a multi-fibre
assembly. LC patch cords are often supplied with a pulling tab fitted to
the shroud to be disconnected from the patch panel without the need
to depress the connector latch.
Patch cord harnesses

Sometimes it is effective to bundle a number of patch cords together to make a multi-fibre patch cord assembly. The
over-sleeving material could be an expansion sleeve that shrinks down over the cords when applied. Such assemblies
are practical in applications where the patch cords need to be presented perfectly to the front of a panel or active
equipment without any excess cable length to manage. For example, such an assembly might be used for connecting
to OLT ports where each connection needs to be accurately managed.
The benefit of over-sleeving patch cords instead of using a breakout cable (as described below) is that there is a
possibility to remove a patch cord later should it get damaged. This is not possible with factory assembled multi-fibre
cable assemblies because failure of a single fibre will mean complete removal and replacement of the entire cable.

Breakout cables
Breakout cables are constructed from multiple patch cords, over-sleeved with aramid yarn and then an outer jacket.
They were developed to reduce the amount of time it took to install multiple patch cords between the same two
points. Also called Intra Facility Cables - (IFC) they are normally made with 8, 12, 16 or 24 fibres per cable. They are
very effective if the distance between the two connection points is quite long. If the ODF is in a large building and the
distances between racks are 10m or more, a breakout cable may be a better option than patch cords. Generally, the
cable will be provided with the outer jacket removed at each end in order to expose the individual patch cords inside.
This jacket removal point could be anywhere but it depends on the design of the rack solution and how much flexibility
is required in order to patch any one of these individual tails to the respective ports. An ODF rack system can be as
high as 2.2m. This means that the length of any cable may need to
be as long as 2-3m to connect to any of the ports (subject to the
mounting position of the cables). One major advantage of breakout
cables compared with other multi-fibre assemblies is the inclusion
of a rip-cord in the cable that allows the length of jacket removal
to be adapted on site if necessary. This could be a useful feature in
circumstances where more flexibility is required to reach additional
ports in the ODF.
Furcated Harnesses
Breakout cables are more space efficient than patch cords but the overall cable diameter is still larger than some of
the high fibre count cables on the market today. A furcated harness cable assembly makes use of the smallest possible
fibre cable. It then furcates the fibres at each end by means of a cable divider or furcation system. The individual fibres
will be re-sleeved with a jacket at the end of the assembly so that the main length of cable can remain as compact as
possible. A furcated harness cable with 24 fibres could be as small as 3-4mm in diameter whereas a breakout could
have a diameter of 12-15mm. Furcated harnesses cannot be adjusted in the field - the tail length at the end of the
assembly is determined in the factory.
This limitation means that tail lengths need to be carefully planned to match the equipment to which they are
connecting. Furcated harness assemblies are particularly useful for connecting to OLT active equipment because
they are compact and made-to-measure. In addition they have some kind of fixing feature designed into the housing
that allows fast and simple fixation of the assembly to the hardware.
The furcated divider system also provides a convenient location for
a protective sleeve to be fitted over the fibre tails in the factory. This
protection sleeve provides protection during installation but it also
provides a means of pulling the cable through cable trunking systems.
Breakout cables are typically used for short lengths , furcated harnesses
are often used for cost reasons when lengths are longer. It is important
to determine the tipping point.
Splitter integration into a cable assembly

Sometimes it makes sense to integrate the splitter directly into the fibre assembly connecting the OLT
to the Splitter rack or ODF. Subsequently this technique has led to hybrid assemblies that combine a
furcation at one end of the assembly (to connect to the OLT) and a hybrid splitter solution at the other end
of the assembly. This hybrid end could be a module, a panel or indeed another furcation with the splitter
connected in an in-line method).

Connection requirements
First, we will take a look at some of the top-level requirements that the system has to satisfy in order to
make it functional and cost-effective.
Easy to deploy and service

This sounds obvious, however tTtrue in cases where available service technicians have varying degrees of
competence, capability or conscientiousness. Network owners should regularly perform a ‘risk analysis’
to determine ‘what could possibly go wrong’ in a particular area of the network or during all standard
procedures. Simplicity not only prevents mistakes, but also speeds up the process of performing Moves,
Adds and Changes (MACs).
Open rack design

This is only applicable to racks located within a building, however the more accessible a product is the
simpler it is to use. Wherever possible, the system needs to be clearly accessible so that cable and sub-
racks can be installed, serviced and removed with minimum disruption to other live circuits. Bend radius
for fibre in splice casettes and bend radius for patch cable routing should be taken into account.
Accessibility
Connectivity should be accessible without a high degree of manipulation of the fibre distribution
panel or connected cable systems. Over-engineered fibre management systems can result in complex
or counter-intuitive user interaction that may lead to hardware breakages or fibre damage. Hardware
designers and network owners need to assess fibre management systems in the context of their readily
available installer resource pool. If technicians have a high degree of competence and experience, a
more complex fibre management system may be considered. Network operators that utilise their own
team of installers are more likely to take advantage of more complex fibre management systems. More
detail about various fibre management systems is presented later in this chapter.
Single-Circuit and Multi-Circuit Fibre

Management Systems
‘Single-circuit’ refers to an important category of fibre management systems that evolved to simplify
management of subscriber connections within the FTTH market. A key challenge facing operators building
a FTTH network is managing individual fibres from subscribers in such a way that the connection (fusion
splice or pigtail) is easily routed, managed and identified without disrupting other subscribers connected to
the same distribution cable. Prior to ‘single-circuit’ fibre management, multiple subscribers would be fusion-
spliced to one single splice cassette. These cassettes would have a capacity of 12 or 24 fibres. One high
fibre-count cable would enter and multiple individual fibre cables would exit.
This approach brought a number of challenges. ‘Multi-circuit’ cassettes were originally designed for splicing
two loose-tubes with, for example, 12 or 24 fibres per tube. They were not really designed to manage large
numbers of smaller single fibre cables coming from subscribers’ homes. In addition, the multi-circuit cassette
lacks flexibility in terms of being able to connect distribution cables to any number of subscribers.

The definition of ‘single-circuit fibre management’ has become slightly blurred in recent years. When the
term was first used it referred to a single splice cassette that would contain the fibre connection from only
one subscriber. These splice cassettes would be fixed to a fibre routing element, like pages in a book. The
installer could flip through these splice cassettes in order to quickly access the connections of a particular
subscriber. These days however, single-circuit splice cassettes are less common because operators need
to maximise density across the network. It is not always viable to have just one customer occupying the
footprint of one complete splice cassette. For this reason, we are seeing the emergence of ‘multi-circuit’
splice cassettes that use the same convenient flip-mechanism but have 12 or 24 customers connected
inside.
The primary benefit of the flip-type splice cassette is the ability to route fibres to any of the splice cassettes
in the stack. The fibre routing channel creates pathways at the side of the splice cassettes, where fibres
can be guided before they enter the splice cassette. This pathway allows the installer to choose any
splice cassette from the complete stack to make the connection. Such flexibility has become increasingly
important for operators, because the number of subscribers in a given geographical area is not always
known when the fibre management system is installed. For example, 72-fibre cable may enter a cabinet,
but only 48 subscribers are available in an area. In this case the 48 fibres will be spliced inside cassettes
and the remaining 24 fibres will be routed further down the network to feed another cabinet. Installers
can manage this easily with the routing channel and flip-cassette system because they can easily separate
the fibres they need and re-route the others back down the network. In this ‘uncut cable’ approach, only
the fibres that will be connected to subscribers are cut and terminated. Fibres required to continue further
down the network remain uncut and just continue onto the next location. Special fibre routing elements
can be added to the flip-splice cassette system so that the uncut fibres are effectively coiled and managed
without risk of damage or disruption to adjacent circuits.
Operators need to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of ‘single-circuit’ and ‘multi-circuit’ and
decide whether to use conventional splice cassettes or ‘flip-type’ cassettes. Flip-splice cassettes can take
longer to install, especially when it comes to routing the fibres inside the routing channel. The benefit,
however, is a higher degree of flexibility and improved traceability when the system is complete.
Image provided by R&M
Patch Cable Routing and Labeling

It is important to provide dedicated management and clear routing paths for patch cables. Some operators
claim that 75% of the cost of repairing a damaged link is generated by poor labeling and traceability. High
density fibre management systems contain between 2000 and 3000 fibre connections per rack/frame. It
simply takes too long to identify individual cables amongst all of the cables within the complete system.
If these fibre connections are not properly labeled or identified, the installer may waste a lot of time and
effort tracing connections.

This principle also applies to fibre panels and of course their respective ports. Panels should be sequentially
and logically numbered within the rack. Ports within the panel should have a clear and logical numbering
scheme. Operators often have their own unique management system for identifying elements within the
optical link but a good principle is to follow a top-down approach:
1. Region
2. District
3. Building number
4. Rack number
5. Position in the rack of the panel
6. Port number
Following a scheme like the one above will not only allow clearer labeling of hardware., it will also work
well with dedicated infrastructure management software often deployed by network owners to map all
connections across the network.
Balancing ‘ease of use’ with ‘cost per port’

Simplicity is a good thing of course, but simplification can lead to a product with less functionality or less
density than some of the more engineered fibre management systems. Ultimately operators want to fit
the highest number of connections in the smallest possible space. The reason for this is to lower the ‘cost
per port’ and ultimately the total cost in connecting a new subscriber. Every new instance of a building,
rack or panel has a high incremental cost if that element is not being fully utilised. An optical distribution
frame that is only 50% populated with panels and cables means that the average cost per port has risen
dramatically.
Cost per Port

Often the cost per port is calculated by adding all passive optical elements together and then dividing
them by the number of ports they provide.
Rack Cost + Fibre Panel Cost + Patch cord costs to OLT = Total ODF cost
Total ODF cost / total number of ODF ports = Cost per port
In the example above we are looking just at the cost of the optical distribution system and associated cabling.
Operators may expand this calculation further to include all cost adders that contribute to the overall cost per
subscriber such as OLT costs or transceiver costs for example.
This trend towards using a ‘cost per port’ calculation to understand the real costs of an ODF has driven the need for
hardware providers to fit more fibres into the same panel space. In the last decade alone we have seen a progression
from 72 ports per 1U of rack space, to 96 fibres per 1U of rack space and beyond. This densification process does not
have an incremental inflation of the port cost because most of the hardware costs are the same irrespective of density.
The main concern with high-density systems is how this densification is going to compromise the installation and
serviceability of the fibre ports during the operational life of the network.

Automated ODF solutions
It is not surprising that we are starting to see the emergence of solutions that have the potential to reduce
the impact of humans on the network.
For the time being though, we are faced with the difficult challenge of designing, implementing and
servicing high density FMS that rely on human interaction. With this in mind, network operators need to
be very mindful of the challenges involved in successfully implementing high density FMS so that both
functionality and human serviceability costs are mutually considered. In simple terms, operators need to
look at the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of the system to make sure that it remains cost-effective over the
complete lifecycle of the network.
We are still on the fringe of automated fibre management, however operators need to research and
evaluate this technology for the future where we will see even greater fibre density as a result of 5G
deployment and associated applications.
Robots are now readily available that physically pick up and move connections or that reflect the light from
fibres in such a way that no movement of the fibre is required - or MEM. Inevitably this intricate technology
comes at a cost. At the time of writing this chapter we have still not reached a cost model that warrants
widespread deployment across the complete FTTH network.

Section 6.3
Optical Distribution
Frames
The Optical Distribution Frame (ODF) is a key part of the network, providing the flexibility needed to
support current and future transmission requirements. An ODF is a dedicated enclosure designed to
manage the high number of fibre optic connections between transmission equipment and outdoor cables
in the central office (CO) or Point of Presence (POP) locations of a FTTH network. In a Point-to-point (P2P)
topology, the ODF will match the active connections one-to-one. However in a PON or Point-to-multipoint
topology (PON/P2MP) it is common for signals to be split multiple times before connecting to the ODF.
Complete ODF solutions manage thousands of connections but they are often constructed from many
smaller or lower density chassis, panels or sub-racks. This modular construction allows operators to adjust
the capacity of the ODF depending on the quantity and take-up rate of their subscribers. For example, an
ODF with a total density of 3,840 subscribers could be constructed using 40 panels each with a density
of 96 fibres. The total density of the ODF and the degree of modularity will depend on the individual
manufacturer, the type of sub-rack element, and the type of connector preferred by the operator. In this
section we will look at some of the most common types of ODF and sub-rack.
Cabling methods between the transmission equipment and the ODF vary depending on user preference
however outdoor cables entering the ODF are generally fusion spliced to pigtails that are pre-installed
inside sub-racks or panels. Indoor cables will be used to connect the ODF to the Active Rack and these
will normally be guided through some kind of fibre trunking system or channel. With modern racks,
these guiding systems are often an integrated part of the rack. Other systems route the cables above or
below the racks. Such fibre-optic trunking is known as ‘ducting’ or ‘raceway’ and it can be produced from
dedicated moulded plastic parts or formed metallic elements. More on the topic of cable management
later in this chapter.
Fibre-optic panel
Note to the reader: when we discuss ODFs for the purpose of this document, we are referring to the
complete high-density rack or frame for cross-connect or interconnect use. We are not describing an ODF
as an individual sub-rack or panel. In this document the term ‘frame’ is used. However, note that `rack’ or
‘cabinet’ are often used to describe the same thing. The term sub-rack has also been used where ’panel’ or
‘chassis’ would also equally apply in many cases.

ODF Overview
In the following section we will look at the different elements that make up the complete mechanical
construction of an ODF. It is important to understand the function of each of these elements so that the
overall system can be optimised for maximum performance.
Overview of ODF and its key features
ODF Frame
The ODF Frame is the mechanical structure that houses all of the sub-racks and components that make
up the complete solution. The frame itself can be constructed as a box with 4 upright posts, a top and
a bottom. However many users have found that a 2-post construction offers more benefits in terms of
improving access to cables and sub-racks inside the ODF. This is really what makes a ‘frame’ or ‘rack’
different from a standard ‘cabinet’ used for housing electronic equipment.
ODF frames are often supplied empty (no sub-racks fitted) so that they are easier to transport and
manoeuvre in the field. This empty configuration also allows operators to add connectivity as and when
they need it.
ODF frames can also be supplied flat-packed so that they are easier to transport and carry to ‘hard to
reach’ locations such as basements or upper floors in a building.
Most ODF frames are supplied with vertical fixing rails that allow sub-racks and panels to be fitted later.
These fixing rails are generally constructed using 19” or 21” spacing, although some vendors deviate from
the industry standard to match their own specific sub-racks and panels. Vertical rails can either be rear, mid
or front mounted depending on the particular design and sub-rack preference.
ODF Rear Panel

The ODF rear panel is an optional accessory that may or may not be required depending on the frame
construction or particular application. If the ODF is mounted against a wall, the rear panel only offers
aesthetic benefits and some structural stability. If the ODF is placed in the middle of a room then the
decision to use a rear panel becomes more relevant. If the sub-racks being deployed inside the ODF require
rear access to the cables then clearly the ODF should not have a fixed rear panel. A growing number of
ODF systems described as ‘front-access’ require no access to the rear of the frame because all cables are
accessible from the front. In such cases, the following considerations should be taken into account.

ODF placed in the middle of the room
If the ODF is placed in the middle of the room and it is empty, it will be possible to see through the
frame. This can be considered displeasing aesthetically but can also raise security challenges allowing
unauthorised persons to gain access to the internal elements of the ODF. In such cases a rear panel should
be considered.
Multiple ODFs placed in the middle of the room and

back to back
If the sub-rack system is a ‘front-access’ type that requires no rear access to cables, it may be preferable to
mount the ODFs back to back in the middle of the room. In such cases the decision to add a rear panel will
depend on whether cables need to be routed from one rack to another. If such cable routing is required
the rear panel will be an obstacle. To overcome this problem while still offering some degree of security,
rear panels can be deployed that are modular in design. A modular rear panel can close off the area that
needs to be closed (behind sub-racks), while remaining open in the areas where cables need to pass from
one rack to another. Such rear panel designs can be adapted in the field so that the user can choose which
parts of the ODF are closed and which parts are left open. Generally the extreme lower or upper area of
the ODF should be left open and an opening of between 4U (177.8mm) and 6U (266.7mm) should be
considered. This space can also be used to horizontally guide patch cords between racks.
ODF Side Panels

ODF side panels, also seen as optional accessories, require careful consideration. If the ODF is a
stand-alone frame and all cables enter and exit the frame from the top or bottom it is fairly common to
incorporate side panels. However, in some cases it is necessary to mount multiple ODFs side by side in a
‘suite-line’ configuration. In such cases it may be necessary to fit side panels only to the outer racks within
the suite-line but remove the side panels from all of the inner racks. This will create a contained unit but
also allow cables to be guided from one rack to another without obstruction. Sometimes a cable-guiding
channel is created inside the ODFs so cables can be routed horizontally without the need for special
ancillary trunking or cable trays above or below the frames. Side panels should be easy to remove from
the front side of the ODF without special tools or fixings. Side panels with sprung hinge pins are preferred
because they allow fast and simple insertion and removal of the panel when working in front of the ODF.
ODF Doors
Front doors offer additional security to the ODF and also improve the aesthetics of an installation. However,
in secure environments, it is common to deploy ODF systems without doors. ODF doors will normally have
a stepped profile design to maximise stability and space inside the frame. Doors often incorporate sprung
hingepins so they can be added and removed quickly and easily. There are many locking options available
such as keys, combination locks or even swipe cards. It is generally recommended to use a standard
key lock arrangement to avoid unnecessary complications with access control later. Front doors can add
unnecessary cost to the overall system and create unforeseen issues if their management is not properly
implemented.
The following door designs are considered suitable for ODFs.
Solid steel doors – a highly secure and cost-effective solution.
Plastic doors – shatter-proof transparent door made from suitable sheet plastic material. These are a good
alternative to glass doors, which are generally too heavy for ODFs - especially if the ODF is only 300mm in
depth. When opened they can cause the rack to tip over if not properly secured.
Mesh doors – can create a seamless look and feel between the ODF and active equipment racks. Mesh
doors can introduce contaminated air inside the rack if not properly sealed from the inside. If the rack is
in close proximity to active equipment or air conditioning systems where air is being exhausted then it is
advisable to seal the rack with a solid door.
ODF Upper and Lower Plinth/Frame
The upper and lower plinths/frames of an ODF provide the stability and mechanical structure of the rack.
They also provide the aperture through which cables enter and exit the rack. It is important therefore to
ensure that the aperture is as large as possible to accommodate the large number of cables or microducts
that may enter or exit the frame. The upper and lower plinth/frame often share the same design and
construction to reduce the number of discrete components. The plinth should also have adjustable feet so
the rack can be levelled before it is permanently fixed to the floor.
ODF Vertical Fixing Rails/Posts

The internal sub-racks of the ODF need to be fixed to some kind of vertical fixing rail inside of the ODF.
Sometimes these fixing rails are an integral part of the frame structure but often they are separate rails that
are independently fixed to the ODF by means of fixings or brackets. The rails can be mounted in three
common positions as defined below:
Rear mounted rails

Front-access sub-racks are generally mounted on rails fixed at the rear of the ODF. This is done to
maximise the available space in front of the rails for cable entry to the sub-rack, eliminate cable feeding,
and improve general handling space. Rear-mounted rails may require sufficient space behind them for
access to any fasteners.
Front-mounted rails
Front-mounted rails are not common in custom-made ODFs, however some 600mm deep ODFs may
utilise front-mounted rails so that standard sub-racks can be installed.
Mid-mounted rails
This type of rail position is quite common because it allows standard front mounted sub-racks and panels
to be mounted but with an increased space in the rail for cable management. In a 300mm deep rack
there is very little space in front of front of the rail for guiding patch cords away from the sub-rack and
into the vertical routing areas of the rack. The mid-mounted rail often allows a change in direction for the
patch cords, which is required in order to route the cables downwards or upwards inside the rack.
ODF Standard Sizes

There is no hard and fast rule for ODF sizes. Hardware vendors can choose whether to follow an industry
standard or make something non-standard according to their own unique hardware compatibility. Generally
it is recommended to lean towards a standard to make planning and integration easier for the operator
over the lifecycle of the network.
ODF height
When building a FTTH network, it may be necessary to utilise older buildings where the ceiling height
is lower than in modern greenfield sites. This might require deployment of ODFs with a lower overall
height, for example to provide sufficient space for managing cables above the ODF. Hardware vendors
should be able to provide ODFs in the following height variants for this purpose:
• 1800mm overall height = 37U/38U (subject to ODF construction)


The most common and consistent measurement unit for ODFs is the U-Height
increment of 44.45mm. ODFs are specified according to how many units can be
fitted inside of them. For example an ODF of size 47U will have an internal fixing
space of 47 x 44.45mm or 2089.15mm. This is the internal space only, and the
overall dimensions of the outer frame will be
greater than this depending on the construction
and design of the plinth and upper frame. This is
the most common height of an ODF in Europe.
ODF width and depth

As stated previously, there are no hard and fast rules for ODF sizes.
However in recent years there has been a trend towards ODFs being
constructed in 300mm width increments. This measurement unit was
established for the following reasons:
The European Telecommunication Standard Institute (ETSI)
The ETSI standard defines racks being constructed from 300mm

increments. This applies to the width of the rack and as well as the
depth. ODFs wider than the original standard of 600mm are common.
They will be 900mm, 1200mm or even 1500mm wide depending on
the particular configuration. However, there is generally no need to
have an ODF that is more than 600mm deep. Such ODFs will enhance
cable fixation and patch cord management.
When designing an ODF system, one should consider a width of 600mm for managing the sub-racks and
then 300mm for each additional cable fixation/management function required. For example if the ODF is
required to manage many incoming microducts as well as patch cord slack management then a suitable
width calculation might be 300mm + 600mm + 300mm = 1200mm overall. These measurements are only
a guide. It is important to note that the design and density of the sub-rack can have a big influence on
the overall size of the rack. Additionally one should focus on density but at the same time ensure that
there is enough space in the rack for installers to work comfortably. A balance needs to be struck between
fibre capacity and the ability to work on the system quickly and
effectively. When designing a rack wider than say 900mm, ensure
that it is modular so that it is easier to transport, carry and install
in the field. A 1200mm wide rack, for example, might be better
as a combination of 300mm, 600mm and 300mm racks rather
than one large unit.

The evolution of smaller front-access sub-racks
In order to improve the accessibility to cables and connectivity on sub-racks, hardware vendors developed
‘reduced-depth’ sub-racks that manage all of the incoming and out-going cables from the front side of the
ODF only. This in turn led to an unwritten standard of 300mm as a maximum depth for all such sub-racks
so that these sub-racks could be mounted inside an ODF with only 300mm depth. In reality the actual
depth of the sub-rack needs to be less than 300mm because in a standard ODF a certain amount of space
is required for fixing rails and door furniture in front of the sub-rack. A depth of 270mm for sub-racks is a
good guide for such installations.
Standard floor tile dimensions

Raised computer floors have a standard dimension of 600mm x 600mm. As ODF design evolved, it was
deemed preferable that the ODF fit inside this 600mm footprint. As ODFs became smaller it was common
for operators to place two separate racks on a single 600mm floor tile. The reason for fitting exactly to the
floor tile is that any overlapping of the rack to the tile can make it impossible to remove the surrounding
floor tiles. This in turn makes accessing the cables underneath the ODF more difficult and time-consuming.
Discrete wall mounting

It is a very convenient and an efficient use of building space to position front-access ODFs against outer
walls. This is especially evident in small POP containers where the internal space is at an absolute minimum.
The compact 300mm depth of the ODF essentially makes the ODF discrete and not dissimilar to a wall-
mounted cabinet in terms of its impact inside the room.
Materials and Construction

ODF frames or racks can be made from a range of robust materials. However there are some considerations:
Steel welded construction

These types of rack can offer the most cost effective construction but
lack some flexibility. It is not possible to flat-pack the system or quickly
make changes to the rack. It is also difficult to fix ancillary items such as
cable managers or cable fixation brackets because they need to be pre-
defined in the factory. Steel welded racks do not facilitate of modularity
for the manufacturer or user.
Steel bolted construction

A good compromise is to use standard welded parts with modular and
scalable features. This construction offers the ability to flat-pack the rack
to some degree and is probably the most common construction method.
Often the vertical rails will be separated from the upper and lower frames
so that the complete rack is more modular and convenient to handle.

Aluminium extruded
Aluminium profiles are strong and lightweight, provide a very ‘high-end’ finish, and offer flexibility in terms
of mounting additional hardware along the extruded length. Often, the extruded section will have a slot
inside that will accept a moveable sprung fastener. Aluminium racks also provide for the possibility of
having dedicated corner castings that securely fix the rack together without the need for welding or special
fasteners. These aluminium extrusions are usually combined with welded steel upper and lower frames to
provide a good combination of strength in the upright sections and low-cost modularity on the top and
bottom parts. Aluminium extrusions can be cut to length very quickly and therefore offer the chance to
change rack heights easily compared to fabricated steel racks.
Placement & Fixation of the Rack Inside the Building

Decisions regarding ODF rack placement are very important and should be made on a site-by-site basis.
However, below are a few tips to consider.
Proximity to active equipment or splitter racks

The ODF needs to connect to the active racks by means of individual patch cords or multi-fibre cable
assemblies. This distance needs to be kept to an absolute minimum so as to avoid long installation times,
long and expensive cable assemblies and management of large amounts of excess cable. Ideally, the
ODF should be no more than a few metres away from both the active rack and the splitter rack (if a PON
network). It is good practice to consider standard patch cord lengths as a guide as to how far the racks
need to be placed apart. Standard lengths for patch cords used in such applications are 3m, 5m and 7m.
Speed and ease of routing cables

Installing and interconnecting racks that are close together, even side by side, is much easier and faster.
Racks that are side by side can also have cable trunking integrated internally that allows the installer to
patch from one rack to the other without having the cable exit the rack. This will simplify the patching
operation, minimise errors and breakages, and lead to improved OPEX.

Matching the ODF to the active racks
Active racks often need to be deeper than the ODF. This is because some active equipment is 300mm deep
and there may be a necessity to leave free space behind or in front of the equipment for airflow. In this
respect the overall system is broken down into manageable chunks that work together rather than taking
a rack by rack approach. This segmented approach can also help ensure fewer lengths of patch cord are
required to make connections between the equipment.
The active equipment may also require special power distribution units to be placed behind them.
Therefore it is quite common for the active rack to be 400mm, 500mm or even 600mm in depth. With this
in mind, it can be practical to pull the ODF rack forward so that the front of it lines up with the active rack to
simplify the routing of cable from one rack to the other. Patch cords connected to a front-facing active OLT
for example, can easily be guided across to the ODF or splitter rack without the need to change direction
and be routed backwards. It is therefore common for the ODF to be stepped forward from a back wall with
a space bracket. Alternatively the ODF is made exactly the same size as the active rack for simplicity.
Logical sequence of connecting cables

Racks should always be placed in a way that avoids unnecessary fibre crossing or congestion. For example,
sometimes it makes more sense to provide splitter panels within the same rack as the active equipment
because the path of connection is more logical and convenient. A schematic layout of the optical link
should be made in a CAD system or Visio drawing so that the process of making connections with cables
can be properly mapped out in advance. This allows users to make small changes that may dramatically
affect OPEX later.
Access to cable routing channels

In larger installations with many ODFs positioned side by side, it may be necessary to guide cables out of
the rack and into some kind of fibre raceway or trunking system. Racks and trunking should be planned in a
strategic manner that makes best use of their capacity but also allows cables to be directed inside the ODF
with minimal effort on the part of the installer. Trunking should be positioned in those areas of the racks
where cables are naturally routed. The trunking should not be placed simply in the middle of the ODF, for
example, but instead at the entry point of the patch cord management area.
Positioning
Positioning of ODFs should consider the best possible use of the space. It may make more sense to
break with convention and position racks in a non-standard manner. This is especially true in smaller POP
buildings where free wall space is limited. In such cases it may be more efficient to place racks back to
back with their sides facing the wall so that more racks can be placed inside the building. A good example
of this is placing ODF racks and splitter racks back to back. This relationship is pre-defined by the nature
of the optical link; therefore why not combine these racks into one common block? Cable routing can be
greatly simplified in cases where racks are placed back to back or immediately adjacent to each other.

Avoiding obstacles
Racks should obviously be placed so as to avoid fixed items inside the room. The ODF, splitter and
active racks should occupy a completely clean space of wall and floor so that their interoperability is not
detrimentally affected. This is not always possible with brownfield sites but should always be sought when
designing for greenfield installations.
Negotiating cable/microduct entry areas

The location where cables or microducts enter the building will impact ODF placement. Microducts can
take up a lot of space and are difficult to manipulate or re-route, therefore the location of the ODF needs
to cater for this. It might be that an area is kept free within the building so that cables can enter freely
before they are routed to their respective ODF racks.
Fixing the ODF

Frame fixation to the floor
Suitable fixings must be provided in the plinth to allow floor fixation. Floors in old buildings can be uneven
and it is important that the plinth can be adjusted at each corner to accommodate these imperfections.
Adjustable threaded feet are sufficient for this purpose. Those that can be adjusted from the inside of the
frame are preferred for simplicity and speed. It is important to make sure the ODF is secured to the floor.
With a concrete floor use of expanded bolts is recommended. With raised computer floors the rack should
be secured the rack to the concrete floor beneath. This can be done with a threaded bar or custom made
support structure. It is important to support the underside of the raised computer floor to prevent the floor
tile from becoming weak or unstable.
Frame fixation to walls or other frames

ODF frames are often 2200mm high. This can cause safety risks should the frame become unstable
and topple over. It is therefore necessary to secure the upper part of the rack to the wall or an
adjacent rack if the ODF is placed in the middle of the room. L-shaped plates with depth adjustment
are suitable for wall fixation. Simple flat plates can be used to secure two racks together (either back
to back or side by side). Some vendors offer fixation options through the frame to adjoin adjacent
racks together. In some buildings the wall will have a low-level skirting board or ‘kick-board’ around
it. Fixing brackets will need to be adjustable so that the rack can be mounted vertically with the
additional depth of the skirting compensated.
ODF sub-racks
Background
High-density (Fibre Management Systems) FMS are generally made up of many smaller sub-racks added
incrementally to provide scalability and modularity to the complete system. These sub-racks are available in
many different sizes but are no more than 6U or 7U high due to handling limitations. Most sub-racks today
are 1U, 2U, 3U or 4U high because these height increments provide the right balance in terms of scalability,
user friendliness and cost. Larger sub-racks are usually more cost-effective on a cost per port basis but are
not very scalable. They can also be heavy and awkward to install in the field, especially by a technician
working alone.

Not everyone wants the benefit of scalability. In many cases operators will choose to have the ODF
supplied fully loaded from day one, because they are going to reach capacity very quickly or have decided
that the additional up-front cost of the fully populated rack is easily compensated by the variable cost of
adding sub-racks over time.
When planning an ODF layout, engineers need to divide available space inside the cabinet by the Unit
Heights (U) of the sub-racks. For example a standard 47U high rack is divided into 23 x 2U sub-racks with
one spare 1U position. However, it is vital to calculate not just the full internal capacity of the rack but also
the ‘useable space’ within the rack for placing sub-racks. An ODF system always requires a certain amount
of space for items such as cable fixation plates, lower or upper patch cord routing channels. In this case the
planner must deduct these fixed elements from the overall internal capacity reach their useable capacity
for sub-racks. Generally, a standard 47U ODF will have 40U-41U of internal space after deducting cable
fixation and routing.
Sub-rack Function
Attachment of cables and transition tubes
When external cables enter an ODF system they are either fixed securely at the entry point in a dedicated
area, or routed to the sub-rack where they are fixed and then guided inside the sub-rack. Depending
on the cable fibre-count, the cable may need to be broken out into smaller sub-elements by means of
transition tubes. If the sub-rack only has a capacity of 48 fibres but the cable has 96 fibres inside, the cable
will need to be fed inside transition tubes. Loose-tube cables are normally constructed from fibre bundles
with 12 or 24 fibres per bundle, therefore the sub-rack will need to accommodate one or a number of these
fibre bundles by means of transition tubes.
There are many ways to secure cables to the ODF but operators should look to achieve a three-point
fixation strategy across the ODF and sub-rack. A three-point fixing method will ensure that the cable jacket,
central strength member and transition tubes are all securely fixed somewhere inside the rack or sub-rack.
More details later in the Section.
Fusion splicing cables to pigtails inside a sub-rack
The ODF sub-rack is where incoming cables will be fusion-spliced to factory-installed pigtails. This
operation is normally achieved within some kind of ‘splicing cassette’ or ‘splicing area’ inside the sub-rack.
The splice area manages and protects both the fibres and the sleeves that protect the fusion splice. There
are many different types of splice cassette on the market but in the central office area of the network a
‘multi-circuit’ cassette will be used that can accommodate 12 or 24 splices.
The splicing operation can be very labour-intensive and therefore costly. High-density racks with up to 3000
fibres can take several days to splice all the fibres. To reduce this time as much as possible it is advisable to
deploy systems that simplify the splicing process and make it more convenient for the splicer.
When the splicer is working in front of the ODF for example, it is very helpful if the splice cassette or sub-
rack can be moved from its position in the rack so that it is closer to the splice machine. Fixed systems can
require a great deal more splicing time and there is also an increased risk of fibre breakage.
Provide access to the connectivity by means of adapters
The ultimate function of an ODF sub-rack is to provide a patching field that allows the user to connect
ODF ports to other equipment such as the active OLT rack or the Splitter rack. This patch field provides the
flexibility and scalability required to incrementally build up the network port by port.

The LC connector is the most common connector interface in
European FTTH networks. Therefore it is common to see LC duplex,
LC Quad or other multiple adapter blocks at the front of the ODF
sub-rack. These adapters will either be front-facing, side-facing
or angled depending on the design of the ODF. Green adapters
signify APC (angled physical contact) connectors and blue adapters
signify PC (physical contact) connections. Generally APC connectors
are used in FTTH networks due to their superior Return Loss
characteristics.
Adapters can be shuttered or non-shuttered. They are usually

supplied with some kind of dust plug fitted which prevents unwanted
dust or debris contaminating the connector on the backside of the
adapter. Managing adapters effectively on the front of patch panels
can be a challenge. Operators should consider the orientation of the
adapters so that it is convenient and easy to insert connectors. Care
should also be taken to consider the cable paths and how these
could lead to other adapters being obscured at a later stage. Images provided by AFL
Manage and route patch cables away from the sub-rack

Managing patch cord connections to and from sub-racks can be very challenging within high-density
optical distribution systems. Patch cords need to be supported horizontally but also need to be guided
around bend-limiting guides so that the bend radius of the fibre is controlled at all times. Patch cords take
up a large amount of space when bundled together. This bulk of cable tends to obscure vital access to
adapters if not managed properly. Patch cords with a reduced diameter as small as 1.2mm have certainly
contributed to solving this problem but ultimately a balance needs to be struck between density and cable
robustness. Small-diameter cables can provide immediate benefits, but they generally have a lower pull-
strength performance and can be more susceptible to mechanical damage when routed between racks.
Patch cords should be organised in logical groups

so that connector access is optimised at all times.
If the patch panel is made up of multiple rows
of adapters it makes sense to organise each row
independently to provide better and faster access
to each connector in the row. Crossing of cables
can cause unwanted congestion that may lead to
incorrect patching in the field.
Typical pivoting sub-rack
One of the most challenging aspects of patch cord management is within systems that have a moving
patch field. With moving systems, it is important that there is enough patch cord slack somewhere in the
ODF to facilitate this movement. Pivoting/swing-out systems help in this area because the patch cords are
rotated around a single hinge point. This reduces the amount of patch cord movement and stress placed
on the fibres during the opening/closing of the sub-rack. Telescopic or sliding systems on the other hand
require a much longer length of patch cord slack to ensure the sub-rack can be opened without damaging
or compromising fibre performance.
Providing a high level of identification and traceability
In high-density fibre management systems, space for labelling and port identification is limited. Often the
majority of the front panel is populated by adapters closely packed together. Nevertheless identification
and traceability are key. Sub-racks can have a front door that provides the option for a large label strip and
port allocation diagram. Other systems might have a discrete port layout sheet stored inside the sub-rack
until it is required. Ultimately, the sub-rack must have clear identification allowing installers to identify the
rack, the sub-rack and the ports.

Colour coding is a good way to direct installers to the correct area and port. Port numbering should be
logical, sequential and consistent. Installers will generally read panels in a left-to-right direction so any
deviation from this will need to be clearly shown.
Training and other visual aids inside the rack provide additional assistance to the installer. Magnetic
instruction documents on the inside of the ODF door may also be a way of providing instant information
without having to find additional space on the sub-rack for labelling.
High-density patch panel, Image provided by R&M
Main Types of Sub-Rack

Front, Side, and Rear Access
Front access systems typically have rail-fixing brackets positioned at the rear of the panel. Cables entering
the sub-rack pass in front of it. This is a critical requirement of ‘front access’ systems. In many cases
installers or other users will not want to route the cable behind vertical rails inside the ODF. Routing cables
behind fixed objects like fixing rails can make installation and removal of the panel very difficult. It can also
lead to issues later should some of the fibres in the cable need reworking. It is not desireable to route the
cable behind vertical elements in the ODF.
When planning a fibre management system, it is recommended to deploy a ‘front-access’ system. This
allows a much higher degree of flexibility when placing racks into an internal building space. Front-
accessible 300mm racks can be placed against unused walls or back to back with other 300mm racks in
the middle of the room. Space is always a limitation when building FTTH networks especially when utilising
space within existing brownfield sites or if the fibre management racks are placed in small container-style
POP cabins. Although rear-access products may offer some CAPEX benefits, their OPEX costs over the
lifecycle of the network are generally higher.
In the early days of FTTH fibre management, ODF sub-racks followed a LAN market approach. The sub-
rack was based on a 19” panel design with cable entering the rear of the panel and patch cords exiting
the front of the panel. This was sufficient for low-density installations assembled inside large network
racks. However, as density demands grew, hardware operators looked for new ways to improve the
density and handling of the sub-rack and associated fibres. Sub-racks became smaller and instead of
the conventional rear-cable entry systems, hardware suppliers started to explore new ways of managing
cables. This led to the birth of side-facing systems and what has
now become the standard term ‘Front Access’. Front access
systems basically offer the user the ability to install and service
(patch) the sub-rack from the front side of the rack only. This is a
great advantage in terms of usability but it also helps to reduce
the overall depth of the ODF from what was then 600mm to a
more desirable 300mm.

Front-facing patch fields
Front-facing patch fields are by far the most common type of sub-racks because the ports are facing the
technician and are easily visible and accessible. However, patch cords guided across the front of the patch
field can obscure unused ports, making it difficult to access or remove internal sub-rack elements later.
The main issue with front-facing patch fields is accessing internal sub-rack elements during its lifetime.
When patch cords are patched to the front of the panel it can be very difficult to remove the sub-rack with
live connections in place. For this reason, it is essential to have some kind of integrated patch cord slack
management, so that the sub-rack can be pulled or pivoted outwards to allow access to internal elements.
An operator might want to access the area behind the patch field for two reasons.
• One of the connections at the back of the patch panel is faulty and needs to be replaced.
• The operator wants to bring multiple cables into the sub-rack over a long period. A
sub-rack might have a density of 96 fibres but the operator has only installed 48 fibres on
day one. At some point in the future, the operator will want to install a second 48-fibre
cable into the sub-rack and subsequently will need to access the area at the rear of the
patch field.
Another issue associated with front-facing systems is laser safety. Front-facing patch panels can be
mounted at technician’s eye-height which means there is a risk that the technician will stare directly into
an adapter through which light is being transmitted. Because of this risk, many front-facing systems have
angled adapters on the front. This angle reduces the likelihood of the technician looking directly into a
live port. It also helps to reduce the bend radius of the patch cords at the front of the panel. Shuttered
adapters also help prevent users being exposed to potentially dangerous transmission signal power levels.
Front facing patch fields
Side-facing patch fields

Side-facing systems provide additional benefits that are not present in front-facing systems. For example,
improved laser safety for the technician because the adapters are always pointing at 90 degrees to the
technician. Another benefit is that the front of the system can be used for labelling and identification as the
space is not occupied by connectors and adapters.
Side-facing systems do require more complex patch cord slack management. Even though there are some
benefits, it is important to note that installers need to take care to maintain consistency and accuracy in
routing patch cords in and out of a side-facing system. Many different variants of side-facing systems exist.
Some of these do not completely face the side but are in fact angled in some way from the front, the idea
being to angle the fibre management system rather than the adapter. A disadvantage of side patching is
the fact that it always requires movement of splice trays.

Side-facing system
Patch field density

Everyone wants products that do more in a smaller space - but at what cost? Cost-per port is important
- but so is the usability and serviceability of a product. When we look at 1U sub-racks with a density of
96 fibres we find that conventional cable and connectors are no longer suitable. Patch cords with a 2mm
diameter for example are no longer viable and instead 1.6mm, 1.4mm or even 1.2mm patch cords need
to be deployed. We also find that the connectors are no longer accessible because they are patched so
closely together that user access is greatly hindered or even prevented.
All this demand for higher density systems and lower total cost of ownership leads to inevitable
compromise. Despite substantial advances in fibre bend performance and connector accessibility,
implementation of FMS remains a balancing act. Put simply, when designing a cost-effective and user-
friendly FMS, density and ease of use should be carefully balanced. In some cases it may be better to
reduce density but enjoy a much better user experience when handling Moves, Adds and Changes (MACs).
Sometimes simplicity wins over performance.
Pivoting Panels
The pivoting panel/sub-rack is probably the most preferred type of FMS in FTTH networks. It provides the
benefit of a front-facing patch field with simple and safe patch cord slack management. Users can enjoy
easy access to the connectors simply by swinging out the complete patch field around a single pivot point.
This pivot point puts very little stress on the fibres because the cords are not moving a large distance. The
hinge effectively rotates the cables rather than moving them in a linear direction. Pivoting panels are also
available with angled adapters and front doors to protect the technician from being exposed to any signals
that emit from the adapter.
One key benefit of pivoting systems is the fact that the user can gain access to the internal elements of the
sub-rack at any time during the product lifecycle. So if additional cables need to be added at a later date,
this can be easily achieved by swinging out the panel.

Sliding Panels
Sliding panels rely on a forward sliding motion of the patch panel to access connectors or reach internal
elements behind the patch field. This sliding motion increases the distance the patch cords need to travel.
This is one of the reasons why a pivoting panel is often preferred.
One benefit of sliding systems over pivoting systems is the better port to patch field space ratio. Because
of the hinge system required for pivoting systems, connectors are often condensed into a much smaller
surface area. Sliding systems, however, do not require a hinge. Therefore much more space is available at
the front of the panel for higher packing density or better access to connectors.
Typical 19” sliding panel
Sub-racks with vertical or horizontal modules

In many countries, it is common to deploy a fibre management sub-rack comprised of an outer chassis
and many smaller integrated modules. These are typically 12-fibre or 24-fibre modules that are slid into
the outer chassis by means of a rail system. Modules are positioned in a vertical or horizontal plane. They
are then inserted from the front side by guiding a runner element into the fixing rail of the sub-rack. This
approach provides a high degree of scalability because even though the outer main chassis has a capacity
of 144 fibres or 288 fibres, the individual modules only have a density of 12 or 24 fibres.
Being able to add modules on a scalable basis is a really good way of spreading network rollout costs and
making sure that investments are only made when needed. In this case, modules are only added to support
the number of network subscribers. The ODF is not over-subscribed or over-provisioned.
Vertical modules are practical and scalable but there are challenges when trying to deploy such systems as
‘front access’. These products were born from LAN practices and were originally intended to be used with
cables entering from the rear of the chassis rather than the front side. Recent improvements in these types
of systems allow cables and patch cords to enter and exit from the front side of the rack, however it should
be noted that this approach is often not very user-friendly or intuitive.
One benefit of vertical modules is the ability to route patch cords away
from the patch field and into a dedicated patch cord guiding area
beneath the modules. This dedicated area provides excellent fibre
bend radius protection but also allows modules to be inserted and
removed with minimal disruption to other modules in the
same sub-rack.
Other regions have deployed modular systems in a horizontal rather

than vertical alignment. The reason for this is that a 1U sub-rack is
considered more scalable than a 3U or 4U sub-rack. There will be
far less wasted capacity in a horizontal sub-rack than in a vertical
sub-rack. Horizontal panels can also make the planning procedure
easier because a higher degree of granularity can be achieved when
contemplating the overall rack capacity.

Sub-rack Attachment methods
The conventional way to secure sub-racks to the main ODF rack is by means of M5 or M6 screws and cage
nuts that fit to the vertical rails inside the ODF. Most ODF racks will have fixing rails with a distance of 19”
between the fixing holes but in some cases this distance will be 21” in accordance with the ETSI standards.
In cases where a 19” sub-rack needs to be fitted to a 21” fixing rail, special adapter brackets are available
to bridge the gap.
If the sub-rack has fixing brackets at the front of the patch panel, the fixing process is simple. With rear-
mounted sub-racks, however, the fixing process often requires a long extension screwdriver to access the
screws at the rear of the ODF. To simplify atttachment of rear mounted sub-racks a keyhole design is often
deployed in the fixing brackets that allows the sub-rack to be hooked into place before the screws are
tightened. This approach enables one person to install the sub-rack.
When the sub-rack is fitted to the ODF, separate modules, trays or cassettes can then be installed using a
variety of methods.
Not all sub-racks are based on a 19” or 21” standard. Some hardware vendors deploy fixing systems
that are non-standard because it allows them to monopolise the future supply of all internal sub-rack
elements. It can also allow them to achieve some kind of functional improvement that is not possible
within the limitations of a 19” or 21” fixing constraint. Wherever possible, operators should avoid using
non-standard sub-racks because this could expose them to a risk in the future should the supply chain
break down for whatever reason.
Sub-rack Challenges
Accessing connectors in high density environments
Probably the biggest challenge facing operators when selecting a sub-rack type is the challenge of
achieving the required fibre density without compromising handling and performance. As discussed
earlier in this document, 96 fibres per 1U is currently the benchmark density for FTTH fibre management
systems that are front accessible. However, this poses challenges for the technician who will be servicing
the product. Density also compromises identification of ports. Innovative methods for addressing port
numbering may need to be considered such as sub-rack front doors that pivot downwards or slide out
identification strips that can be extracted to reveal more information.
In order to achieve the highest packing density LC connectors will need to be deployed that are half the
size of the SC connector type. Although SC connectors provide an enhanced Return Loss RL performance,
LC is the more popular choice in most high density ODFs today. The LC connector requires finger access
above and below the connector so as to depress the latch of the connector on the upper face. When
adapters are stacked very closely together, this latch can be obscured by the next adapter above it in
the panel. For this reason, a connector with integrated pull-tab may need to be deployed so that access
can be achieved by pulling on the connector tab.
Alternatively other mechanical elements may need to
be implemented that provide finger access to the LC
connector without a pull-tab connector. Depending
on the design of the overall system, there may not be
a high degree of Moves, Adds and Changes required
in the ODF. In such cases certain connector access
constraints may be acceptable, in order to benefit
from optimised ODF density.

Matching the cable to the sub-rack
Sub-rack performance is greatly enhanced if the density of the sub-rack matches the fibre count of the
cable that enters it. This is especially true where cables might be fitted to the sub-rack at different times.
For example, a 96-fibre sub-rack could be fed by 1 x 96-fibre cable or 2 x 48-fibre cables. One cable is
easier to manage because it can be fitted to the sub-rack without the need to access the sub-rack again
later to feed an additional cable. An example with two 48-fibre cables installed at different times would be
more challenging. This is because the operator needs to ensure the inside of the sub-rack can be accessed
later so that the second cable can be installed. All of this may need to happen with live patch cords
installed. Here, the mechanical design of the sub-rack plays an important role.
Managing patch cords

As sub-rack density increases, so does the volume of patch cord cables that need to be supported and
guided away from the patchfield. This large volume of patch cables causes an obstruction to the adapters
behind them and can make access to connectors more difficult. To compensate for this, we have seen cable
suppliers reduce cable diameter from 2mm to as little as 1.2mm.
The use of smaller diameter cables reduces the amount of cable congestion in front of the patchfield.
However, they do not offer the same degree of mechanical protection as cables that have a thicker outer
jacket. As cable sizes are reduced, more investment in horizontal patch cord support elements and radius
guides is required to protect these cables from being crushed or kinked. Operators may want to consider a
trunking system in and above ODFs to provide additional support and protection.
Cable raceways

ODF Cable splicing
External cables
Cable types
The most common cable type entering the ODF is outdoor loose-tube cable. In recent years the size of
these cables has reduced substantially. They are now referred to as ‘micro-cables’. Their compact size
allows them to be blown through smaller microducts. A 96 fibre cable today will have a standard outer
diameter of between 6mm and 7mm but as this document is being written, we are aware of cables as small
as 4.5mm for 96-fibres. Loose tube cables are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
Typically, loose-tube cables will have either 12 or 24 individual fibres inside of each tube. These fibres are
individually spliced to pigtails inside the ODF sub-rack. The colour code of these pigtails will generally
match an industry standard such as ISO, although other colour code standards exist such as the DIN code
in the DACH region for example.
As the demand for fibre increases across the network, we are starting to see a dramatic increase in the
deployment of ribbon fibre. Ribbon cables deliver significantly more density than loose-tube cables and
can be produced with thousands of fibres in a single cable. This higher packing density offers operators the
chance to achieve better space utilisation in their existing ducts and reduces the Total Cost of Ownership.
Furthermore, ribbon cables can be spliced much faster than loose-tube cables with up to 12 fibres being
spliced in a single process. This combination of density and speed of splicing makes ribbon a likely
favourite for the roll-out of next-generation networks.
Cable challenges
Cable damage (kinking)
Loose tube cables are constructed with plastic tubes that contain the fibres. These loose tubes are effective
when tightly covered with the outer cable jacket, but once exposed, they have a high tendency to kink.
This can occur when the tube is bent too tightly and the wall material folds in on itself leading to the fibres
getting squeezed and even broken. For this reason, it is essential to prevent loose-tube damage by either:
• Feeding the complete cable directly to the sub-rack with its cable jacket intact.
• Re-sleeving the fibres.
• Over-sleeving the loose tubes.
The over-sleeving technique is particularly common in cases where

the cable capacity is higher than the sub-rack element. For example,
a loose tube cable entering the ODF may be a 288-fibre cable but the
sub-rack only has a density of 24 fibres. In this case the cable will need
to be fixed at the entry point of the ODF and then individual loose-
tubes will need to be fed into special protective tubes before they are
guided to their respective sub-racks.
Protective sleeving has become a common approach for high density

ODF systems but these protective sleeves increase the overall
diameter of the loose tubes that need to be managed vertically up or
down the rack. A 2mm or 3mm loose-tube may have a final diameter
of 4mm or 5mm once it has been over-sleeved with a protective
secondary sleeve.

Cable stiffness
Small micro cables can be extremely stiff and difficult to bend or manipulate. This can be challenging
when trying to guide the cable into the ODF and up to the sub-rack. In some ODF systems there will be a
dedicated cable fixation point at the entry point of the rack that will allow these stiff cables to be fixed and
then re-sleeved before they are guided up to the sub-rack. The re-sleeving process allows the fibres to be
separated into smaller bundles. It also allows a more flexible protection tube to be used for guidance of
the fibres inside the ODF.
If there is no dedicated cable fixing area inside the rack, the cable will need to be guided vertically up the
left or right hand side of the rack before it bends into the sub-rack. As much space as possible should be
afforded for this cable bend so as not to place excessive force on the cable and fibres inside it.
Cable size
A fully loaded ODF can have a capacity of over 40 sub-racks, each with a density of 96 fibres. These sub-
racks can be fed with either a single 96-fibre cable or might be fed with multiple smaller cables such as 2 x
48-fibres or 4 x 24-fibre cables. In each case, it is very important to ensure that the cable entry area of the
rack, and the vertical cable guides at the side of the ODF, are capable of managing the number of cables
deployed.
Cables should be vertically managed in dedicated cable clamps that allow the user to easily insert - and
in some cases fix - the cable. These cable clamps should be provisioned in such a way that the cables
being fed to the upper part of the ODF are kept separate from those being fed to the lower area. This will
prevent any mixing or twisting of cables and make the whole arrangement of cables more efficient.
VelcroTM straps can be used to fix cables. It should be noted that such straps can generate small particles
that potentially lead to increased connector contamination. Alternative fixing straps are available which are
flexible, re-useable and do not produce any small particles.
Removing gel from fibres
Outdoor cables often contain gel that forms a waterproof barrier over the fibres. A combination of
cleaning fluids and wipes will need to be used to remove this gel before the cables enter the ODF. This
can be time-consuming on higher density systems. One way to reduce time spent removing this gel
is to take the cable or the loose-tube as close to the sub-rack as possible, but this may increase risk of
contamination or kinking as discussed above. Alternatively, use a dry cable with water swelling yarns
inside for longitudinal water protection.
Cable Entry
In most FTTH applications, cables enter the ODF from the bottom of the rack because cables are
normally installed through microducts buried underground. However, it is also possible for cables to
enter through the top of the ODF, especially in cases where the ODF is positioned on a solid concrete
floor. Whatever the application, cables will be guided through an opening in the rack frame. This
opening could be a large rectangular hole or a metal plate with cable glands fitted to it for improved
cable separation and retention. The largest possible aperture should be allowed for in the ODF rack
design to facilitate as many large cables or microducts as possible. ODF design/construction will have an
impact on the size of this aperture so time should be taken to consider this.
When the cables have been inserted through the aperture of the ODF, a secondary sealing may be
desirable to prevent any contamination entering the rack. A flexible foam pad, for example, can be used
to seal off the areas around the cables. If the ODF is placed on a raised computer floor with conditioned
air running through it, the need for a cable seal will be more important. This is because the air pressure
of such systems can increase the airflow and potential for contamination.

If cables enter the rack from the top, then the upper aperture should be closed off completely with a
suitable cover. This will prevent debris falling in from above.
Where space is not the biggest concern, it is worth considering a dedicated rack for managing incoming
cables. This rack could be as little as 300mm wide. When positioned directly to the side of the ODF, it can
provide a convenient area for managing the cables vertically before they are guided across to the sub-rack.
This technique is particularly useful if the cables used are large and require additional space to guide and
fix them.
Microducts are the tubes or ducts in which fibre optic cables are installed across the network. Naturally,
they are much larger in diameter than the cables inside them and subsequently require more space and
different hardware to manage them within ODFs.
Microducts are often terminated at a point some

distance from the ODF such as under the floor or in
a dedicated area inside the building. In some cases,
however, it is desirable to bring the microduct inside
the ODF so that the transition from duct to cable
can be properly managed in a convenient place.
The use of an additional rack positioned close to the
ODF is recommended so that the microducts can be
vertically guided and fixed in logical bundles. This
rack will normally be no wider than 300mm and will
have special brackets fitted to it, which allow the
microducts to be staggered for improved
user access.
Microducts also need to be ‘gas-blocked’ and ‘water-blocked‘ as they enter a building. This is to prevent
any leaks allowing gas to enter the building by means of the open duct. Gas blockers come in various
shapes and sizes, however they will be larger than the duct diameter and subsequently any fixation systems
in the ODF will need to accommodate this larger diameter.
Microducts can be fixed with standard cable ties. However, the outer surface of the duct is very smooth,
so the cable tie offers no real strain relief to the duct. A more effective way to fix the microducts is to
use a dedicated clip system that allows the duct to be held firmly in position. Such clips can be injection
moulded or metal cutouts.
Cable fixation
When cables enter a high density ODF or sub-rack, it is very important to properly fix them so that there
is no risk of movement later. There are many different approaches to fixing cables. One approach is to
fix the cables at the entry point of the ODF frame and then guide only the tubes (re-sleeved or over-
sleeved) up to the sub-rack. The other approach is to fix the cable directly at the sub-rack. It is also
possible to fix the cables by anchoring a central strength member at the top/bottom of the ODF.

Single point of failure
A single point of failure (SPOF) is a part of a system that, if it fails, will stop the entire system from
working. SPOFs are undesirable in any system with a goal of high availability and reliability.
When designing or configuring an ODF it is important to avoid these. For example, a 96-fibre cable
could be considered to be a single point of failure if it is guided up to the sub-rack with limited
protection. Splitting that 96-fibre cable into 4 x 24-fibre transport tubes will be less risky because any
damage is unlikely to impact all four tubes at the same time. Risk aversion should be high up on the
checklist when considering cable fixation and cable routing inside the ODF.
Fixing the main cable at the entry point of the ODF

Some hardware vendors provide fixation plates that fix the cable in a vertical orientation and then
internal fibre tubes are redirected in a horizontal direction before travelling up to the sub-rack.
Other vendors prefer to bend the cable in a horizontal direction before it is fixed so that less space is
taken up during the process of re-directing inner fibre tubes.
The fixation plates used to fix cables inside ODFs are frequently called ‘breakout plates’ because this
is frequently the point where the cable jacket is removed and the inner loose tubes are separated and
resleeved before being routed to the sub-rack. The breaking-out procedure is as simple as just removing
the main cable jacket and then resleeving the loose tubes with a protective tubing material. However in
some cases it may be necessary to split fibres from different tubes and to combine them. This is a rare
occurrence and only happens when the sub-rack density does not match the fibre count of the cable
transport tube.
Cable fixation plates provide four main fixing elements.
• Cable jacket fixation

• Central strength member fixation
• Kevlar fixation
• Loose tube and protective tube fixation
Cable fixation plates are used to guide the cables to the necessary areas of the rack where best space
optimisation can be achieved.

Cable Jacket Fixation
• The cable jacket of incoming outdoor fibre cables should be fixed in such a way that a tight fixation
is made without deforming the jacket and damaging the internal fibre tubes.
• If cable ties are used, then it is best to wrap the cable jacket first with a compressible foam tape.
The tape will provide a better fixation that will prevent slippage and possible excessive
over-tightening.
• Cable ties should be fitted to open T-fingers where possible so that the cable tie can be fixed
around the cable prior to being hooked over the T-finger.
• Cable ties are very difficult to feed through closed holes or slots, therefore this practice should
be avoided.
• A good alternative to cable ties are 2-piece cable clamps that compress onto the cable jacket
with a thread screw or bolt. These clamps are very effective at supporting stiffer and larger cables
that are difficult to keep straight as they enter the ODF.
• Different sized cable clamps are available and these clamps normally fix to a rail or plate system
with dedicated profiles or cutouts. The most important feature of any cable clamp used for fibre
optic cables is that the clamp has a large enough shoulder for the cable to sit in, to avoid any
excessive pressure or macro-bending to the cable jacket wall. One compromise with cable clamp
fixation is that the clamp takes up more space than cable ties. This is why cable clamps are normally
used in applications where the cable has a high density (72, 144, 288 fibres).
• Cable clamps should never be over-tightened and great care must be taken not to compress any of
the internal elements.
Central Strength Member Fixation

• The fixation of the central strength member is arguably more important than that of the cable
jacket because even if the cable jacket stretches or contracts due to stress or environmental change,
the central strength member will still maintain the stability of the cable along its entire length.
• When cables are installed, they can be put under some stress that causes the jacket to stretch. As
the cable jacket relaxes, the inner tubes of the cable can be pushed forwards. All of this movement
can lead to broken fibres if not properly catered for in advance.
• Central strength members are generally fed inside a hole and then a threaded bolt is tightened
onto the central strength member rod to hold it firmly in place. In some cases it will also be feasible
to twist the glass roving or Kevlar thread together and then use this as a suitable strain
relief element.

Section 6.4
Cable Management and
Routing Within the ODF
ODF Cable Management
‘Cable management’ is a dedicated area to the side of an ODF consisting of cable guiding spools or
mandrels. It has become quite common for cable management systems (CMS) to occupy approximately
a third of overall rack space. A 900mm wide ODF, for example, has a portion of 600mm allocated for the
sub-racks and then a 300mm area to the side of this for cable management. This ratio can of course change
depending on the density and the cable selection. However, one should enough space to accommodate
the ‘human impact’ that can lead to cable management being less precise than originally planned. A cable
management system has numerous functions:
Storing the cable slack of patched assemblies
It is impractical to expect that all cable assemblies in an ODF are exactly the correct length between
two ports. Some length of extra cable always needs to be stored or managed within the rack after the
connection has been made. A well-designed CMS ensures that this excess length can be easily stored and
managed by the installer. By deploying a well-configured CMS, operators can utilise a selection of standard
length cable assemblies knowing that even though they are longer than needed, the excess cable slack can
be managed effectively.
Patch cords are typically produced within half-metre increments. The number of variants should be kept to
just a few.
A standard ODF being patched directly to another rack to its side will typically require a patch cord length
of approximately 5m. This should provide sufficient cable length to reach any of the ports in either of the
racks regardless of whether the ports being patched are the upper-most or lower-most ports.
Preventing cable congestion due to tangling or crossing
Managing the high number of cables in an ODF is challenging, but cable tidiness is even more of a
challenge, especially with multiple technicians working on the same ODF over an extended period. For
this reason it is important to ensure that the cable management system offers clear routing paths for the
installers to follow each time they install a new cable. Separation walls and colour-coded labels can make
this process easier. Where possible technicians’ options should be limited so that there is less opportunity
for error.
One way of ensuring cables do not get tangled is to provide a common routing direction for all cables so
that they always stay together and never cross each other. Guiding elements should also be directional.
The technician should not have the option of coiling cables in multiple loops around a single mandrel/
spool. Instead, it is better to use half-mandrels so that it is clear that the cable should be routed over it and
not around it.

Fast traceability and access to cable assemblies
The better the ODF cable management is, the faster technicians will be able to identify and access cables.
Ideally not too many changes should be made to pre-installed links within the ODF. Nevertheless it is
important that cables can be removed and re-routed if necessary at a later date. Grouping cables together
in logical bundles can help installers quickly identify cables. Labelling or colour-coded mandrels can also
help with this process because the installer can easily recognise cables of a particular type depending on
the colour of the mandrel. However, labelling and colour-coding is only as good as the installer using it.
Installer training and support must be emphasised to ensure that work is carried out in a consistent manner.
Separation of cables as they exit or enter patch fields
As cables exit or enter patch fields they must be kept very well organised and separated. This is especially
true for pivoting patch panels that require a certain amount of cable slack in order to move freely during
the process of opening and closing the panel. Positioning cable guides or mandrels in increments that
match the panels ensures separation and order are maintained.
Minimum bend radius
In order for light to travel down the fibre by means of total internal reflection, the fibre and cable must not
be subject to any bends that are smaller than the minimum bend radius. If the bend radius of the cable
is smaller than the minimum bend radius, the optical signal will exit the cladding of the fibre and will not
travel to its destination. To avoid this happening, ODF systems use cable guiding elements or mandrels
that have a curved radius larger than the minimum required for effective transmission. The recommended
minimum bend-radius within ODFs is 30mm. However, with the emergence of low-bend fibres, this bend
radius can be reduced to 25mm. Note that reducing the bend radius of fibres could have an impact on the
optical loss of the link.
Cable Management Types

Inter-connect
In an inter-connect system all the cables exit the rack and are patched to another rack in a separate
location. The other rack can be many metres away, adjacent to, or behind the ODF. There is no port
replication within an inter-connect system. In a typical FTTH inter-connect model the outdoor cables would
enter the ODF and be spliced to pigtails inside the sub-racks.
Patch cords or multi-fibre assemblies would then be patched from the front of the patch panel to the other
piece of hardware in the link (OLT or splitter rack for example).
Cross-connect system
Unlike an inter-connect system, a cross-connect system replicates ports within the same ODF. This
represents an additional patching field between end points of the link. For example, the upper half of the
ODF rack could be dedicated to outdoor cables that are transmitting the signal downstream and the lower
half to connections coming from OLT active ports. A patch cord is used to link between the two halves of
the ODF.
The benefit of cross-connect systems is that the installer can make all of the necessary patch connections
within the same ODF rack.

• They do not need to route new cables from the ODF to the OLT each time a subscriber
needs to be connected.
• This process means that the cables from the OLT to the ODF can be permanently installed
at the beginning of the project - individual cross-connect patch cords can be added to the
ODF at a later stage to form the linking bridge between the OLT and the outdoor cables.
• Cross-connects are particularly useful in cases where the OLT rack and the ODF are
separated by many metres of distance or in cases where the operator does not want
installer accessing the OLT rack each time a connection is made.
Installation speed (and therefore OPEX) are determined by the choice of cable type and routing path.
Although cross-connect systems offer substantial benefits in terms of operational ease, up-front hardware
costs are higher. Port replication means that the number of sub-racks and cables required to make the
connections is almost twice that of an inter-connect system.
Challenges
Below are some of the challenges that can be experienced with cable management and how a properly
implemented system can solve these.
Speed of installation
One of the most important considerations when choosing a cable design is the speed of installation. This
and routing path is ultimately what sets the speed of installation and OPEX.
Patch cords are individual cable assemblies. Therefore every new connection from OLT to ODF requires
the same amount of time and energy. To reduce the time and cost of this process, consideration should
be given to replacing these patch cords with multi-fibre cable assemblies. This will allow the user to patch
multiple connections at the same time.
Harness cable systems with 12, 16, 24, 32 or 48 connections in one single cable element offer mass-
patching. OLT equipment blades typically have 16, 32 or 48 ports. Patching all of these ports in one single
instance with one or a few multi-fibre cable assemblies saves time and can improve the aesthetics and
manner in which the cables are installed.
Connection length flexibility

Multi-fibre cable assemblies are often made to measure for the specific OLT. In doing so, a higher level
of precision is reached with the installation. However, this approach does have an impact on flexibility
because it limits the ability to move connections from one port to another.
To compensate for this, users should retain a degree of flexibility at the opposite end of the cable link. In
practice, this might mean having a custom-made harness at the OLT end of the link with a patch panel
or extended tails at the other end of the link. This still offers the user an ‘any to any’ patching potential.
The cable management system within the ODF rack or Equipment Rack can help to provide a clearly
defined area in which users can store additional cable tail length. It is not uncommon for multi-fibre cable
assemblies to be used with tail lengths as long as 3m. This 3m length will allow the user to patch any of
those tails to any of the ports inside the ODF rack.

Cable bulk
As ODF rack density increases, it is important to ensure that cable congestion is kept to an absolute minimum.
Operators need to weigh up the pros and cons of using either many thousands of patch cords cables or a
hundred or so multi-fibre harnesses. Certainly the most space efficient option is the multi-fibre assembly. This
is because it allows the cable assembly to be constructed in the most compact and economical way. A 96-fibre
micro-cable can be delivered today with a diameter of only 5-6mm. To achieve this with 96 individual patch
cords would be impossible even when using the smallest possible diameter.
Fixing the cable or furcation divider

Multi-fibre cable assemblies require more robust fixation to the rack than patch cords do. Often the multi-
fibre assembly will have some kind of furcation housing at the end. This allows the fibres inside the cable
to be furcated out into individual protected tails. The furcation divider is often larger than the cable itself
and will need to be managed inside the rack. Cable ties can be used to attach furcation dividers to fixing
brackets. Alternatively the divider can have an integral fixing element that can be used with a purpose-
made bracket system. Either way, planners should take care to ensure that they have sufficient space inside
the rack for all of the furcation dividers and that access is maintained at all times.
Cost
Multi-fibre cable assemblies come at a higher cost. The more customised the solution the higher the
incremental cost. For this reason it is very important to weigh up the options and make careful calculations
to compare material costs with installation costs.
The cost of failure is also an important consideration when selecting cable assemblies because if one fibre
fails on a multi-fibre assembly it can lead to the complete cable assembly having to be replaced. This is an
unlikely occurrence. Nevertheless it is a common reason why many operators decide to use patch cords as
their preferred option.
Flexibility
As we have frequently seen in this chapter, the ultimate goal when planning a FTTH network is to
achieve a high degree of flexibility at a reasonable cost. Operators need to carefully consider how
much flexibility they will need in the different areas of the network and then target those areas with the
appropriate cabling strategy.

Chapter 7
Digitalisation
Workflow
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Power of Digitalisation
7.3 IT System Strategies
7.4 Conclusion
Section 7.1
Introduction
Up to now, we have been discussing the physical aspects of the Network. This chapter focuses on the
software used for planning, design, and other activities. Many different activities need to be carried out as
part of a FTTH project. The processes described in detail throughout this handbook are generally time-
consuming and error-prone. The goal of this chapter is to introduce and explain ways of using digital
tools to create more streamlined, faster processes, with fewer errors. It focuses on different steps in the
FTTH project: Plan, Design, Build, Operate. The processes covered are of specific interest to different
stakeholders:
• Plan: commercial teams at operators/consultancy firms.
• Design, Build, Operate: technical teams responsible for the design, construction and
operations & maintenance of the network.
Depending on how the operator is organised, these teams can be located at the operator or at a
contractor/engineering firm or a combination of both. For operators, the focus is on realising speedy
deployment and providing better service to customers with minimal outages. For engineers, the focus is
on developing better networks for operators. New insights during the design/build/operate phase can
influence the technology choices of future FTTH projects or future areas to be deployed.
Obtaining insights into the business case of a deployment can result in different network technology
choices and architectural rules. Using the software tools, comparison between different types of equipment
and topologies can be made. This would not be possible with a manual design because it would too time-
consuming to do this in detail.
It is important to remember that introducing new tools can support in changes to the current processes,
so this will require time and effort. Each software described here relates to one or more activities in the
process. These tools are subject to continuous development and numerous innovations, especially in the
area of construction management solutions. Cost-effective network design using one-time or recurring
automated design and right first time deployment helps reduce CAPEX. Of course, these tools also
introduce recurring costs that can impact both CAPEX and OPEX.
It is crucial that tools are tightly integrated to ensure a smooth end-to-end flow. As tools are provided by
different vendors, they must be willing to support integration, which can be complex in some cases. The
more seamless the integration, the greater the efficiency, and the lower the OPEX.

Section 7.2
Power of
Digitalisation
A FTTH project consists of different steps. It begins with key decisions regarding what, when, and where to
build. The network then needs to be designed, built and documented. Once constructed customers must
be activated. Network management systems and practices must also be designed and implemented.
We live in a world where everything is done in a digital way, but the processes used to handle FTTH
projects are frequently still done in an unintegrated way.
In this chapter we will look at the different digital tools that can be used in these process.
• The main purpose each tool serves

• Which features are crucial in a particular setup
• How these tools integrate
Below is an overview of the enitre project process. The different tools that can be used throughout are
shown together with the necessary integrations.
In addition to the specific tools used in each step of the process, there are also tools such as the Corporate
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), CRM (Customer Relationship Management) and BI (Business
Information) dashboards. These solutions are used for the operational and strategic management of
the business. Preferably, these tools are also integrated with the tools that are specifically used for fibre
projects. However, they will not be described further in this chapter.

Project Phase

Plan
The main goal of this step is to determine in what geographical area in which the FTTH network will be
built and the end points, for example customer locations.
Tools
Demand aggregation
Purpose: Determine which areas have the highest potential adoption rate and have the best positive
impact on the business case.
Key activities and deliverables:
• Define target geographical a fibre deployment is being considered.

• Website to allow future subscribers in each area sign up for a fibre connection.
• Keep track of the potential take-up rate in each area.
• Discover which areas are most interesting (highest ROI) to roll out.
Geo Analytics
Purpose: Combine geographic, marketing, technological and cost information to analyse the business
potential of deploying fibre in a particular area.
• Collect data from different sources in a geographical tool to drive decisions

(non-exhaustive list)
o Cost information for the rollout

o Current network footprint
o Geo-marketing information (household income numbers, population composition)
o Average Revenue Per User (ARPU)
o Potential business-related broadband requirements
• Advanced NPV/ROI analysis capabilities to determine the optimal roll-out plan

• Visualize the business potential of selected areas

Auto-Design
Purpose: Provide detailed cost information about the network deployment in an area
• GIS driven automatic network calculation.
o As detailed as possible, taking into account existing infrastructure and the layout of
an area
• Automatically generate cost estimate based on the design
o Increased accuracy compared to legacy tools like spreadsheet extrapolation
• Support for all GIS information that could impact the design and cost of the network
• Configure network architecture rules, material, civil works and the cost information to use
during the design calculation
Physical Network Inventory

Purpose: Provide information about the current network footprint that can be used in the planning
• Holds complete physical network information: all the cables, ducts and connectivity. The
available capacity of infrastructure is also available.
• Holds customer information: Building locations, building entry points, Home count,
demographic information.
Design
The main goal of this step is to create the design of the network. This design should be ready for
construction. This means that the physical constraints of the equipment and civil works should be checked,
the right permits are available, and the situation in the field should be considered.

Tools
Auto-Design
Purpose: Create feasible network design
• Automatic calculation of the network design

o The network design should contain the locations of all the equipment to be deployed
and how everything should be connected: all cables, ducts, closures, structures.
o The calculation should consider the equipment and civil works costs, equipment
constraints, architecture and geographical constraints of the area.
• Generate bill of materials for the complete network

o The bill of materials should list all the material and civil works that are required with
the costs.
• Capabilities to adjust and edit the design based on Quality Control, permits or
survey feedback

Purpose: Provide an overview of the current and future fibre infrastructure
• Contains all existing network infrastructure with available capacity and existing
customer connections
• Store future infrastructure that is designed to be built
• Visualise connectivity information, connectivity reports (fibre, cable, ducts, etc.)
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

Purpose: Get a view on the situation in the field from your desktop to minimise need for field visits.
• Visualise data that is captured using mobile laser scanning e.g. field survey car.
o Build 3D point cloud from the collected data
o Visualise image data and 3D point cloud
• Possibility to overlay and edit GIS data

Mobile Field App
Purpose: Collect survey and field information about an area
• Solution for tablet or smartphone to visualise and edit GIS data in the field
• Collect GIS data and properties of the data in the field e.g. additional buildings with home
count, correct location of existing infrastructure with the available capacity, obstructions
such as trees, fire hydrants or blocked conduits
• Collect notes and images on the locations
The capabilities of a mobile field app are also included in a construction management solution (described
in the ‘Build’ section).
Build
The main goal of this step is to efficiently construct the network while controlling the costs and schedules
of managing various stakeholders. Integrating systems and maintaining GIS attribution are key to reducing
operational costs and data errors.
Tools
Auto-Design
Purpose: Create design ready for construction
• Create network design with all connectivity information automatically

o Crucial information at this stage: how to connect ducts, cables and fibres; how to
lay everything in trenches or connect to poles
• Generate to-build plans for the construction teams

o All the information on how the network should be built can be generated by the
auto-design solution

Purpose: View of current and future infrastructure
• Hold existing infrastructure

• Store future infrastructure that will be built
• Update as-built infrastructure during construction
Construction management
Purpose: Tracking project lifecycle and milestones of financials and schedules. Stakeholder collaboration
between office and field for work assignments and issue resolution, ultimately in the capture of accurate
GIS ‘as-built’ data.
• Upload design and convert into work packages

• Auto-creation of work breakdown structure and detailed project schedules
• Coordinate work assignments and crew dispatching
• Full project management to monitor rollout, issues and costs related to labour/materials.
• Real time field updates and ticketing via integrated web and mobile tools.
• Health & Safety compliance
• Quality assurance and inspection approvals
• Contractor management
• As-built data collection, approvals and construction documentation
The term Field Management is also commonly used in the industry for these kinds of tools.

Operate
The main goal of this step is to manage and operate the live network. After the network has been
constructed, customers need to be connected. At this point, the operational lifecycle of the network
starts with network extensions, maintenance, fault resolution, offering service providers access to the
infrastructure, and more.
Tools
Purpose: Manage physical network covering entire passive network, both inside and outside plant.
• Digital twin of the network: Documentation of the assets reflecting the way the network
was built. The equipment and connectivity that was built should be documented in the
exact same way in the physical network inventory
• Support service assurance by enabling physical fault location (e.g. a fibre cut) through
OTDR tracing
• Support design and build for network upgrades and new customer connections
• Provide network data for inspection processes, e.g. pole locations
• Provide network data for regulatory and company reporting
OSS/BSS (Operation Support Systems/ Business Support Systems)

Purpose: Enable network operators to efficiently and reliably offer services to end customers by managing
the interaction between the customer and the network to allow efficient network operations.
OSS/BSS typically references a wide set of activities. The TM Forum provides a comprehensive overview
of all the applications. They classify the applications in different domains: Market sales, customer, product,
service, resource, business partner, enterprise, integration. For each domain there are also different
categories: strategy to readiness, operations readiness & support, fulfilment, assurance, billing & revenue
management. In each of these there are different applications, each serving their own need.
tmforum.org

Some example applications are: customer management, order management, ticket management, address
management, service provisioning, service monitoring, resource management, resource controller.
Some example applications for two domains:
• Customer domain: Customer Order Management (Fulfilment), Customer Problem

management (Assurance), Billing Account Management (Billing & Revenue management)
• Service Domain: Service Catalogue Management (Strategy to Readiness), Service Inventory

Management (Operations Readiness & Support), Service Order Management (Fulfilment),
Service Quality Management (Assurance)
Construction Management
Purpose: Streamline any works that have to be carried out on the network.
What:
• Upload design and convert into work packages

• Auto-creation of work breakdown structure and detailed project schedules
• Coordinate work assignments and crew dispatching
• Full project management to monitor rollout, issues and costs related to labour/materials.
• Real time field updates and ticketing via integrated web and mobile tools.
• Health & Safety compliance
• Quality assurance and inspection approvals
• Contractor management
• As-built data collection, approvals and construction documentation.
Integrations
Integration of the various tools is essential to ensuring a smooth process from start to finish. Below are
examples of how different types of integration can benefit the FTTH project.
Demand aggregation & Auto-design

The auto-design solution can provide information about the cost of the deployment in a particular area.
This information can be used to set the target take-up rate of each area to optimise the business case.
A higher target take-up rate can be set for areas that are more expensive to deploy and lower target take-
up rate can be set for areas that are cheaper.
Geo-Analytics & Auto-design

The auto-design solution can provide information about the cost of the deployment in a particular area.
This information can be combined with geo-marketing information to create a more accurate business case
analysis.
Geo Analytics & Physical Network Inventory

The current network footprint and customer data that is stored in the Physical Network Inventory can be
used as input data for geo-analysis.

Survey tools & Auto-Design
Collect GIS input data in the field that can be used by the auto-design solution: e.g. building locations with
home count, poles, existing infrastructure. Verify the design created by the auto-design solution in the field.
This is necessary to make sure that the proposed design can actually be built. The required changes are
captured with the survey tool and sent back to the auto-design tool.
LiDAR & Auto-Design

Collect GIS input data from the office that can be used by the auto-design solution. Verify the design
created by the auto-design solution with the field situation from the desktop. A big part of the design
can be checked this way but, there might be a need for a field survey as well. Capture the changes to the
design and send them back to the auto-design tool.
Physical Network Inventory & Auto-Design

The auto-design tool requires GIS data of the target area as input data. This information can be retrieved
from the Physical Network Inventory. The proposed design can be imported into the Physical Network
Inventory. This provides a central view of the future state of the Network. The Physical Network Inventory
can also be used as the GIS platform with auto-design as an integrated service.
Auto-Design or Physical Network Inventory & Construction management

Post the design and to-build plans from the auto-design tool or the Physical Network Inventory to the
construction management. Generate work breakdown structure in the construction management from the
design elements.
Construction Management & Physical Network Inventory

Query inventory and equipment to determine appropriate work item structures. Upload GIS as-built data
from Construction Management to Physical Network Inventory.
Physical Network Inventory & OSS

Link the physical and logical layer to enable process automation by providing the relationship between the
physical fibre optic and the customer services running over the fibre.
OSS/BSS applications
Typically there are multiple applications the operator uses to cover the activities of OSS/BSS. These
applications should be integrated as much as possible to avoid any ‘silo effects’ and inefficiency.

Section 7.3
IT System Strategies
There are two approaches to IT system selection. One is Best-of-Breed: choosing the best solution for
each element or application, such as OSS/BSS. This delivers the best features and functionality. The Best-
in-Class approach is the most widely used. In this case, proven solutions offer user-friendliness, reliability,
familiarity and solid service and support.
Best-in-Class Solutions
Certain solutions from well-known brands are used across a wide range of industries and markets. They are
widely adopted and generally regarded as a safe option.
These multi-industry systems are categorised by a high degree of flexibility as a result of their need to
function across a wide range of sectors. They typically feature generic core business logic and data models
with limited or no industry-specific support.
These systems offer several advantages, including their widespread adoption. They also come with
disadvantages. Often, these are not fully realised before investments have been made and considerable
time has been spent on integrating the solutions.
A disadvantage is the fact that suppliers typically cannot provide best practices to fully support the
telecom and fibre business. The result of the lack of industry-specific know-how and the need for heavy
customisation require extensive implementation projects. One of the most important factors affecting the
outcome of an IT project is its size.
The bigger the project, the higher the risk of failure, and - correspondingly - the lower the chance of
success. The charts below assess the value for different projects by comparing gains with investments.
Looking at the charts, it becomes evident that one risks not achieving the expected value when working
with large implementation projects.
Illustration from ‘The CHAOS report’, The Standish Group.

Illustration from ‘The CHAOS report’, The Standish Group.
Best-of-Breed Solutions
Best-of-Breed means individual systems are used to solve specific tasks. Each department can cherry-
pick what they believe to be the best system for them. One issue with that approach is the fact that many
business processes in our industry are cross-functional and tend to involve everything from marketing and
sales to finance and operations.
These solutions involve multiple departments, coordination, and interaction between different systems in
order to automate the end-to-end process. To grow efficiently, process automation is essential. Achieving
this requires integration of these different systems.
Imagine you want to automate the order-to-cash process for a broadband service, with a Best-of-
Breed approach that would involve multiple systems. Each integration here needs to be implemented,
developed, and maintained. Now, imagine we need to upgrade one system. One consequence could be
having to update and spend time and money re-engineering all the different integrations involved in that
system.
Illustration – ‘Best-of-Breed systems landscape’.

We often see this happen in a Best-of-Breed scenario, because it is easy to end up in a situation where the
integrations are not carried out at all, or gradually degrade. The result will often be a landscape of isolated
systems that do not work together.
According to a quote on the Ultra Consultant software blog “The downside of a best-of-breed approach is
the issues associated with multiple systems, databases, and vendors.”
Although there are certainly merits to the Best-of-Breed approach, it is essential to understand its risks and
the potential long-term costs that result from its complexity.

Section 7.4
Conclusion
As shown in this chapter, many tools are involved in a fibre project. These must be well integrated to
optimise the process. It is also crucial that the correct processes are in place and that the selected tools
and their integrations fit within those processes as well as the ecosystem of adjacent tools. In the following
chapters we will discuss the activities within the Build and Operate processes itself in more detail.

Chapter 8
Strategic Design
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Key Access Architectures
Section 8.1
Introduction
‘Strategic Design’ refers to the process of making a selection from a broad range of network architectures
and choosing topologies based on particular customers’ needs. Decisions taken in this phase will directly
impact CAPEX, business case outcome, design, procurement, passive and active material selection, OPEX,
and more. These decisions will largely be driven by the information presented and issues discussed in
Chapters 2-7. The importance of the strategic design phase in a FTTH deployment cannot be overstated. It
has vast implications for the subsequent stages of the end-to-end process.
This section provides an overview of considerations which are important at this stage of the process.
Because FTTH deployments are highly dependent on context, there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach.
Network topologies must be thought out and selected according to a ‘Best Fit’ approach. The intention
during this stage is not to set stringent detailed design rules. Rather, it is to define a set of planning and
design guidelines that help steer the build of the Network within a set of approved network architectures.

Section 8.2
Key Architecture
Decisions
The access network is essentially the connection of end customers to an aggregation node, incorporating
everything in between. It connects active equipment, such as Optical Line Terminals (OLTs), to the end
customer via different passive elements. Various types of topology can be used to serve a variety
of customers.
Point-to-point (P2P)
From a technical perspective, this is the simplest topology for designing and building FTTH networks. P2P
architectures are the best choice for segregating passive infrastructure and active equipment, as they are
technically agnostic to any networking technology protocols. This option also provides a longer physical
reach, as the number of passive elements between the access node and the end customer are limited, thus
reducing attenuation of the optical signal. This architecture is mostly used to serve specific bandwidth-
heavy customers such as large businesses and mobile backhaul.
Point-to-multipoint (P2MP)
This topology is much more cost-efficient, owing to its ability to dramatically reduce the number of fibres
in the fixed access network. This reduction is a consequence of using optical splitters which can divide the
optical signal from the access node to multiple end-points. P2MP-based Passive Optical Network (PON) is
the most widely selected topology deployed as the default solution.

Converged Networks
The concept of a converged network refers to the consolidation of all types of broadband services into a
common fibre infrastructure. In other words, it is the approach of building a single infrastructure that has
the ability to deliver, through optical transmission, all types of service. These include, but are not limited to,
FTTH to SDUs, MDU, 4G and 5G wireless sites, small cells, large businesses and government sites. Studies
show that this approach yields a better return on the business case in the long term, even though it will
require a larger initial investment.
Converged networks must be capable of serving both P2P and P2MP connectivity. This requires an agnostic
infrastructure which can be delivered through various means. One example is implementation of a bypass
ODF in the passive network. In this way, it becomes possible to circumvent splitters used in a P2MP
connection and simply connect the customer to a P2P connection with minimal disruptions.
Building this type of network is not always possible of course, but should be closely considered from the
onset. Nevertheless, it is critical to consider, as a general approach to your strategic design rules, the
implementation of sufficient civil infrastructure (poles, ducts, chambers...) to meet present and future fibre
demand requirement. This infrastructure is a major portion of the CAPEX. Given its impact on permitting
and wayleaves, it it is important to try implementing once in a given area. It is also vital to ensure there will
be sufficient spare infrastructure capacity to add fibre cables, closures and other network element in the
future without having to dig another trench for example.
Redundancy
The resilience of the network is an important consideration. We know building redundancy is costly and
presents technical challenges. However, making certain decisions upfront can save costs.
• Should a certain level of redundancy be built on the feeder layer to avoid a single point
of failure?
• Is this only applicable to high density areas where large businesses are located?
• Do some remote access nodes need to be protected with diversified feeder paths?
• Should a simpler redundancy be built at the splitter input?
• Is a ring topology foreseen from the get-go?
With developments such as IoT, 5G, Cyber-Security and Network Service Level Agreements resulting in
growing demand for network protection, considering redundancy requirements in advance will save technical
headaches and costs in the future.
Splitting
Passive optical splitters are widely used in FTTH networks, especially with GPON. Numerous configurations
are possible and the choice depends on a wide range of factors. A signal can be split from 4 to 64 splitting
output ports whilst splitting input port are 1 or 2 (where 2 is widely used for resilient architectures based in
diversity paths). A wide range of splitters are available.
• What splitting ratios should be used?

• How does this impact the optical link budget and physical reach to customers?
• What types of customer are being served?
• Where should the splitters be located?
These are just a few important considerations to account for in the decision-making process.
Running different scenarios to compare impacts is key. For example, a distributed 1:64 split versus a single
1:32 split comparison will show advantages and drawbacks for both. In a converged network approach,
building a flexible network that allows splitting scenarios to be tailored can prove to be a major advantage.

Feeders
The feeder network is the ‘jugular’ of the access network and requires careful consideration. Fibre count
is a key parameter. Feeders can range from 48 fibres to cables of over 3000 fibres. The higher the count,
the broader your FTTH footprint. However, there are some drawbacks to consider. For example: cable cuts
do happen. If this happens on a very high count feeder the OPEX related to the repair of this cut will be
considerable. Hence, if very high count feeder cables are used, maybe a level of redundancy should also
be investigated? Again, these decisions are contextual.
Wholesale or open access providers should also consider the amount of spare capacity their feeder
networks would require. As mentioned previously, this spare capacity should be considered for the civil
infrastructure (overhead and underground) as well as feeder cables. Remember, blowing a fibre cable into
an existing duct is less costly than trenching to install a new duct. Permitting and wayleaving usually are not
required if the duct is already in place. These decisions also impact the number of remote access nodes
(closures and/or cabinets) that will be served by the feeder network.
Distribution
This portion of the network links the feeders and the drops. Considerations here are influenced by
decisions made in the feeder and drop networks. The footprint capacity of the remote access node - an
important consideration - is influenced by different variables. For example, in overhead networks, loading
limitations will greatly affect the size of the closures you can place on poles. The area density and type
also influence the remote node size. The same node capacity may not be required for dense commercial
areas as you would for urban neighbourhoods with mostly Single Dwelling Units. The technical skills of
field technicians are another vital factor in selecting the type of remote node (easy access cabinet versus
overhead/underground closure?). Like the feeder layer, distribution cable sizes should also be studied.
Comparing scenarios could prove useful in selecting optimised cable sizes. Do not forget to account for the
dimensioning of your access terminals, which is the aggregation of the drop network.
Drop
It is strongly recommended to build the overhead and underground drop infrastructure from the outset.
Fibre connectivity can then be implemented on-demand. The area density and demographic layout is a
determining factor of the drop network. In fact, the common practice is to design the drop network first,
going back to your access nodes to ensure capacity alignment throughout all your network elements.
Specifically in the drop network, considerations such as the size of infrastructure, access terminal capacity,
drop cables and distances are important. Not to forget that private land owners may be impacted by the
FTTH networks, and designers and construction crews may require options at customer premises (e.g. pull
boxes at the customer property lines). This influences the cable length needed to serve subscribers. In turn,
the density of the area, type of customer, and the type of building (such as SDU, MDU, wireless site) will
impact decisions.

Conclusion
Decisions made in terms of network architecture have a direct impact on the materials needed to build
the FTTH network. These include ducts, cables, closures, cabinets, splitters, OLTs, ONUs and much more.
In turn, these materials are directly linked to the CAPEX estimation of the FTTH business case, eventually
leading to the creation of uniform Plan, Design, Build and Operate guidelines. The specific context in which
the FTTH build takes place is a determining factor. For example, splicing is a precise, specialised technical
activity that requires highly skilled technicians. Connectorised plug-and-play solutions reduce the risk that
manual splicing represents, though material costs are generally higher and usually result in higher signal
attenuation than an excellently performed manual splice. If the feeder network requires high-count cables,
consider using ribbon cables to improve splicing.
Designing a network with a set of pre-approved materials that meet the architecture requirements is a
definite ‘must’ in an optimised FTTH deployment. Determining this list of materials in advance helps
accelerate the procurement process and ensure their availability.
These strategic design studies can be greatly improved by using software tools that enable a fast and
accurate output to campare scenarios. For example, planning and design automation software can be
used in strategic design and provide users with a quick, efficient and accurate comparison of different
topologies. More information can be found in the relevant chapters of this handbook

Section II:
Build
In this section, we will take a closer look at designing and deploying a network, as well as testing and
maintaining records. This is vital to rolling out the network in a controlled, timely manner and achieving
planned ROI, CAPEX and OPEX.
The following topics are covered:
• Converting of the results from high-level planning to detailed ‘to-build’ plans and ensuring
these are carried out exactly as intended
• Guidelines for transporting, handling and testing fibre before and after installation
• Techniques for deploying fibre and connecting customers (underground and aerial)
• Selection appropriate deployment and connection methods based on region, requirement

and business case
• The role of geographic information systems (GIS) in successful network deployment and
throughout the network lifetime
• Data management and quality
Following the build phase, the network is tested and commissioned and services are added.

Chapter 9
Network Design
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Detailed Network Design
Section 9.1
Introduction
The chosen network architecture significantly impacts the selection of approved materials (such as cables,
cabinets, and ducts), which in turn impacts the Network Planning and Design guidelines. The choice of
architecture should be carefully thought out and studied as discussed in Chapter 8.
Good network design is key to delivery of a high quality build. Detailed design is a fundamental part of the
network build process. It is also a process that evolves and changes constantly as companies develop new
tools that drive the automation and efficiency of the design process.
Consideration should also be given to distinguishing between greenfield, brownfield and shared
infrastructure.
Figure 9.1
Process flow from strategy to build.

Section 9.2
Detailed Network Design
In this stage of the planning process, results from high-level planning are converted to ‘to-build’ plans.
This involves drawing up a network plan that is accurate and detailed enough to ensure that all official
authorisations can be granted and that working instructions can be generated. Additional specification of
aspects such as network connectivity and labelling should also be included.
It is important to know the exact specification of ducts, cables, fibres and fibre connectors to avoid
incompatibility between different components during planning. This includes:
• Colour coding of duct and/or microducting systems

• Minimum bending radius for ducting and cables
• Network Policy considerations, such as maximum blowing distance, maximum aerial span,
or minimum cable specification.
• Connector compatibility constraints (for example, APC connectors cannot mate with
PC connectors)
• Mode-field diameter compatibility for fibre splicing and commissioning
Detailed Data
All data used in previous planning stages may be reused in the detailed network planning. This includes
geo-referenced data on streets, buildings, addresses with housing units, as well as database tables of
installable components, purchase and installation costs. The importance of a digitalised process using
tools such as Physical Network Inventory (PNI) is key to a good rollout. This also reduces the exponential
cost of discrepancies moving forward in the process (plan,
cost, build).
Structural decisions made in the high-level planning stage, which can be used as starting points, include:
• Number and geographical location of the POPs and FCPs

• Areas served by each POP and FCP
• Proposed routes including cable and duct installations and pole locations
In greenfield areas, input data drives decisions regarding new POP locations, together with existing POP
capacities. It is crucial that a good design considers the potential service demand of an area to ensure
capacity fulfilment and avoid future unplanned costs.
Ideally, software tools should offer appropriate export and import functionality to ease reuse of high-level
network planning results. Although much progress in the area of spatial data interoperability has been
made in recent years, any process that involves data import and export can lead to a loss of data fidelity.
To avoid this, some clients provide pre-integrated interfaces to high level network planning solutions to
aid this important step, avoiding data duplication or corruption.
In addition to the Outside Plant (OSP) detailed data, the plan must also include information needed to
complete the build out or configuration of the Inside Plant (ISP). Outside and Inside Plant work can either
be handled as two separate types of processes or as a single process.

ISP designs tend to focus on the equipment required to provide the service, but consideration is also
given to the supporting infrastructure. In the case of FTTH, the ISP aspects would include the number and
physical location of Optical Line Cards, Layer 2 switches and Optical Distribution Frames as well as the
physical rack space, power and cooling required in the central office building to support any
new equipment.
Based on the potential service demand, which in turn drives the ISP requirements for a serving area (key
considerations include distance, optical budget requirements, architecture, OLT interfaces), it is crucial that
ISP and OSP are intimately linked as inter-dependent.
Surveys
During the design phase it will be necessary to conduct a survey and verify the feasibility of the network in
order to avoid costly changes that might only be discovered during the build phase. There are two types of
surveys: desktop survey and field survey.
The desktop survey can be carried out using free tools such as Google Street View or can be based on
collected mobile mapping and LiDAR data. It is easy to check important details, such as road surface
conditions, tree locations, and street types using a desktop survey.
One of the problems with Google Street View is knowing when this data was gathered and if the data still
reflects the current situation. Therefore it is better to use mobile mapping and LiDAR technology as the
data provided is up to date, more detailed and provides additional beneficial information.
Figure 9.2
Desktop Survey using Mobile
Mapping and LiDAR data
A desktop survey entails a higher risk of cost variations, permit refusals and build blockages and would not
be the only recommended survey type for an optimal fibre network deployment process.
Field verification of the design is essential. By taking the initial design out into the field, the designer can
ensure that the resulting design will minimise any subsequent changes during construction. Tablets allow
designers to mark up required changes to the design on site, using sketching tools, notes and photos. They
can add information about obstructions and possible health and safety issues quickly and simply.
Back in the office, the designer can update the initial design by including real life situations, confident that
the final design will be optimised for the area and thus require minimal changes during construction. This
approach has a number of benefits:
• Faster design time, as fewer changes are necessary from initial to final design
• Fewer field visits required, saving time and money
• Fewer unforeseen changes and related costs during construction as the final design
is more accurate
• Faster inventory updates once design is complete; fewer changes from final design to
as-built design

Generating the construction pack
The detailed network planning phase generates ‘to-build’ plans and adds details and accuracy to the high-
level network plan. It comprises the following tasks:
• Detailed drop connection - each drop connection (from the last branching point in the
street to a building connection point) must be exactly positioned and traced
• Cable/duct-in-duct configuration - it must be specified which non-direct-buried cable and

which inner duct has been blown or pulled into which outer duct, for example by specifying
the colour and label of a microduct system
• Connector placement - for each duct system, it must be specified at which geographical
position one or more of its ducts (in particular for microduct systems) are connected, with
what type of connector and to which duct of another duct system
• Labelling - each component installation receives a unique label according to a consistent,

user-defined scheme enabling easy reference and identification for the component in the plan
• Fibre and splicing planning - at ODFs, fibre concentration points and, if conventional cabling is
used, at any other cable connection points, it is necessary to define precisely which pairs of
fibres are spliced together and in what tray the splice will be located

Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe
Figure 9.3
Fibre splicing schematic recording fibre colours, allocations and terminations.
162
The resulting documentation comprises accurate and complete information for upgrading, troubleshooting or
restoring a network:
• Documentation of the ‘to-build’ network

• Documentation of POPs including rack space and placement of active and passive equipment
• Generation of work instruction plans for complex objects such as ODF and Optical Splitters
• Reporting of overall summaries, material lists, cost lists and fibre blow lists
• All required permit and way leave references
• Designer Risk Assessment
‘To build’ plans are primarily intended for the build technicians. These plans can then be modified into ‘as-
built’ records, which will then be the driver for the PNI update, which in turn is the source for operations
and maintenance. Changes made at the implementation stage can be a time-consuming and costly result
of inaccurate design. This can be traced back to the input data and design discrepancies. As such, the aim
should be that as-built documents are a perfect reflection of network designs to avoid cost variations and
unwanted delays. Of course, some changes will occur and the as-built document process should be thoroughly
understood to ensure any changes are reflected back into the PNI as this will later help OAM activities and
future builds in the area.
Job Management
In contrast to many operations that take place in a modern telecommunications network, network construction
can take a long time - perhaps several months or years - to complete. Usually large network changes are
broken down into smaller projects (or jobs) and consequently many vendors have adopted a ‘long transaction’
or job-based approach to detailed design production. Think about a ‘job’ being a collection of all the changes
required to realise a network modification. Jobs can be small, such as connecting a new building to an existing
fibre network, or large, for example the construction of a new FTTH serving area.
In the detailed planning phase, it is particularly important that detailed planning tools support both manual
changes for individual configurations and automation of mass data operations that are consistent over the
complete plan (such as equipment naming and labelling). This flexibility will improve the quality of the output
whilst reducing labour costs associated with drawing up the detailed design.

Chapter 10
Installation
Techniques
10.1 Fibre Deployment
10.2 Underground Installation
10.3 Aerial Installation
10.4 Customer Connection
Section 10.1
Fibre Deployment
In European FTTH rollouts, a variety of different optical fibre deployment techniques are commonly used.
This chapter discusses the main techniques for installing feeder and distribution cables, and presents a
short overview of customer connection types.
Network topologies and physical infrastructures vary from one country to the next, and from one city to
the next. What’s more, a mix of solutions may be used within a single building. The choice of topology is
largely determined by the local situation. The closer you get to the end user, the less likely a ‘one size fits
all’ connection solution can be used. Customer connection choices depend on a variety of factors, such as
local and national guidelines, constraints, legacy infrastructure, or whether you need to connect MDUs or
MDUs.
Figure 10.1
Overview of the main techniques utilised for network distribution and last mile connections in different countries.
Telecom operators decide which method to apply after evaluating a variety of factors, such as existing
local infrastructure, cost, and regulations. Usually, multiple deployment methods are used in the same
network. For each country, the choice of method depends largely on the region and population density.
For example, in metropolitan areas duct installations are more commonly used whereas aerial installations
facilitate a lower cost and faster deployment in rural areas.
General Installation Considerations

This section provides general information on the installation of underground and aerial fibre optic cables,
ducts, and (protected) microducts. The descriptions of methods given in this chapter are intended as
guidelines, and should not be regarded as ‘instructions for use’.

During installation, the characteristics of the optical cables, ducts, microducts and protected microducts
may be affected by several factors such as excessive pulling force, sharp bends and crushing forces. These
effects may not yet be visible during the installation or commissioning phases of the work. Sometimes,
degradation of the network will not be apparent until long after installation has been completed. For this
reason, extra care must be taken throughout the entire installation process.
Drum manipulation, transportation and storage

Optical cables and ducts are typically supplied on large spools, also called ‘drums’. Respecting the basic
rules for handling drums during transport, storage and unpacking are the first steps to deploying reliable
optical infrastructure. During transport and manipulation, using a forklift or electric hoist equipment is
essential to avoiding any impact on drums.

Safely moving drums with a forklift Safely moving drums with an electric hoist
Drums should never be dropped or rolled from a higher step.
Figure 10.4
Never roll the drum from a high step or the back of a truck

Cable drums can be rolled over a flat surface for
short distances. Avoid rolling over long distances to
prevent cables or duct from getting stuck onto the
drum.
Roll the drum in the direction of the arrow to

prevent cables or ducts from loosening.
Figure 10.5
Drum rolling direction
During transport, fix the drums tightly onto the

truck, blocking movement in all directions. There
should be no contract between the truck bed and
the upright cable reel in order to protect the cable/
duct drum from jolting truck movements.
Figure 10.6
Fixing the drums for transport
If the diameter of the drum is larger than 1 metre, the drum should be positioned vertically to avoid
permanent deformation of the cable/duct.
Figure 10.7
Vertical positioning
Avoid direct contact between the duct/cable and adjacent drums, which may lead to breakages in the
cables/ducts. Fix the drums to avoid rolling, especially on uneven ground.
Figure 10.8
Avoid resting the drum on the cable

Unpacking the drums
To unpack, take apart the protective wooden planks by tapping on their edges from the rear or by
using a crowbar.
Figure 10.9
Remove the protective wooden planks
Remove nails as soon as possible and thoroughly check the drum interior. Remove any remaining sharp
objects that may possibly injure the cable/duct, such as splinters.
Figure 10.10
Remove nails or splinters
To prevent the cable/ duct from being damaged, gather the packing parts into a box as quickly as possible.
Figure 10.11
Storing packaging materials

Preparing the Installation
Pre-survey
A pre-survey of the route is vital to planning for any optical cable or duct infrastructure installation. During
the pre-survey, the nature and extent of work required along the proposed route is determined. Each
section of the route should be prepared properly prior to cable or duct placement. One objective of
the pre-survey is to determine the optimal position of each drum along the route. In optical fibre cable
deployments, slack and splice locations and cable storage requirements also need to be considered.
The pre-survey is carried out to verify construction methods, special tool requirements, and whether the
prerequisites for the project are still valid. If necessary, changes can be proposed. These changes can
include modifying the placement of manholes, splice closure positions or adaptations to the route.
The characteristics of the ground along the route also need to be investigated. Roads, trees or other
obstructions that could hinder placement should be noted. Existing infrastructure elements such as
manholes or poles are to be inspected and checked. Utilities and services need to be located and avoided.
Required repairs or replacements of those elements should be documented. It is also essential to check
whether all infrastructure elements can be accessed with tools and equipment, such as splicing vehicles.
Once the cable route survey has been completed and availability of equipment and manpower resources
has been examined, an installation plan is developed.
Optical cable handling during installation

During installation, optical cable parameters must be known and respected. Failing to observe these can
result in damage, with effects that may not be apparent until years after the initial rollout.
The most important parameters:
Installation load
Cable manufacturers’ datasheets specify a value for the maximum force that can be applied to a
cable during the installation process. Observing this ensures that any strain imparted to the fibres
is within safe working limits. Protection elements such as mechanical fuses protect the cable if the
pulling force is exceeded.
Bend radius
During installation, cables may be bent. Exceeding the specified bend radius will increase
compression forces on the cable core. This, in turn, can result in tube deformation and possible
fibre damage or increased attenuation increases. In general, the bend radius is specified as 20x the
cable diameter during tension/installation conditions and 10-15x in static conditions. Cable should
never be pulled across edges or sharp corners.
Torsion
Cables can easily become twisted during installation. If a cable is installed from an improperly
wrapped coil, it may become twisted as it is pulled. In most cases, there will be no visual indication
of twisting on the surface of the cable. However, twisting could result in deformed tubes, increased
attenuation and even fibre breakage. For this reason, swivels must be used on the cable end to
prevent accumulation of cable twist during pulling.

Figure 10.12
Cable-pulling swivel tool
When optical cable needs to be removed from the drum, fleeting (pulling a section of cable) should
always be done in a figure-eight pattern. This minimises the accumulation of cable twist. Fibre optic
cables should not be coiled in a continuous direction, with the exception of lengths of 30 metres
or less. Fleeting can be done by machines. However, these machines should be chosen carefully to
ensure they do not exceed the cable bend radius.
Other parameters that can affect optical cables performance include crush, impact and kink. During
installation and manipulation of the cables, care must be also taken to avoid exceeding values related to
these parameters.
Cable termination and jointing

As shown here, optical cables are terminated or
jointed in closures, shelves or boxes. To access the
fibres, the cables need to be opened. The optical
cables can have different structures. It is advisable
to consult the cable manufacturer before opening
the cable to access the fibres.
Figure 10.12
If buffers are to be stored inside connectivity Splice closure and slack storage
elements such as closures or boxes, or if spare cable
lengths are to be stored in a manhole, always check
there is sufficient space available.
Cable elements such as the outer sheath, central

strength members, or radial strength members must
be properly secured. A properly terminated cable
will prevent any movement of these components,
thereby addressing safety, reliability and
performance concerns. Figure 10.13
Fixing elements
Commissioning
To ensure activities are carried out correctly to record all steps and test results. This starts at the moment
drums with cables and ducts are received. An initial visual inspection may reveal whether goods have been
damaged during transport and manipulation. It is also possible to carry out tests for example, a sponge or
ball bearing can be blown to test ducts, or an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) measurement
can be performed on optical cables to establish their integrity.
During installation of ducts and cables, parameters can be recorded, and pictures can be made and stored
for future analysis. Last, but not least, optical performance must be measured and recorded following
procedures such as those described in ITU-T Recommendation G.650.3

Section 10.2
Underground Installation
Underground optical cables are installed in ducts, microducts or direct buried. In the following section the
techniques used to install ducts are described.
Duct and Microduct Installation

Different techniques may be used to install duct and microduct networks that host optical cables. The most
commonly used methods are described in the following sub-sections.
When an existing duct system, such as PVC 100 mm conduits, is in place, it is possible to install sub-ducts
such as standard HDPE telecom ducts, microducts or a combination of both. The methods to install the
sub-units in an existing network are also described.
Ducts, microducts and protected microducts in trenches

This is a traditional deployment technique for the installation of new ducts. Depending on soil conditions
and duct size, a narrow trench is excavated to a safe depth, in line with local standards and regulations.
Rocks and large stones are removed and the base is straightened and levelled. Thick walled ducts are laid
and covered by soft soil or sand.
Trenches are excavated manually or using diggers. Other options involve using trenchers - machines that
allow simultaneous trenching and duct laying. Different machines are designed for a variety of installation
conditions such as rural, rocky and urban.
Even small microducts with an Outer Diameter of 7mm can be direct-buried and used for subscriber
connections. However, these need to be thick-walled with appropriate mechanical properties including
high impact resistance. Most FTTH networks use thick walled bundles of microducts that allow quick and
easy installation and duct routing.
Figure 10.14
Protected microducts laid in open trenches

Micro-trenching
In some cases, traditional trenching may not be possible due to ground conditions. There could be rock
or concrete under the soil, for example. Instead, deep, narrow trenches can be created by using a rotary
tooth. This approach, known as ‘micro-trenching’, results in minimal ground displacement at the side of the
trench. Typical excavation speed would be 1 to 3 metres per minute.
Figure 10.15
Micro trenching deployment technique
It is possible to use low-impact trenching to install (protected) microducts. The process is less invasive
in terms of time and space. Construction size is considerably smaller than when using other trenching
technologies.
This type of narrow trench uses machinery with reduced dimensions and is ideal for urban areas, as a much
smaller quantity of waste material is produced. The working site can be opened and closed on the day
the trench is cut and earth is removed using a suction machine. Typically, a <5cm wide and <40 cm deep
trench would be cut and filled with microducts containing flat bundles. A technique approved by the local
authority is used to backfill the trench, returning structural integrity to the roadway. The trench is then
sealed flush with the surface.
The main advantages of this technique when compared with traditional cable laying techniques is the fact
that it causes the smallest possible disruption to traffic and road surfaces. Removing waste and cleaning the
road surface after installation is quick and relatively easy.

Piercing tools
Piercing tools offer an easy-to-use and cost-effective alternative to trenching. They are ideal for
installing utility cabling beneath existing landscapes and structures. A pneumatic tool creates a
compressed hole by compacting surrounding materials. This allows the network constructor to
install FTTH lines under buildings, streets and open spaces with little disruption to the environment.
This is a relatively inexpensive non-disruptive technology, as the full package comprises a
compressor, an air hose and couplers that connect the piercing tool to the air supply.
Figure 10.16
Horizontal Directional Drilling

In urban areas, alternatives to excavation are limited. By using Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
a variety of duct sizes can be installed between two points over distances that are only restricted
by the product pipe. Existing utilities and surface obstacles can be crossed at a safe distance. The
HDD technique is widely used wherever traffic surface and neighbourhood disruption need to be
kept at a minimum.
Figure 10.17
Mole ploughing
With an increasing number of rural areas being connected to FTTH networks, high speed, low
cost techniques are essential to the success of rural rollouts. Mole ploughing is a fast underground
installation technique ideally suited to rural conditions. Installation times can be shortened by
adding vibratory movement to the plough blade, while reducing surface disruptions and limiting
machine size.

Figure 10.18
Mole plough
Mole ploughing involves pulling a narrow blade through the ground to cut the soil and make room
for direct duct installation. Ducts are then guided through a hollow chute directly behind the blade.
Multiple ducts can be stacked. This technique involves minor surface disruptions and does not
require backfilling. Tyre compaction restores the plough path and the first rain will remove physical
signs of installation. Typical installation speed is 8 to 12 metres per minute.
Pulling
The pulling technique to install sub-ducts inside existing ducts is effective only for short distance
installations. Therefore, it is mainly used in sections shorter than 100m. A draw-rope must be put
in place or installed ahead of the cable. The microduct or microduct bundle should be fitted with
a swivel allowing free movement as it is installed. In addition, a fuse is required, which is set at or
below the micro-duct’s tensile strength.
Ducts can be pulled by hand or by using winches. The maximum pulling force should never be
exceeded, or micro-ducts will be squeezed and damaged.

MD Bundles attached to draw-rope Bundles pulled in main duct
A lubricant can be used to reduce friction between the ducts and the sub-ducts, thus reducing the
tensile load. The minimum bend radius represents the smallest sub-duct coil stored within a cable
chamber. Suitable pulleys and guiding devices should be used to ensure the minimum dynamic
bend radius is maintained during installation.

Air blowing
Air blowing or jetting is a technique used to install microducts into existing sub-ducts. This
very effective and fast installation process is used to increase duct capacity in FTTH Networks.
Thin-walled microducts are blown in as a bundle. This technique allows deployment of different
microduct size combinations and brings flexibility to the network.
A special cable-jetting machine with additional equipment for microduct blowing, which includes
a compressor, is used in the blowing procedure. When blowing into empty sub-ducts, lengths
of 1000m or more can be achieved. Microducts can be also blown into occupied cable ducts;
however, the distances involved are much shorter (about 100-300m) and may contain unknown
obstacles.
Microducts should always be pressurised before being blown into sub-ducts as this prevents them
from becoming deformed or collapsing during the blowing process as a result of compressor air
pressure.
Wherever empty sub-ducts are located in the ground, the air blowing microduct technique is the
most effective way to increase duct capacity and flexibility within a FTTH network.
Figure 10.21
Air blowing of microducts
Floating
In some cases, bundles are floated in water to achieve longer installation lengths compared to
pulling. The microducts are first filled with water, making the effective weight of the bundle in water
almost zero. This allows for very long lengths to be installed.

Underground Cable Installation in Ducts
The following descriptions of methods for placing cable in ducts are intended as guidelines. It is
impossible to cover all of conditions that might arise during an installation. Methods used for placing
fibre-optic cables in ducts are essentially the same as those used for placing copper cable in ducts.
However, the high-capacity transmission characteristics of fibre may be degraded if the cable is
subjected to excessive pulling force, sharp bends, or crushing forces. These losses may not be apparent
until long after an installation has been completed. For these reasons, extra care should be taken
throughout the installation procedure. Fibre-optic cables can be installed in a duct or sub-duct that is
already in place.
Inner ducts and sub-ducts allow efficient use of conduit space and provide a clean, low friction path,
and additional mechanical protection for the fibre-optic cable. When installing cables underground,
special care should be given to entrances/exits of manholes, handholes and pedestals. When coiling
the cable in manholes or handholes, care should be taken not to pinch the cable against any edges or
corners. Conduits and ducts should be completely free of dirt, debris, and foreign matter before cable
installation. This can be accomplished by pulling a plug or mandrel of approximately the size of the
cable to be installed through the conduit or duct prior to installation. This will loosen any burrs and help
find obstructions. It is recommended to follow this procedure with swabbing to clear out any dirt or
foreign matter. Cable lubricant should be used to reduce the friction force. Lubrication of duct can also
be considered.
Cable pulling
When cables are pulled into a duct, a pulling eye or grip may be used
to provide a connection point between the cable and the pulling line.
The pulling eye is typically factory-installed. A pulling grip is typically
field-installed in accordance with manufacturer recommendations.
A winch or capstan is used to provide the cable-pulling power. To

ensure the winch and fibre cable do not twist, a swivel should be used
on the winch line. Cables should be fitted with a swivel so that they
can move freely without twisting during installation. A fuse set at or Figure 10.22
below the cable’s tensile strength rating is also required.
Figure 10.23
Various pull lines for use with fibre-optic cables are available. Typical pull line materials are wire rope,
polypropylene, or aramid tape. The cross section of the pull line can be flat or round. Pull lines with a
relatively small diameter have a tendency to cut the inner duct when under tension.
A winch or capstan through which the cable will be pulled must have a diameter that does not exceed the
minimum bend radius of the cable when under tension. It is equipped with a device that allows the pulling
tension for the cable to be monitored. The winch or capstan must be designed in such a way that it is
capable of maintaining tension on the cable and pulling line when not taking up cable. In order to maintain
the proper bending radius as the fibre-optic cable enters the pulling manhole and exits towards the pulling
device, a fibre cable pulling sheave should be used at the pulling end.
If, during the course of the placing operation, the tension reading approaches the maximum limit it may be
necessary to stop pulling and determine the cause.

Possible reasons for a high pulling load:
• Unaccounted bends in the conduit run

• Obstruction against which the pulling hardware is catching
• Insufficient lubricant being used (only use lubricants approved by the cable manufacturer)
• Conduit is partly clogged with earth, roots which have grown into the duct or other debris
• Sub-ducts were severely twisted during installation
On encountering any of these issues, the pull will need to be stopped and the cable pulled back until the
problem can be corrected. Care must be exercised during pull-back to prevent kinking or crushing of the
cable.
The pulled-back slack must be carefully stored in a safe location. The cable must not be exposed to
possible causes of damage and should not present a hazard to workers or the public.
Before placement of the cable begins it is strongly recommended that the conduit or duct the cable is
being pulled into is ‘proven’. This can be done by passing a fibreglass duct rod or standard pneumatic
projectile through the duct. This test will identify potential problems before the fibre optic cable comes off
the security of the reel. The pulling equipment (winch or capstan) is placed at the pulling manhole.
The cable reel is placed adjacent to the feed manhole so that

the cable can be hand-fed in the manhole. The cable should
be pulled off the reel by hand and manually fed into the
manhole to reduce pulling tension.
The pull is started by engaging the winch/capstan at a slow

speed. Hand-turning the reel as the pull begins decreases the
start-up tension. After the pulling eye/grip has entered the
duct at the feed manhole, the pull speed may be increased.
The speed should be gradually increased to a maximum of
approximately 30 metres per minute. Figure 10.24
Pull Manhole Setup
The cable must be kept thoroughly lubricated, however low
the pulling tension. Surges and stops during the pull should be
kept to a minimum and, if possible, avoided altogether. Once
the cable appears in the pull manhole it may be pulled over
a sheave or quadrant block - as long as the diameter of the
sheave or block meets the cable’s minimum bend radius under
tension. No attempt should be made to inch the cable to its
final manhole length. This may cause undesirable surges to the
end portion of the cable.
During pulling, problems may be expected for a variety of

reasons such as long duct lengths, or excessive curvatures in Figure 10.25
the duct. The cable can be pulled in from two directions. The Reel End Setup
fibre-optic cable reel is first placed at the mid-feed manhole.
The pulling line is attached to the fibre optic cable and the reel is positioned in the same manner as it
would be positioned for an end pull. The pull manhole setup and the feed manhole setup are the same as
for an end pull. Communication, lubrication and cable pulling are all conducted in the same way as they
would be for an end pull.
Figure 10.26
Bi-directional Pull Start
At the mid-feed manhole, the remaining fibre-optic cable is removed from the reel. The cable must be laid
out in a large figure-eight configuration, close to the manhole opening. The cable should be kept as clean
of debris as possible by not figure-eighting it onto sand or dirt. Sand or dirt clinging to the cable will cause
increased pulling tension. Spreading out a sheet of polyethylene before beginning to figure-eight will help
keep the cable reasonably clean. Figure-eighting onto clean pavement or grass will also the possibility of
cable becoming dirty.
Figure 10.27
Bi-directional Pull Figure-eight
With all of the cable off the reel and laying on the ground in a figure-eight, the pulling line is attached
to the end of the cable and the pull is performed as before. Once the cable end has entered the duct, it
should be carefully guided from the figure-eight by hand.
Figure 10.28
Bi-directional Pull Completion
For pulling cable into a particularly long duct, a duct going uphill, or a duct with severe curves, a middle
manhole capstan pulling assist may be the solution. The figure below illustrates a middle manhole capstan
setup. At a midpoint in the duct run, a second pull capstan is positioned near the manhole. The cable exits
the manhole and wraps around the capstan. It returns into the manhole and is pulled further by the far-end
winch or capstan. The radius of the mid-pull capstan and associated sheaves or quadrant blocks must not
exceed the minimum bend radius of the cable under tension.
Figure 10.29
Mid-pull Assist Setup
When using the setup above, it is important that good communications are established and maintained
between all workers involved in the pull. The mid-pull capstan will pull first followed by the far-end winch or
capstan. To stop, the order should be reversed with the far-end winch or capstan stopping before the mid-
pull capstan stops.

Cable installation by blowing into ducts
The traditional method of pulling cables into ducts has been by largely superseded blowing methods.
This allows longer continuous lengths to be installed at a higher speed and is used to install cables in
microducts and standard telecommunication ducts.
Figure 10.30
Examples of installation by blowing
When cables are blown into a duct or a microduct, it is important that the network is airtight all along its
length. New builds will generally be airtight, but existing ducts may require checking, particularly if they are
part of a legacy network.
A balance must be struck between the inner diameter of the duct and the outer diameter of the cable. This
balance - the ‘filling factor’ - is defined as the ratio between the area of the cable section and the area of
the duct bore. For optimal performance, a filling factor of between 30% and 60% is advised. If these limits
are exceeded, air pressures higher than those provided by conventional compressors will be required to
ensure the blow length is not reduced. If the cable is too small, this can lead to installation difficulties,
particularly if the cable is overly flexible. In such cases, a semi-open shuttle attached to the cable end can
provide a solution. This type of a shuttle can also prevent the cable from getting stuck in tight bends when
the fill ratio is high and the cable stiff.
Figure 10.31
Example of a shuttle

Example of microduct cables typically installed in microducts:
Figure 10.32
Example of microduct optical fibre cables
A cable blowing head is required to blow as well as to push the cable into the duct. Pushing overcomes
friction between the cable and duct in the first few hundred meters and hauls the cable from the drum.
A suitable air compressor is connected to the blowing head. Ducts and connections must be sufficiently
airtight to ensure an appropriate flow of air through the duct. Hydraulic pressure at the blowing head must
be strictly controlled to ensure no damage occurs to the cable.
Figure 10.33
Examples of blowing installation equipment (air compressor and blowing heads)
As with installation by pulling, the duct or microduct infrastructure must be checked to ensure it is clean
and free from moisture and foreign debris, prior to starting cable installation. During installation of the
cable, care should be taken to ensure no debris and moisture can enter the tubes.
It is also important to determine the maximum pushing force the cable can withstand by performing a crash
test. Factors determining the pushing force include cable stiffness, free space for the cable in the duct,
and even the blowing device. For this, a short piece of duct (1-2 m, preferably transparent) is required.
This should have the same internal diameter as the duct into which cable will be installed, and its end stop
should be coupled to the blowing device. The cable is then inserted into the device and run against the
end stop at full speed. This is carried out with increasing pushing force until the maximum value is reached.
At this point, the drive belts or wheels slip over the cable, the cable is damaged or, as shown below, the
cable buckles in the machine or the undulation period in the duct becomes too short.

Cable buckling Undulation of cable
To avoid pressurised air from entering the cable, it is necessary to close the cable end. If this is not properly
closed, air could force the cable to become stuck inside the duct. It is recommended to use cable guiding
heads to seal the cable end.
Figure 10.36
Examples of cable guiding heads
To improve blowing performances, both duct and cable can be lubricated with specially created lubricants.
Lubricant is poured into the duct, which is spread by blowing a foam plug through. Dedicated foam plugs
in different sizes are available for different duct sizes.
Lubricators are used to coat the cable, inside a pressurised space. The way in which these lubricators are
constructed allows the airflow to bypass the cable without a noticeable drop in pressure. At the same time
the cable, which is pushed during blowing, is guided without the risk of buckling. Different sizes of cable
lubricators are available (3 mm - 50 mm OD ducts, 0.8 mm - 18 mm cables).
Figure 10.37
Cable lubricators
Monitoring devices are used to help with the installation process.
• The basic monitoring device detects and records cable installation parameters to
guarantee network quality (electronic monitoring and registration)
• A semi-automatic monitoring device features an electronic safeguard
• A fully automatic device runs the installation from start to finish in accordance with
specified optimal installation parameters

Parameters, which are measured as a function of installed length (this is also recorded), include:
• Pushing force (to avoid cable buckling, or jacket damage)

• Pressure of the injected air (blown microducts might implode depending on external
air pressure)
• Temperature of the injected air (the maximum pushing force might depend on the latter)
• Slip between the drive belts or wheels and the cable
• Ambient temperature (to check whether an after-cooler was used after the compressor)
• Cable speed (to manage risk of unspooling accidents)
Figure 10.38
Air blowing machine with monitoring capability
Cable installation by floating

Water floating is an alternative to blowing. Floating can be conducted using machinery originally designed
for blowing air and simply replacing the air with water. Compared to blowing, the smaller effective
weight during floating makes it possible to place considerably longer cables in ducts without requiring an
intermediate access point.
Floating is also a safe method of removing cables from the duct, which facilitates re-use of cable. Blowing
out cable is a common practice, which requires careful handling of the blown-out cables.
Figure 10.39
Blowing out a cable
Direct Buried Cable Installation Methods

In a direct burial installation, the cable is generally subject to more severe, uncontrolled environmental
conditions than in a duct installation. Therefore, cables used for direct burial are usually stronger than
those used for duct installation. In several regions, direct buried installation is frequently used for long
cross-country routes and in areas with low population density. In direct burial installation, cable is laid in a
trench or directly ploughed into the ground. Direct buried cables are usually placed at a depth of 0.5 - 1m
depending on soil conditions, ground surface usage and frost conditions. Deep installations (up to 1m) may
be required in agricultural fields or at road crossings. In cold climates, the cable is buried below the frost
level. Direct buried cables may be laid in lengths of 2 or 3 km, especially across fields in the countryside or
along roads.

Figure 10.40
Fibre optic cable can be buried in urban and suburban areas using trenching, where the high number of
obstacles (sidewalk and street crossings) makes ploughing impractical.
Trenching is normally conducted by using machinery. In some areas however, it may be necessary to dig
trenches by hand. 15-20 cm may be considered the minimum practical width for a trench.
Direct buried installation by ploughing

The mole plough cuts a clean, narrow channel which is 3-10 cm
wide through the soil at the required depth of 50-100 cm . The
cable is fed simultaneously during ploughing to the path, which
closes by itself or due to light pressure by the tractor wheel. The
plough consists of a cutting edge, containing one or more channels
for feeding the cable(s) to the track. These channels are designed
to stay within the allowed bending radii of the cable, permitting the
cable to pass with low friction. Cable ploughs are generally of two
types: static and vibratory. Either type may be used to install fibre
optic cable. Steerable ploughs, which can be offset to place the Figure 10.41
cable away from the centre line of the cable plough prime mover,
are available in both types.
The ploughing method can be used in almost any soil where stones or existing cables are not limiting
factors. In hard soil, a ditch can be made without the cable first, which then can be ploughed in a
second run.
Figure 10.42
Successful and economical cable ploughing depends primarily on having equipment that is sufficiently
powerful to handle the terrain conditions. Local soil conditions and cable depth are the two primary factors
in determining the size of tractor required for ploughing.
The reel carrier should allow easy installation of the reel using, for example, hydraulic lift assistance. It
should be capable of accommodating one or more reels of adequate size for the intended installation.

The cable feed system includes all the components mounted on the tractor, which supports and guides the
cable as it is fed into the plough chute. Typically, this includes a reel carrier, rollers and/or guide tubes. Use
of capstan drive units is recommended.
• All rollers or guides in the cable feed system (which cause a change in the direction of the
cable path) must conform to the minimum bend radius of the cable being placed.
• Small diameter rollers (fairleads) can be used to guide the cable over the tractor cab, if
the feed chute guide and cable reel are positioned so that the cable cannot be tensioned
over the smaller rollers.
• Fairleads should prevent the cable from becoming wedged between the vertical and
horizontal rollers.
• The cable path inside the feed chute must be clean and free of burrs, sharp edges,
stiffeners, or roughness. Welds must be smooth.
• Gussets on the divider gate in multiple chute designs should not

interfere with the smooth passage of the cable.
• The cable must feed smoothly through the chute and must not exceed the minimum
bending radius of the cable.
The starting point for the reel being ploughed should be a splice pit or hole, excavated to the required
depth. Sufficient slack should be reeled off at this point to reach a splice vehicle or splice location. The
plough should start at the required depth from the splice pit.
Figure 10.43
A figure-eight operation is necessary whenever the cable needs to be pulled through a pipe or conduit (for
example at a road, river, bridge, or railroad crossings).
Figure 10.44
Once all of the cable has been taken off the reel and is laying on the ground in a figure-eight, attach the
pulling line to the end of the cable. Begin the pull as described previously, by hand-pulling the cable out of
the figure-eight and feeding it into the pipe or conduit placed under the obstacle. Once the cable end has
entered the pipe or conduit, it should be carefully guided from the figure-eight by hand.

Figure 10.45
Direct buried installation in trench

Trenching may be used to bury fibre optic cable in urban and suburban areas where the high number of
obstacles (sidewalk and street crossings) makes ploughing impractical. The backfilling material must be
compliant with local regulations. Clean backfill should be placed at the bottom of the trench to provide
protection for the cable. On private right-of-way (ROW), earth should be mounded over the trench to
compensate for future settling. The backfilled trench may, in some cases, be satisfactorily packed down by
running the tractor or wheel of a truck along the trench line on top of the backfill. Where possible, the top
should be filled with topsoil. Rocks and debris should never be left at the bottom of the trench.
Surface compression could cause cable damage in the future. All permanent pavement and sidewalks are
to be restored to the satisfaction of the relevant authorities. Shrubs or other local vegetation that need to
be moved should be set aside and replaced when possible.
Figure 10.46

Section 10.3
Aerial installation
Aerial cables supported on poles are a cost-effective method of deploying drop cables in the final link
to the subscriber in areas with low population density. The main benefits are the use of existing pole
infrastructure to link subscribers, avoiding the need to dig roads to bury cables or create new ducts.
Aerial cables are relatively quick and easy to install, using hardware and practices already familiar to
local installers.
Load Capacity of the Pole Infrastructure and Cables

The poles to which the optical cable is to be attached may already be loaded with other cables. Pre-
existence of the pole route could be a key reason to choose this type of infrastructure. Adding cables will
increase the load borne by the poles, so it is important to check the condition of the poles and their total
load capacity. Cables, hardware and poles can resist the permanent load of the optical cables and temporal
loads caused by environmental conditions.
Environmental conditions cause extra load to the infrastructure and cables:
• Temperature changes result in length variation of the cable

• Wind applies horizontal loads to the cable and ice increases the cable weight
• Cables are rated to different environmental conditions
When selecting the aerial cable and hardware, parameters given by the installation environment must be
considered. Those parameters include, but are not limited to, the maximum span, the installation sag and
the extreme environmental conditions to which aerial cables may be subjected. In most cases, extreme
environmental conditions occur during cold season when ice forms on the cable.
They are defined as:
• Temperature
• Wind speed
• Ice thickness
Figure 10.47
Parameters for calculating aerial cables

Load
– Cable and hardware tension are typically not very high during normal weather conditions
– However, high winds and ice will significantly increase tension
– These tension increases can be severe
– The strength of the cable must be matched to the expected loading conditions
– Loaded tensions and final sag values must also be calculated to ensure proper clearances
Ice load
– Ice Loads are normally specified in the form of radial ice accumulation
– Cross-Sectional area is proportional to radius squared
– Accumulating ice will rapidly increase the weight of a span
– Increased weight causes greater tension
– Ice loads are applied vertically and will decrease clearances
– The specified ice load significantly impacts cable cost
Wind loads
Figure 10.48
– Wind loads are specified as peak wind speeds Ice Load
– Wind load is proportional to wind speed squared
– High winds dramatically increase the load on a span
– Cable loads are further increased by ice build-up
– High winds can be worse than heavy ice loads
Figure 10.49
Wind Load
In some countries, such as the UK, cables used in aerial cabling have to be designed to break if they come
into contact with high vehicles to avoid damage to the poles or buildings to which they are attached.
Types of aerial cable include circular self-supporting, such as ADSS (or similar), Figure-8, and lashed cables.
Other options such as OPGW and OPPC are less common in FTTH deployments.
Aerial installation
As indicated in previous sections, ADSS cables are all di-electric and useful where electrical isolation
is important, for example, on poles shared with power or data cables that require a high degree of
mechanical protection. This type of cable is also favoured by companies that are familiar with handling
copper cables, since similar hardware and installation techniques can be used.
Two main methods are used for placing ADSS cable. Both these methods are very similar to those methods
used to place most aerial cables.
• The stationary reel or ‘Pull-back Method’

• The moving reel or ‘Drive-out Method’

The Pull-back method
Figure 10.50
The pull-back Method of Cable Deployment
This is used in urban areas where there is no vehicle access. The reel is placed on a reel stand or reel trailer
at one end of the pull run. A braking device applies minimal braking tension to prevent overrun. Cable reel
trailers should be disconnected from their towing vehicles. The reel should be levelled and the trailer wheel
securely chocked.
Line pole hardware is attached to the poles along the cable run at the engineered height. At dead-end and
tangent locations, ‘down guys’ are placed at the correct positions according to local engineering practices.
Travelers, sheaves, or quadrant blocks are placed just above or below the installed pole line hardware at
each pole location. The pulling line is then pulled through each traveller, sheave, or quadrant block. Once
the pulling line is in place, it is attached to the ADSS cable with a swivel link and a factory installed pulling
eye. A wire mesh grip may be used when a pulling eye has not been installed.
The ADSS cable is then pulled in through the entire section using the puller and the tensioner. Care must
be taken to avoid overtensioning the cable and to avoid sagging of the cable that may introduce bends
smaller than the minimum bend radius of the cable. Several pulling stages may be required to place the
cable through the entire system.
When the entire cable has been pulled into place, starting at an end location, each dead-end to dead-
end cable length can be sagged and tensioned and support hardware can be applied according to the
installation requirements.
The Drive-out method
Figure 10.51
The Drive-out Method of Cable Deployment
The Drive-out method of cable placement is primarily used during the construction of new lines where
there is a clear right-of-way and no obstruction is caused to vehicles.
The reel of cable is placed on a reel trailer or a truck equipped with a reel carrier. The cable should pay
off the top of the reel for reel trailers and the bottom of the reel for trucks equipped with a reel carrier.
The reel trailer or reel-equipped truck should have a braking device, set to minimum. The brake is used to
prevent overrun of the reel when stopping at the support poles.

Travellers, sheaves, or quadrant blocks are placed above or below the pole mounting hardware at each
pole location. With the cable dead-ended at the starting location and minimum tension applied to the
reel brake, the reel of cable is transported along the construction route while the cable is played out. As
the reel passes each pole location, the trailer or truck must be stopped while the cable is placed into the
traveller, sheave, or quadrant block attached to the pole. The reel then travels on to the next pole where
the process is repeated. This continues until the cable is completely deployed or a dead-end is reached.
With the cable deployed, each span must be sagged and tensioned with supporting hardware. Each span
is started at the dead-end and slack is worked back towards the opposite end. An alternative method is to
sag and tension each span and install permanent hardware as the cable is being deployed.
The Figure-8 design allows easy separation of the optical package avoiding contact with the strength
member. However, with the ADSS cable design, the strength member bracket is part of the cable. ADSS
cables are equipped with special anti-tracking sheath materials when used in high electrical fields.
Lashed or wrapped cable is achieved by attaching conventional cable to a separate catenary member using
specialist equipment; this can simplify the choice of cable.
Cable elements and construction of aerial cables can be similar to those of duct and buried optical fibre
cables, as described previously. Circular designs, which can be self-supporting, wrapped or lashed, may
include additional peripheral strength members plus a sheath of polyethylene or special anti-tracking
material (when used in high electrical fields). Figure-8 designs combine a circular cable with a high modulus
catenary strength member.
Fibre counts in a feeder cable fed by an aerial route are similar to fibre counts in underground feeder
cables.
Environmental extremes to which aerial cables may be subjected need to be taken into consideration,
including ice and wind loading. Cable sheath material should also be suitably stabilised against solar
radiation. Infrastructure properties also need to be considered (such as poles, power lines, short or long
spans, loading capabilities).
Cable pole support hardware

Anchors and pole hardware must be rated above the expected environmental load of the cable, plus
a safety factor. In installations where aeolian vibration could be an issue, the safety factor should be
increased. At locations where the cable is tensioned to achieve proper sag, the pole may require a
temporary ‘down guy’ and anchor to prevent overloading the pole.
Support hardware can include tension clamps to anchor a cable to a pole or to control a change of pole
direction. Intermediate suspension clamps are used to support the cable between the tensioning points.
The cable may be anchored with bolts or preformed helical accessories, which provide a radial and
uniform gripping force. Both types of solution should be carefully selected for the particular diameter and
construction of the cable. The cable may need protection if it is routed down the pole, for example by
covering it with a narrow metal plate.
In the event of very long spans or snow or ice accretion modifying the conductor profile, right angle winds
of moderate or high speed may cause aerodynamic lift conditions that can lead to low frequency oscillation
of several metres amplitude known as ‘galloping’. Vibration dampers fitted to the line are used to reduce
the threat of metal fatigue at suspension and tension fittings.

Support hardware can include tension clamps to anchor a cable to a pole or to manage a change of pole
direction. Intermediate suspension clamps support the cable between the tensioning points. The cable may
be anchored with bolts or with preformed helical accessories, which provide a radial and uniform gripping
force. Both types of solutions should be carefully selected for the diameter and construction of the cable.
The cable may need protection if it is routed down the pole, for example by covering it with a narrow metal
plate. Hardware it is sensitive to:
- Installation tensile load (operating load)

- Maximum load (MRCL) - must be robust enough
- Cable diameter is critical - hardware needs to fit and grip the cable
- Maximum span distance
Key Hardware Types
• Dead-ends
These are used to tension the cable at the end/start of the routes and wherever there are significant
direction changes
Figure 10.52
Examples of spiral dead-ends
Figure 10.53
Examples of dead-ends used for FTTH distribution and drop cables
• Suspensions and supports
These are used to hold the cables on the poles.

Figure 10.54
Examples of suspension hardware
• Slack cable management
These are used to hold spare lengths of optical cables required to bring the junction to the ground for
operation and maintenances purposes, or to provide a slack of cable that will help to repair the optical
route in case of a cable break.
Aerial cable joint closures

Closures may be mounted on the pole or tower or located in a footway box, at the base. In addition to
duct closure practice, consideration should be given to providing protection from UV rays and possible
illegal shotgun practice, particularly for closures mounted on the pole. The closure may require a function
for the distribution of smaller drop cables.

Section 10.4
Customer Connection
In the deployment of the network the most difficult part is the customer connection, not because of the
installation but because it will require special attention. The installation of the drop cable will be done by
respecting the same principles as in any other installation. However, much more care should be taken into
respecting the installation procedures because the drop cables are much smaller and, as a consequence,
they are not as resilient as other cables used for distribution. What’s more, accessing customer premises is
not always possible at a convenient time. As mentioned before, drop cables can be installed in the same
way as standard cables.
In tubes by pushing or pulling

Examples:

Pushable drop cable Round drop cable
In tubes by blowing
Examples:

Outdoor cable for miniducts Indoor cable for miniducts

Direct buried
Examples:
Aerial
Examples:
Figure 10.61 Figure 10.62 Figure 10.63
Pre-terminated network builds

Cables and hardware can be terminated with fibre-optic connectors in the factory. This facilitates factory
testing and improves reliability, while reducing the time and the skills required in the field.
Pre-terminated products are typically used from the primary fibre concentration point in cabinets through
to the final subscriber drop. This enables the network to be built quickly, passing homes. When a subscriber
requests service, the final drop requires only a simple plug-and-play cable assembly.
There are several pre-connectorised solution methods that allow termination either inside or outside the
product closures.
Figure 10.64
Pre-terminated fully Ruggedised, environmentally sealed solutions

Figure 10.65
Pre-terminated solutions with rugged covers and standard connectors

Chapter 11
FTTH Test
Guidelines
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Connector Cleanliness & Fibre Inspection
11.3 Testing During and After Construction
11.4 Service Activation
195
Section 11.1
Introduction
Implementing a FTTH network is an expensive and time-consuming exercise. Networks require months,
if not years, of planning and civil works before they are ready to connect subscribers. During this time, a
whole host of issues can affect the physical layer, including cable and ducting issues, and challenges caused
by an inexperienced testing workforce.
How can providers identify the right testing strategy when it comes to specific FTTH deployment
projects? Decisions depend on several factors - network topology, deployment phase, deadlines, budget,
technicians’ level of expertise and contractor outsourcing, to name a few.
The purpose of any fibre-optic network is to perform high-speed, error-free data transmission. Adequate
testing during each phase of the network deployment guarantees that products meet specifications, plus
it minimises costly and time-consuming troubleshooting efforts by locating dirty/damaged connectors,
questionable splices and other faulty components before they disrupt service.
This chapter will review some of these factors to help you make the best decisions according to your
specific needs.

Section 11.2
Connector Cleanliness &
Fibre Inspection
Connectors are the most overlooked aspect of a network but contamination from a wide range of sources
can have a serious impact on network loss and reflectance leading to errors and faults. With faulty
connectors being the number one cause of network failures, a fast connector inspection solution can help
save money and give the assurance that a network is clean. Inspection and cleaning of connectors is the
most fundamental process within the FTTH network test/inspection regime.
Appearance of various contaminants on a connector end face.
Good practice for avoiding connector endface damage or contamination is to always keep a protective cap
on the unused connector - thereby stressing the importance of storing unused protective caps in a sealed
container to prevent contamination.

How to inspect connectors?
The core and cladding are the two main sections of the fibre. It is critical that they are maintained in good
condition to minimise the loss that occurs when two connector ferrules are mated. In order to properly carry
out connector maintenance, the connector endface must first be visually inspected. The core diameter of a
single-mode fibre is less than 10 μm, which means that without the proper inspection tool, it is impossible
to tell if the ferrule is clean, making it essential to have the right tools.
Figure 11.1
Single-mode fibre connector end-face zones
To avoid connector failure and provide objective guidelines for connector end-face quality, the IEC
established recommendation IEC 61300-3-35 defining acceptance criteria based on the number and size of
scratches and defects for each of the connector end-face zones.
This standard specifies acceptance criteria based on fibre (single-mode or multimode) and connector
polish (UPC or APC). Visual fibre connector inspection with automatic pass/fail image analysis is the
recommended method to determine connector cleanliness prior to mating.
Inspect
Figure 11.2
Connector mating decision tree

Select the appropriate tip for the connector/adaptor to be inspected. Inspect both connector end faces
(patchcord/bulkhead/pluggable interface) using the microscope.
IS IT CLEAN?
Yes No
If non-removable, non-linear features and During inspection defects are found on the end
scratches are within acceptable criteria face. Clean the connector using a designated
according to operator thresholds or standards, optics cleaning tool. The connector may be
the fibre interfaces can be connected. found to be permanently damaged after
cleaning and if so will need to be replaced.
The first cleaning option is dry cleaning (with a push-to-click cleaner and/or cleaning tape). If this does
not work, try wet cleaning using approved cleaning fluid, wipes and sticks. After wet cleaning, be sure to
dry the end-face using dry wipe or an absorbent cleaning stick to prevent residue from contaminating the
end-face.

Section 11.3
Testing FTTH Networks
During and After
Construction
During network construction, some testing occurs in the outside plant. When fibre is laid down, new
splices are made and tested using an OTDR. The OTDR injects optical pulses into a fibre and extracts
light that is scattered or reflected back from points along the fibre, using this to characterize the fibre. Link
length and stress are very easy to read from the resulting trace. Today’s OTDRs also produce an icon-
based link map identifying each detected event, colour-coded to indicate pass/fail status when evaluated
against splice or connector loss and reflectance limits. Testing with OTDRs is a practical and accurate
method of checking the link in a uni-directional or bi-directional way. Bi-directional OTDR measurements
are preferred where possible.
Test Methods
For acceptance, it is important to test each segment of the network. There are several testing methods,
some of which are presented here. Each has specific advantages and disadvantages. Selecting the most
appropriate method depends on the constraints faced, such as labour costs, loss budget, testing time
combined with service activation time and maximum acceptable measurement uncertainty.
An additional factor that must be considered when determining the extent of testing are technician’s skill
levels. Employing unskilled technicians during the construction phase could become very costly if mistakes
need to be rectified before or after service is added.
Method 1: Using a power meter (and a light source)

This is probably the simplest method to check that the link is within the designated loss budget. A light
source, for example at 1490 or 1550nm, is connected at the exchange. It is then possible to check if light
levels are being received at different points in the network. If the launch power is known, an approximate
loss to that point in the network can be calculated. Alternatively, the OLT can be used as the light source
and an absolute (dBm) measurement can be taken and compared to the minimum sensitivity level of the
ONT. If enough power is being received, the link will work. If sufficient power is not being received then an
additional test using an OTDR will be required to locate the fault. It may also be that several additional or
even all links will have to be tested in such a scenario. However, this simple method of using a power meter
is not enough and other testing strategies should be explored.
Method 2: Using optical loss test sets

This is a more accurate version of the method described above. This involves using an optical loss test set
(OLTS), comprising two test sets that bi-directionally measure the insertion loss (IL) and optical return loss
(RL).

When two fibres are joined, dirt or scratches may result in a portion of the light becoming diffused and
reflected. Optical Return Loss (RL) measures the ratio of injected light to light reflected back to the source,
due to backscatter and connector reflections. This is expressed in decibels (dB). The lower the RL, the
higher the total reflection. Just as insertion loss evaluates the overall loss of the link, RL is a measure
of the overall reflections within the link. When measured RL is too low, one or more excess reflections are
present in the link. An OTDR is required to identify and locate the source(s) of excess reflections.
First, the units should be referenced prior to measuring IL.
Figure 11.3
Test sets should be referenced prior to measurement
Measurements can now be taken on the end-to-end network or any individual installed segment, such as
the fibres between the FDH and the drop terminal. The purpose of the test is to identify any transposed
fibres and to measure the IL and RL to guarantee that the loss budget has been met.
Figure 11.4
Measuring distribution fibre IL and RL using two OLTSs
The following table illustrates the expected RL values for the network:
These values take only two connections into account. However, FTTH networks are comprised of multiple
connection points and, as reflectance values are very sensitive to dust and scratches, these values can
easily be influenced by bad connections. For example, a single connector may generate a RL of 40dB,
which would exceed the expected value for the entire network. For Point-to-multipoint networks, the RL
contribution of each fibre is attenuated by 30 to 32 dB due to the splitter’s bi-directional loss.

Method 3: Using an OTDR
Unlike an OLTS, the OTDR can identify and locate the position of each component in the network. The
OTDR will reveal splice loss, connector loss and reflectance, as well as the total end-to-end loss and RL.
Figure 11.5
OTDR measurement can identify and locate all network components.
All fibres between the OLT and before the first splitter (transport side) may be tested to characterize the
loss of each splice and locate macrobends. The test can be conducted to cover both directions. Post-
processing of the results will be required to calculate the real loss of each splice (averaged between each
direction).
The engineer can measure the loss of the splitter and the cumulative link loss, as well as identifying
whether any unexpected physical event has occurred before, or after, the splitter. Construction testing can
significantly reduce the number of problems that occur after subscriber activation by certifying end-to-end
link integrity.
If tests can be performed in two steps, for example a test of the feeder portion first and then a test of the
distribution portion, OTDR tests are quite simple.
If tests can only be performed from one end (most likely because the splitters are spliced), the
recommended process is to use an OTDR test from the distribution/ONT location. Optimized settings
have to be made on the OTDR side, to provide as much information as possible along the link.
Depending on the split ratio, accurate detection and measurement of events will require the use and
analysis of multiple pulses.

When testing through the splitter, useful test results can only be obtained by testing upstream from the
subscriber location or an access point towards the splitter. If an OTDR test is attempted downstream from
the OLT, useful results to the splitter can be obtained, but the results beyond the splitter represent the
summed contributions from all fibres connected to the splitter. Breaks or serious faults in one fibre may
not be detected due to the summed backscatter from all other fibres. For the same reason, bi-directional
averaging when testing through this splitter is not possible.
When testing uni-directional the true splice loss cannot be measured. In this case a greater allowance
must be made for the uni-directional loss of splices because of potential Mode Field Diameter (MFD)
mismatches between the fibres being spliced together. With the increased use of G.657 Bend insensitive
fibres in the access side of the network, which have different MFDs to G.652 standard single-mode fibre,
greater attention must be given to where this splice is because it is possible to see quite considerable
exaggerated apparent losses at this point. A separate pass/fail criterion may be required for this splice.
Guidance for OTDR Assessment of Fusion Spliced Single-mode Fibres
Figure 11.6
PON OTDR traces
To help in the characterization of PON networks some OTDRs can automatically perform acquisitions
at multiple pulse widths. With this type of OTDR, the fibre before the splitter, the splitter loss and the
remaining link after the splitter(s) are all characterized with the optimal pulse widths. In this type of
measurement the results are usually presented in an ‘Icon’-based view, showing each element in the
network and whether it has passed when compared to maximum splice, connector and/or splitter loss and
reflectance limits. For optimum network qualification, some operators are using tools that can manage
both OLTS (method 2) and OTDR (method 3).

Section 11.4
Service Activation
Service activation is associated with what is known as ‘home-connect’ service turn-on. This process includes
the connection between the fibre distribution terminal and the optical network terminal (ONT) at the
customer’s premises.
This phase may seem very straightforward at first. However, this task should not be underestimated as this
is the moment at which the subscriber experience begins. The process varies depending on the topology
of the fibre network.
Since service activation is often performed by subcontractors, reporting and data authenticity protection
are important, especially in deployments where hundreds of results may be generated for a single PON
activation. Routinely following the correct steps during service activation ensures smooth workflow and
high productivity.
Multiple Testing Locations with a Power Meter

Verifying optical levels at various locations along the same fibre path assists the test engineers in
pinpointing problems and/or defective components before activating a subscriber’s service. Since FTTH
network problems are often caused by dirty or damaged connectors, component inspection greatly
reduces the need for troubleshooting, as power levels are verified for each network section. It is strongly
recommended that cleaning and inspection of each connection point be conducted using a fibre inspection
probe before each power measurement.
Figure 11.8
Testing points in PON (1,2,3)
Testing Points
1. Performing a power-level certification at the splitter, or more specifically at the output, enables
technicians to verify if the splitter branch is working properly. This simple assessment makes it possible to
confirm whether all network components from the CO (including the feeder fibre) to the splitter output are
in good condition. Typically, the FDH includes SC/APC or LC/APC connectors but may also include fusion
splices.

2. By conducting a power-level certification at the drop terminal, engineers can characterize the distribution
fibre and the drop terminal ports. Often, a splice tray is included within the drop terminal, which can cause
macrobend problems.
3. The fibre connecting the drop terminals and the subscriber’s premises is usually installed during service
activation. To ensure reliable services to the subscriber, the network and the subscriber ONU must meet
specifications. The best method of guaranteeing this is to perform a pass-through connection to fully
characterize all operating wavelengths (upstream and downstream) in the PON. This can only be achieved
at service activation using a dual-port PON power meter supporting the deployed PON technology with a
pass-through connection. A normal power meter can certify downstream signals from the CO when only a
single downstream wavelength is present.
Figure 11.9
Pass-through testing of all wavelengths (Typical PON up to 1 Gbps)
Testing with a Centralised OTDR

Another technique to measure the end-to-end loss of the fibre is to use a centralized OTDR technique.
Here the OTDR is based in the same location as the OLT and tests downstream. This technique usually
works at 1650nm which is ‘out of band’ and does not interfere with the transmission wavelengths being
used on the PON. Being ‘out of band’ allows new users to be added after the PON has gone live.
The engineer measures the loss up to their location by connecting a Highly Reflective Device (HRD) to the
network and uses a smart phone to trigger a test. The centralized OTDR will then measure the loss to the
point of the HRD. The engineer can remove the HRD and use it in another test at another install location or
it can be left in the network and used as a demarcation point for future monitoring (Explained further in
Chapter 15 on Monitoring & Troubleshooting).
Figure 11.10
Link certification in a PON architecture with end-to-end connectivity using a
HRD & centralised OTDR

Using a filtered OTDR
Using a PON power meter or a centralized OTDR test system will allow the loss of the link to be checked
but it cannot provide the exact location of any fault if it is after the splitter. To pinpoint the location of a
fault, the technician must use a PON-optimized OTDR which will test at 1625 or 1650nm with a port that
incorporates a filter that rejects all unwanted signals (1310, 1490 and 1550 nm) that could interfere with the
OTDR measurement.
Figure 11.11
Measurement with a Filtered OTDR
Testing next generation PON

Next generation PON networks (such as XGS-PON, NG-PON2 - see Chapter 5) will in most cases use the
existing outside plant infrastructure already in place for current PON subscribers and be deployed as an
additional layer. Operators may deploy across their network various mixes of PON layers, such as
GPON + RF overlay + XGSPON or GPON + NG-PON2.
This brings another dimension of complexity to PON testing. Additional XGSPON wavelengths or
NG-PON2 wavelengths will reach the end-user at the service location. This requires an instrument
capable of identifying the actual mix of PON layers. Measuring the corresponding discrete power from
each layer is essential if false positives are to be avoided. An acceptable next-generation compliant
PON power meter should feature additional composite detectors dedicated to their specific upstream
and downstream wavelength region. A 1650 nm PON OTDR or Troubleshooter with an integrated
downstream PON Power Meter capable of separately measuring GPON and RF video or next-generation
PON wavelengths may also be used.

Service activation reporting
Service activation test reports are required. These results can later be used to pinpoint problems such as
power degradation. Operators may also use this information to keep track of subcontractor performance.
A service activation report will typically include:
• Subscriber name, service adress and/or phone number

• Power level for each wavelength and each location
• Time stamp for each measurement
• Pass/warning/fail status compliant to standards such as GPON or EPON
• Thresholds used to perform the pass/warning/fail assessment
Figure 11.13
Typical service activation report
Once the service activation report has been received from the installer, the operator can start billing.

Chapter 12
Geographic
Information System
(GIS)
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Data Quality and Management
12.3 The Plan > Design > Build > Operate Lifecycle
12.4 Summary
Section 12.1
Introduction
A geographic information system (GIS) captures, stores, checks, and displays data related to positions
on the surface of the earth. A GIS can display many different kinds of data on a single map. This makes it
possible to analyse and understand relationships between different items.
In the context of FTTH networks, a GIS is critical to successful network deployment and future operations.
A GIS is all about understanding the location and accessibility of a thing, such as a network asset, in the
world, and how that asset is connected to other assets. This information is displayed on a map background,
providing real-world context for users. Fundamental understanding of where a network is (or will be) and
how it is connected is essential to successfully delivering broadband services to businesses and consumers.
“A geographic information system (GIS) is a conceptualized framework that provides the ability to
capture and analyse spatial and geographic data. GIS applications (or GIS apps) are computer-based
tools that allow the user to create interactive queries
(user-created searches), store and edit spatial and
non-spatial data, analyse spatial information output,
and visually share the results of these operations by
presenting them as maps.”
Wikipedia.org
The Wikipedia entry also explains the history and

diverse uses of GIS in many different industries.
An excellent primer if you are new to GIS.
The digital representation of a physical object or process is often referred to as a ‘digital twin’. In this sense,
the GIS manages the digital twin of the telecommunications network. It allows the operator to understand and
manage physical assets in order to successfully deliver a service to end customers - the ultimate objective of
any network.
As introduced in Chapter 7, multiple systems make up an operator’s overall systems landscape. The TMForum
standards provide an excellent frame of reference for how the different applications relate to operational
processes. Within this context, a GIS can be considered part of the Resource Inventory Management and
specifically the physical resource inventory. Also known as Physical Network Inventory (PNI), this covers all
physical resources, including outside plant (all equipment in the street) and inside plant (all equipment inside
a building), as shown in the diagram below.
TMForum.org

How GIS Supports Each Stage in the Lifecycle
The GIS has a part to play in the Plan, Build, and Operate network lifecycle phases.
Plan
The first question to be answered by any network operator looking to deploy FTTH is: where to begin?
Start-up organisations as well as existing operators need to decide which geographic areas present the
best commercial opportunity. This decision relies on:
• Analysis of geographic data that covers the location of potential customers and their
demographic profiles
• The location of any existing network that could be used
• Area layout data: road networks, physical barriers such as rivers or railways
Build
Once an area and technology have been selected, the network must be designed and constructed. A
GIS stores all required data and the resulting low-level network design. In most cases, it will generate
the information needed to construct the network. During construction, any deviations to the as-designed
network can be captured in the field by construction teams accessing GIS data on mobile devices. In this
way, they can ensure the GIS data reflects the final ‘as-built’ network to support future network operations.

Operate
Knowing where the network is ‘on the ground’ is fundamental to ensuring smooth operations. A GIS
enables operators to
• Understand the locations at which service can be provided

• Physically offer diverse connections to important customers
• Allow other utilities to understand where the network is to avoid damaging it during other
underground work
• Quickly pinpoint fault locations
All of these processes rely on knowing where the network is and how it is connected together, displayed
against a map background. Later in the chapter we will discuss the role of GIS in each part of the lifecycle
in more detail.
Background mapping data

As GIS are fundamentally map-based, the background map used to overlay the network data is essential.
Background map data can come from a range of sources, such as:
Google Maps and Microsoft Bing

Both companies provide mapping data that can be purchased for commercial use in GIS. These providers
have the advantage of offering satellite images as well. Google’s Street View provides users in the office
with an easy way to see the situation on the ground. However, the accuracy of the mapping data may not
be sufficient to use as a basis for network construction and operations.
OpenStreetMap
For some regions, open source data from OpenStreetMap may be a good starting point. Usually, a
commercial reseller of OpenStreetMap will be required to ensure good performance.
National mapping agencies

In many countries a national mapping agency provides highly accurate data that is better suited to low-
level network design and operations. The UK’s Ordnance Survey is one example. The data provided has a
high level of accuracy and is more intelligent so it can be used for more advanced processing than a simple
map background.
GIS software vendors

Some GIS software vendors offer data that can be used within their GIS platforms. A wide range of
commercial data providers offer data that can be used for network planning, building and operations.
These data providers may provide much more than simple background mapping. They also offer enhanced
data services such as overhead/satellite and street-level images captured from vehicles and drones.

An increasingly common source of data is high-resolution panoramic photography combined with LiDAR
data. Often called mobile mapping, this is the process of collecting geospatial data from a moving vehicle
or drone fitted with a range of time-synchronized photographic, radar, laser, or remote sensing systems.
The objective of using this data is to enable planners/designers based in the office to get a much better
view of the real-life situation in the field avoiding costs for field visits.
The primary output from such systems includes GIS data, digital maps, and geo-referenced images and
video. These sources can provide users with images at very high resolutions combined with accurate
location information, which enables measurements to be taken remotely at centimetre-level accuracy.
This data can be embedded into the GIS so that best use of it can be made in an integrated environment.
Mobile mapping data is normally more up-to-date and it is also quicker to access than manual survey data.
Examples of LiDAR data
Customer Location Data

A fundamental element in designing and operating FTTH networks is the location of end customers. This
refers to the geographic location as well as its textual description in the form of an address for residential or
commercial properties. Understanding exactly where the demand for fibre is located is essential to creating
an accurate and feasible design that allows successful delivery of service to end customers without costly
re-builds or network extensions.
Address data can be obtained from several sources. Purchasing address information from a government
agency can be a valid option, as this will generally ensure the correct syntax and the most detailed
and up-to-date information. Later, these addresses can form the main address database for all related
departments, including customer care, billing and marketing.
Other sources of information may include in-house databases (in the case of existing service providers)
or commercial GIS databases. In a growing number of regions, open source data can also be used to
extract building locations. In many cases, it is also possible to identify buildings based on satellite images
and establish address points manually using the appropriate GIS tools. This method is commonly used
to validate data obtained from other sources. Missing buildings can easily be added to improve the data
quality.
Probably the most difficult data to obtain is information about building types and the number of housing
units or homes within each building. In early stage planning, this can sometimes be accessed from higher-
level information, such as house number ranges or population densities. It may also be possible to obtain
more detailed information from the local energy or utility supplier (for example, number of registered
electricity meters per building). If no suitable information source is available, the only option is to physically
visit every building and count the number of dwellings. This detail is essential to ensuring the network is
correctly sized for expected demand.

Geo-Marketing Data
In the very early stages of network planning, a basic question is where to build the network to generate
the greatest Return on Investment? Or, perhaps more accurately, where to start building the network to
generate the greatest Return On Investment as quickly as possible?
To help with this analysis, geo-marketing data is extremely useful. Geo-marketing data refers to any
information that allows the planner to gain an indication of the differing market potential within the area
under consideration. Such information can include:
• Survey results showing willingness of families to sign up for FTTH offers
• Certain types of subscribers in different regions (for example young families with children,
elderly people)
• Housing density
• Historical adoption of new (broadband) services in certain regions (for example DSL or
digital TV)
• Information relating to household income and spend on broadband services such as

Average Revenue Per User (ARPU)
• Information relating to businesses use of communications and Internet services
This data can be purchased from specialist data providers. In some cases, it may be necessary to
commission a specific survey to collect it. The information can then be used to adapt the model and
assess the best potential adoption and revenues in each region. When combined with cost information for
deploying the network per region, this data supports an ROI-optimised strategy.
Existing Network Infrastructure

Today, there is likely to be some pre-existing network infrastructure available in virtually all areas. This could
potentially be re-used for new FTTH deployments. It may be a copper network for which a FTTH over-build
is planned, or other infrastructure that can be leased/rented from other operators through wholesale access
agreements.
In cases where the infrastructure is already owned by the operator, for example fibres, ducts, or poles, re-
using as much infrastructure as possible offers a significant benefit when it comes to reducing construction
costs. This data should be relatively easily available for planning purposes.
In many European countries, incumbent network operators have a legal obligation to share their passive
infrastructure, such as poles and duct space, with other operators. This avoids continual disruption with
network construction and ensures a more level playing field for all competitors in a given area.
Obtaining this data usually requires the new operator to register with the infrastructure provider. The
operator can then request data for areas of interest, which is returned in a geospatial data format that can
be imported into the GIS. Various processes (that vary from country to country) must then be followed to
register specific assets for use within the new network.

The accuracy of planning results can be enhanced by using additional data, such as:
• Information about existing utilities infrastructure that can be used to determine potential
routes. This also indicates the likelihood that permission for digging will be granted.
• Suitable locations for a point of presence (POP) or fibre concentration point (FCP).
• Other elements such as existing non-crossable obstacles (to avoid evaluating impossible
pathways), type of street surface (to better estimate the cost of digging and to balance
one- or two-side digging options).
• Information about existing wayleaves/rights of way that may influence the design.
This additional data may be harder to obtain so consideration should be given to assessing the effort
involved.
As-Built Network Data

The outcome of the design and build process is a fully constructed and operational network. A further key
deliverable of this phase is an accurate model of the constructed network captured in the GIS - the digital
twin of the network that will form the basis for all future operations.
The network model should cover the complete network from the central office all the way to the customer
termination points and capture all the connectivity of the network in between. This digital twin is a key
benefit of using GIS-based auto-design tools, as the output from the design can be seamlessly transitioned
into the as-built record of the Network. By utilising direct updates from the construction teams in the field,
the data can be updated to reflect the as-built network versus the as-designed data.
The digital twin should accurately model all of the following data:

Within the GIS this may appear as shown below:
Typical end to end view of a FTTH network covering ISP & OSP
With the digital twin the foundations are laid for successful future network operations. However, it is important
to consider how to manage the data.

Section 12.2
Data Quality and
Management
Data Quality and Levels of Detail
The IT phrase ‘garbage in, garbage out’ applies just as much to GIS in the context of FTTH as it does to
any other system.
The level of detail needed can vary through the Plan, Build, and Operate processes. Some detailed
information can be approximated in the early stages. In fact, it is possible to start high-level planning with
minimal GIS data covering customer locations and the road network. However, since more accurate data
will be required in later planning stages, it is generally recommended, for the sake of better strategic
decisions, to gather high-quality data in the early stages as well.
Detailed low-level network design requires as much information as possible. It can be worthwhile spending
time checking and ‘cleaning’ data, using satellite images or field surveys for example, to ensure quality is
sufficient. Data generated during the plan and build phases become the basis for future operations, once
the network has been constructed. This is a significant opportunity to maximise the investment in the data
up to this point and ensure a smooth handover into network operations.
Data Management
A significant investment will be required in data needed to successfully plan, build and operate a FTTH
network. The network ultimately derived from that data will require an even greater investment. Therefore,
it is critical to understand the importance of that data and ensure it is adequately managed, protected and
maintained.
The digital twin of the network held in the GIS will be fundamental to future network operations after
construction. It underpins many of the operational processes such as service fulfilment, service assurance
and further network design and build. GIS data will be used by teams across the business and via APIs to
other systems to enable process automation.
New build construction process with quality gates
Therefore, within the GIS, consideration should be given to ensuring that poor quality data or loss of data
accuracy do not dilute the system. It is also essential to ensure changes meet the expected quality. This is
generally achieved through application of rigorous data maintenance processes along with the definition of
quality control and assurance (QA\QC) rules within the GIS.

Key Capabilities
Previously we discussed (i) what a GIS is in generic terms, (ii) the data managed in a GIS, and, (iii) at a high
level, how a GIS fits into the overall network lifecycle. However, we also need to understand) the type of
functionality that a GIS should provide to effectively support the network lifecycle.
Several key capabilities are needed to successfully manage the network and support business processes.
Below is a (non-exhaustive) list of typical capabilities. Not every capability will be needed by every
operator, but this is a good starting point. A GIS should be able to:
• Provide basic functions such as map navigation and viewing.
• Allow configuration of the visual appearance of the map and network assets, for example,
colour and line styles.
• Allow users to build a catalogue of all equipment within a data-driven catalogue system.
• Import/export data.
• Visualise 3D data such as LiDAR and panoramic imagery alongside physical network data.
• Support workflow to create projects and apply a lifecycle to those projects so that progress
can be tracked and understood.
• Document and manage the strand and structure of the network, for example trenches,
ducts, sub-ducts and blown fibre microducts to manage the capacity of the network.
• Capture fibre infrastructure present in the strand and structure - essentially the fibre optic
cables, optical splice closures, splitters, etc. that make up the network. Users need easy-to-
use tools that allow them to quickly modify and create the fibre infrastructure.
• Model and manage full end-to-end network connectivity down to the individual fibre level
from a customer premise, through any splitters and back to primary serving locations.
• Undertake network tracing analysis and display results geographically and textually.
This provides support for service assurance in identifying the location of breaks in fibre
networks using measurements from OTDR equipment.
• Record ownership of assets throughout the system, for example on structures and cables
and related equipment. This should enable users to easily see the locations of their own
organisation’s infrastructure as well as any leased infrastructure to make more informed
design decisions.
• Generate standard reports for items such as Bill of Materials / quantities and flexible ad hoc
reports to enable users to explore data and respond to business queries quickly and easily.
• Provide printing capabilities to generate hard and soft copy output of maps, schematics,
cable-pulling diagrams, etc. typically using pre-defined templates to ensure standard
information is included in the output. This is particularly important in the generation of
information for construction teams to use to build the network quickly and
accurately.

These functional capabilities are supplemented by a wide range of non-functional capabilities, such as:
• A user authentication and authorisation system that controls access to application

functionality and data, typically through integration with corporate user
management systems.
• Functionality to allow many users to operate on the network database without the need to
‘lock’ geographic areas.
• Extension of the data model used to allow system administrators to extend the supplied
data model to define customer-specific attributes and entities.
• An easy-to-use and easy-to-deploy web-based user interface. The interface should be

usable on laptops, tablets and smartphones.
• A rich set of APIs that enables data access and functionality to support system
integration and process automation. The APIs are required to facilitate interfacing with
systems using common standards.
• Compliance with common security guidelines to ensure data managed in the GIS is
protected. This is particularly relevant if any personally identifiable information is held in
the GIS (which is often not the case).
• A reliable deployment model that ensures system availability and uptime to meet expected
demands, given the 24/7 nature of business today.
Assuming a GIS with the necessary capabilities has been established our focus shifts to how the GIS can
support the Plan > Design > Build > Operate lifecycle covered in the next section.

Section 12.3
The Plan > Design > Build
> Operate Lifecycle
In both Chapter 7 and this chapter, we see how the GIS is used across the Plan > Build > Operate lifecycle.
This section looks at each part of the process from the perspective of GIS and describes the key workflows
that a GIS must support to ensure successful network deployment and ongoing operations.
Plan
Fundamental at this stage are (i) determining which areas are the most interesting to deploy fibre and (ii)
calculating a detailed cost for network deployment in the target areas.
Data aggregation
In this context GIS typically serves as the platform to collate the relevant data. Background mapping
data is essential at this stage, since this provides the foundation for the actual network design, such
as road centrelines and land parcel data. The GIS aggregates different data sources into a coherent
set of information that can then be used as the basis for automated network design calculations. This
aggregation process may involve manipulating the source data by combining it or undertaking analysis to
extract different information. This is particularly the case with extremely rich geo-marketing data. Analysis
of the various source inputs will provide the clearest indication of the best areas to target for a network
deployment.
Auto-design integration for high-level planning

An automated design tool can now be used to automatically calculate the most cost-effective high-level
network design to meet the design criteria as described in Chapter 9.
The GIS provides the front-end user interface for the planner to define the geographic area for the design
and then visualise the results from the automated design tool. In most cases, the planner will want to make
a few tweaks and changes to the high-level design to take into account local situations that the automated
design may not have been able to consider. The ability to see the design and inspect its components
provides the planner with the most effective way to validate it and apply their experience to ensure the
best possible outcome.
At this stage, the high-level design and related business case will usually go through an approval process.

Design
Next, the high-level design is turned into a more detailed low-level design that provides sufficient
information for construction teams to deploy the network infrastructure.
Data validation & contractor support

The designer will typically identify any errors in the data used as the basis for the design. Automated
quality assurance tools are used to identify and resolve potential problems. It is also common for operators
to outsource network design work. The external contractor will provide the design in a spatial data format
that can be imported into a GIS for the operator to verify and construct. This is why the GIS needs to
support standard APIs so that data can be used between different GIS platforms. Quality assurance tools
within GIS become particularly important as various checks can be run to ensure the design meets the
specified rules, and that the data meets the agreed quality level.
Diagram showing impact of data quality. The QA process acts as a ‘gatekeeper’ for quality.
Field surveys
At this point, it may also be necessary for a field survey to be undertaken to ensure data held in the GIS is
correct, for example that house counts are accurate. With the increasing use of third-party infrastructure
(particularly manholes and ducts/conduits) it is prudent for an operator to survey this infrastructure to
ensure that the resulting design only uses ducts that actually exist and are in good repair. Design errors at
this stage can be very costly to rectify, so a field survey can save costs in the long run. Providing field teams
with access to data held in the GIS in an easy-to-use interface that seamlessly updates the source GIS data
should make this survey process as efficient as possible. Introducing spreadsheets, or complicated export
and import processes, for example, can reduce efficiency and data quality.
Low-level design & construction documentation

Once the designer is confident that the source data is as accurate as possible, the low-level design can be
created. This may be done by:
• An automated design tool integrated into the GIS, as described here

• By the designer directly in the GIS
• An external design consultancy

In most cases, the result of the design should be captured in the GIS. The only exception is where
both the design and network build have been outsourced to an external contractor. In this case, the
contractor’s responsibility is to provide a documented record of what was actually constructed and the
interim design details are not needed by the operator.
If the design is held within the GIS, the primary outputs are the work instructions for the construction
teams to build the network. These will include
• A Bill of Materials
• Map-based views that show the construction teams where to dig trenches
• Details of where and how fibre optic cables are to be spliced
• Other relevant information such as health and safety considerations
Producing these documents can be a time-intensive activity so this should be automated and data
shared automatically with other relevant systems (such as workflow and procurement systems) via APIs.
Ideally, the construction information would be provided to the field teams digitally on a mobile device
to see what needs to be built and update the data to reflect what was actually built as discussed in the
following section.
Build
With the design complete, the next stage of the lifecycle is network build. The main outcomes required
are (i) an accurate record of what the final constructed (as-built) network actually looks like and (ii) the real-
world location and connections of equipment and cabling.
This information is essential to enable successful operation of the network and realise the Return On
Investment expected in the original business case.
Field updates
Streamlining the process of updating the low-level design in the GIS during construction is especially
important to ensuring successful operational processes. This can be achieved by enabling construction
teams to update the GIS data directly in the field. These changes can then be made available to all other
GIS users. In general, this can be achieved using the same tools as described for field surveys in the
Plan section. Tools should have seamless access to GIS data as well as additional functionality to capture
location information from Global Navigation Satellite Systems (such as GPS) or other survey instruments.
It is now also possible to use augmented reality approaches to capture dimensional information from
smartphones equipped with laser measurement capabilities.
Augmented Reality (AR) for data capture

Photos are a common method for field users to capture a record of changes that have been made. This
makes it simple for other GIS users to quickly understand where and how the network was constructed. This
is also important where third-party infrastructure is used: before and after photos may be required by the
infrastructure owner as evidence of the work done.
Field management solutions

Specialist field management solutions can be used as well. While often GIS-based, these tools introduce
additional support for managing external contractors, for example to report on construction progress.
When selecting such a solution it is important to pay particular attention to how contractors can access
systems in a secure, reliable way.
Seamless data update

Regardless of the toolset used, all data should be automatically updated in the GIS, based on the
workflow management milestones. Automated quality assurance checks should be executed to ensure
changes conform to the organisation’s data quality standards. Accurate network data will ensure that the
service provisioning process has the best chance of success. This is essential in today’s highly competitive
environment.
Operate
The key output from the GIS in the design and build process is a set of addresses where FTTH service
can be offered. As a minimum this set of addresses must be provided from the GIS into the downstream
OSS systems to allow those systems to receive customer orders and provide service. These processes
and software are described in the following chapter. GIS contributes to the operational processes, since
knowing where the network is and how it is connected (as represented in the digital twin) underpins
processes such as service fulfilment, service assurance, network maintenance, regulatory reporting and
company reporting.
Key OSS processes in which GIS plays a part:
Fulfilment
• Service feasibility relies heavily on network data managed in the GIS. Service feasibility
requests may be handled by front office staff looking at a range of data sources overlaid on
a map to understand the costs of offering service for a given location. For certain scenarios,
this process can be fully automated through API calls accessing the GIS.
• In many FTTH network deployments the GIS holds the record of the splitter port from
which a customer will be served. To fulfil a B2C customer connection request, the upstream
fulfilment system will access a GIS API for the relevant connection information for a given
customer address. The GIS will then be automatically updated (new cables installed, status
of equipment updated, etc.) if that service is delivered.
• In many cases for B2B connections, some additional network build is needed. This will
trigger a design and build activity within the GIS to complete this work and notify the
upstream fulfilment system when the work is complete.
• Operators may offer physical diversity for B2B services and parts of the FTTH feeder and
distribution network may also require physical diversity. This relies upon the GIS to provide
both the network data and analysis of the proposed routes to ensure physical diversity is
achieved, and - importantly - maintained over time.

Assurance
• Understanding the precise location of a fault within the network is essential to timely
remediation. Since GIS holds the location and connectivity of the network, it can support
the assurance process. A typical example relates to OTDR (see Chapter 11). The OTDR
provides the distance to the fibre break and the GIS can convert that distance into a real-
world location and provide the coordinates to field teams. Again, this may be automated
via APIs or can be accessed by a simple GIS user interface for the Network Operations
Centre or field users.
• Restoring service will often involve making changes to the physical network. In this case,
providing field teams with direct access to network data in the GIS is of enormous benefit.
The field teams can (i) easily understand where the network is (ii) determine options to
manage any fibre break (iii) easily update the GIS data to reflect the final state of the
network post restoration to ensure the location and connectivity is represented correctly for
other processes.
• The relationship between service and physical network is also vital to the assurance
process. Understanding which services, and hence which customers, are impacted by a
fibre break is a critical part of the process. The GIS provides support by providing the
relationship between the physical fibre network and the services delivered over that
network. This relationship is the basis of integration between the GIS and OSS.
Other operational processes

• Network maintenance processes need to understand where a certain network component
(such as a network card) is located. For example, it may be necessary to replace or upgrade
a certain type of equipment. GIS is able to retrieve a list of the locations where that specific
equipment is installed.
• Certain infrastructure elements must be inspected regularly. Poles are a good example: the
regulator will expect poles to be inspected every few years to ensure they are safe. The GIS
provides the pole locations and can document past inspections to manage this process.
Field teams can capture inspection data directly into the GIS via dedicated inspection tools,
or via APIs, and quality assurance processes can ensure data is error-free.
• Many operators will be subject to regulations (both operational and financial) that require
reports about the infrastructure that they operate to be submitted on a regular basis to the
regulator, or to local or regional government bodies. Using the GIS to automate production
of these reports so users do not have to spend time collating data and generating the
report manually can be a considerable efficiency benefit.
• There will also be many reports required for internal use within the operator about the
network related to company performance (such as homes passed per month, or kilometres
of fibre installed per year).
• In many countries, operators have to share information about the location of their
network with utilities, local or regional governments, and other organisations, to enable
collaboration. This ensures disruption to the public due to construction in the same area is
minimised.

Section 12.4
Summary
In this chapter we have explored how GIS supports many aspects of the Plan > Build > Operate network
lifecycle. As the digital twin of the network, it acts as the source of truth for information about the location
of the network and how it is connected at the physical layer. This data is fundamental to these wider
processes. The ability to seamlessly access the data and capability of the GIS, while preserving a high data
quality, is the basis of efficient network operations.
Sharing the network’s location and connectivity with the OSS allows the relationship between the physical
network infrastructure and customer-facing services to be maintained. This is the foundation to the wider
set of operational processes described in the following chapter.

Section III:
Operate
In this section, we take a closer look at network operations, maintenance, monitoring and troubleshooting.
These factors are already considered from the earliest stages of network planning and design.
In this section of the Handbook, we will examine:
• Delivering QoS, introducing flexibility and scalability and overcoming challenges by

implementing Operations Support Systems (OSS) and Business Support Systems (BSS)
• Selecting and implementing OSS and BSS
• Operations and maintenance strategies and best practices
• Information and procedures vital to ensuring network operations
• Preventive and corrective maintenance planning and execution
• Network monitoring and troubleshooting- approaches and tools
All of the above are vital to providing the Quality of Service users expect, and accommodating future
expansions and enhancements, changing user requirements and new technologies.

Chapter 13
OSS/BSS
13.1 Introduction - Why OSS/BSS Matters
13.2 What are OSS/BSS?
13.3 OSS/BSS Landscape Strategy
13.4 What can OSS/BSS do for You?
Section 13.1
Introduction -
Why OSS/BSS Matters
Building a FTTH network and business requires a long-term, high-tech investment. Once the network is
in operation, the investment you commit to when planning and building needs to yield adequate returns.
This chapter focuses on how OSS/BSS software solutions can help you operate your business efficiently,
monetise your network, and meet business objectives.
Ambitious growth targets, increasing competition, and the implicit complexity of the business makes it easy
to become overburdened. A few examples of challenges that operators face:
• Inability to scale due to operational inefficiency

• Manual or redundant handling of daily tasks which could be automated, leading to
unnecessary OPEX
• Long time-to-market when launching new services or addressing new customer segments
• Inability to provide an excellent customer experience, which impacts brand value
In this chapter, we will explore how these challenges can be addressed by utilising OSS/BSS software
solutions, thus helping to grow a profitable FTTH business.
OSS/BSS are complex system solutions. Understanding them requires experience and know-how. This
makes the assessment and comparison of various alternatives challenging.
Unfortunately, the need for OSS/BSS when starting a new fibre business is often overlooked. However,
the benefits and value of an OSS/BSS investment definitely manifest over time as the business grows. The
importance may appear low at first, but OSS/BSS is essential to avoiding rapidly increasing costs due to
operational inefficiencies.
Many operators that do not invest in an OSS/BSS solution from the outset hit a brick wall once they
become overburdened. The importance of this topic cannot, therefore, be overstated.

Section 13.2
What are OSS/BSS?
OSS/BSS are software systems that operators use to operate their business and networks. The distinction
emphasises a separation of concerns between operational and business aspects.
• Operations Support Systems (OSS)
Traditionally used by network engineers, service designers, architects, and technical support. Product
managers and senior staff that answer to the CTO or COO may also use or rely on OSS to some extent.
• Business Support Systems (BSS)
Typically used by business managers, commercial managers, and product managers.
OSS functions
Software applications that support back-office activities related to operating a telco network, provisioning
and maintaining customer services. Typical OSS capabilities include:
Resource/Network Inventory
A repository of all network resources, planned or in use. This is used to keep track of resource allocation
and usage.
Monitoring
Collecting, aggregating, storing, providing, and acting on performance information from network
resources.
Service provisioning
Usually includes a service catalogue where services are modelled, including the way in which they are
provisioned.
Device and network management

Interfacing with and configuring network elements.
BSS functions
BSS deals with issues such as taking orders, payment issues and revenues. It comprises four processes:
Product management
Product management supports product development, product sales, offers and bundles to businesses
and consumers.
Customer management
This can be regarded as a fully-fledged customer relationship management system implemented to help
customer care agents handle customers in a more informed manner.
Revenue management
Revenue management focuses on billing, charging and settlement.

Order management
Order management encompasses four areas:
Order decomposition details the rules for decomposing a Sales Order into multiple work orders or
service orders.
Order orchestration is an objective application used by Telcos to precisely manage, process and
handle customer orders across complex fulfilment and order capture systems.
Order fallout helps fully resolve order failures through detection, notification and recovery, helping
the order to be processed sustainably and precisely.
Order status management as a starting point for assurance is normally associated with OSS, but
BSS is often the business driver for fulfilment management and order provisioning.
Excerpt from Wikipedia which provides a good breakdown of typical BSS capabilities.
Wikipedia.org
Differences between OSS and BSS

To explore the difference between OSS and BSS, let’s look at the TM Forum’s eTOM model (Business
Process Framework). The Business Process Framework is an operating model framework for telecoms
industry service providers. The model describes service providers’ required business processes, and defines
key elements and how they should interact.
‘Business Process Framework (eTOM)’. Wikipedia (2021).
At a high level, OSS addresses Service and Resource-related Domains, while BSS covers Marketing and
Offer Management and Customer Relationship Management.
Supply Chain, Supplier / Partner Management, and Enterprise Management are typically covered by an
ERP system.

About TM Forum
TM Forum, a global industry association for telecoms service providers and suppliers, supports
members’ digital transformation initiatives and stimulates collaboration. TM Forum does this
by providing an open, collaborative environment and practical support which enables CSPs
and suppliers to rapidly transform their business operations, IT
systems and ecosystems to capitalise on the opportunities presented
in a rapidly evolving digital world. The Forum’s work includes Open
Digital Framework, Open Digital Architecture, REST-based Open APIs,
Frameworx, Business Process Framework (eTOM), Frameworx Shared
Information/Data Model (SID) and Telecom Application Map (TAM]
TMforum.org
Historical differences
The following, based on an excerpt from OSS Line (https://www.ossline.com/2010/12/definition-
oss-bss.html), provides a historical context on the difference between OSS and BSS.
OSS/BSS were previously more clearly separated. A common job, such as capturing and
provisioning a customer order, required a simple BSS-to-OSS interface: ’Deliver product X to
customer Y’. BSS would capture the order, set up billing, and pass the order to OSS for fulfilment.
Now, networks and services are more complicated and flexible. What’s more, Telcos offer a
range of differentiated products. OSS and BSS must liaise over what could be ordered by the
customer, based on, for example, what services they already have, the network they use, available
resources, or the client’s distance from the telephone exchange. Today, offering a customer a
service is a negotiation between the commercial products managed by BSS and the ability of
OSS (and the local network) to deliver certain products.
As a result, a number of systems now straddle OSS/BSS:
• Service Assurance systems are now integrated across OSS/BSS to track service
performance and ensure customer service-level agreements (SLA) are met. Service Assurance may
also pro-actively identify network failures, initiating resolution action and notifying high-priority
customers.
• Service Catalogues (Product Catalogues) provide Telcos with a single place to list
products offered to customers and define which network resources can be used to deliver the
service. Service Catalogues allow product managers to join up service offering and fulfilment
processes across BSS and OSS.
• Service Management applications allow greater interaction between OSS and BSS
processes when the service order and fulfilment process is complex. If a service order comprises
multiple technical resources delivered by multiple OSS systems, Service Management is
responsible for orchestrating the fulfilment process and keeping the customer-facing team
informed about progress, changes or delivery issues.

Section 13.3
OSS/BSS Landscape
Strategy
Build or buy?
A decision most businesses face at some point is whether to build or buy a piece of required software. This
decision has lasting consequences and is not easy to make. To a degree, the decision will be influenced
by individual preconceptions, preferences, and aspirations. It should, however, be driven strictly from a
business perspective.
A good approach is to investigate the three decision aspects Cost, Risk, and Value.
Cost
Cost should be the first concern. What is the cost of building the system? What is the cost of buying a
vendor product? To answer these questions, one needs to understand that there are different kinds of costs
and the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is the true metric.
Buying software usually includes license and service costs. License costs can turn out higher than expected
if a clear understanding of how license costs are calculated is lacking. Commercial software is almost never
plug-and-play and needs to be installed, configured, and integrated. The services required for that drive
additional costs.
When an enterprise builds its own system, there are no license fees. The only costs/payments are for the
man-hours and infrastructure needed. In some cases, this can make calculation easier, but in other cases
it may be extremely difficult to estimate accurately. Building can be expensive if the software is large or
complex, and its creation requires a large development team. When projects take longer than expected,
more money will need to be spent before the software is ready for use. Also, the cost of maintaining the
software over time needs to be factored in. It is vital to have a clear view of TCO over time.
Risk
The second aspect of the ‘build vs. buy’ decision is risk. This is the likelihood and potential impact of
something going wrong. Each choice entails different risks, and it is up to the operator to decide which
matter the most.
A large risk when building a piece of software is whether it will be delivered and put into production.
Software projects are often delivered late, or not at all, in spite of large investments. OSS/BSS is complex
and building software in an unfamiliar domain can result in difficulties and considerable expense.
Risk rears its head to a considerable degree when the ‘buy’ option is selected. The main risk is the presence
of a piece of software in the business network that the business does not fully control. There may also be
no access to the source code, making the business dependent on the software supplier to fix bugs and
provide support.
Any time a piece of software that is not fully controlled is introduced into a business environment, risk is
increased. This includes the inherent risks of a Software as a Service (SaaS) solution, which houses key data
in a third-party data centre.

Value
The last but perhaps most important factor is the value that the choice will bring. When building a solution,
this is straightforward. The value is directly related to solving the problem addressed by the solution as
designed.
When buying a system, the situation is different. Besides the direct value of solving problems, the
relationship with the supplier will probably also provide value. The supplier can guide the purchaser and
provide valuable best practices and know-how.
A standard commercially available system seldom perfectly matches a buyer’s current needs and problems.
That should be taken into consideration and may be an argument against buying. However, the system
may incorporate features that will provide value in the future. The ongoing improvement and enhancement
typically associated with commercial systems can be another valuable aspect of buying.

Section 13.4
What can OSS/BSS do
for You?
In this section we will explore what OSS/BSS can do for you. We will examine challenges FTTH operators
face and how OSS/BSS can help overcome these and build a better business. Several business aspects
affect the challenges faced and, consequently, what OSS/BSS can do for:
• Business model
• Target customers
• Service offerings
• Technology and supplier selection
Among these variables, one thing remains consistent: customers have to be acquired, served, and
supported. For that reason, this section is structured in alignment with the customer journey, as
illustrated below.
Figure 13.2
The customer Journey
Different fibre businesses will be at different stages of development. When starting a new fibre business,
the key focus is typically on customer acquisition, in order to secure revenue and market share.
In the beginning, a great deal can be done manually, such as delivery-related tasks. However, as customer
volume gradually grows, it becomes more and more important to operate efficiently through automation.
Initially, many fibre businesses have the luxury of being the only available fibre provider in their area.
However, to achieve maximum penetration and remain competitive you need to become increasingly
aware of how satisfied and loyal customers are. Customers are the best ambassadors of a business.

Growth
When launching a fibre business, many potential problems may arise, such as slow expansion, low market
penetration, difficulty convincing customers to switch infrastructure, or long delivery lead times.
Resolving these key challenges requires:
Understanding the market

This, in turn, requires market insight. One common OSS/BSS solution is to capture interest from potential
customers via an online portal. Combined with demographic market data and information about
competitors, this helps understand where to prioritise your efforts.
Presenting offerings which attract customers

Having the right offerings requires structured modelling, publishing, and reporting on the success of your
offerings in the form of products. In most OSS/BSS solutions this is done in a product catalogue.
Generally speaking, customers demand choice. Depending on your specific situation, your business could
benefit from opening your network to other providers. By providing wholesale access to other Retail
Service Providers (RSPs) many operators give end-customers on their network a wider choice of services,
which has a positive effect on market penetration.
Reaching out to the market

There are several ways of achieving this. OSS/BSS can support you with features such as an online portal
that makes it easier for customers to see and purchase your offerings. OSS/BSS can also help coordinate
other types of sales efforts, including field sales.
Operational Excellence
Shifting of focus
When you first start building your network, certain things may be easily overlooked:
• Volume-related issues
• Daily operational tasks
• Process support for events that occur only occasionally
Usually, the focus is on sales and initial growth. However, it is vital to consider what happens thereafter.
Good strategy decision-making requires being proactive rather than solving problems in an ad hoc
manner as you grow. Focus needs to shift from growth to operational excellence.
A rapidly growing customer base will introduce numerous tasks and problems if you do not plan for this
from the outset. Operational efficiency and performance might seem like minor issues during the initial
growth stage but left unchecked this can have serious consequences for the business. Typical issues
include:
• Increasing OPEX due to manual processing

• Stress and low morale amongst staff due to high workloads
• Poor customer experiences due to ad hoc handling of their issues

As the customer base grows, the operational expenses of service fulfilment increase exponentially if
handled inefficiently, or if a great deal of manual processing is involved. Furthermore, a significant portion
of all network outages is caused by manual error.
Once the business has grown to a few thousand customers, certain processes will require significant
resources and effort. Some examples of business processes that will put operational efficiency to the test as
the number of subscribers rise are:
• Troubleshooting
• Customer installations
• Service provisioning
• Billing issues
• Trouble tickets
The key to solving these operational challenges and achieving operational excellence is automation. And
this is where OSS/BSS can really create a great deal of value.
Automation roadmap
It is vital that OSS/BSS can automate processes and actions whenever the need arises. Looking forward and
knowing the exact automation needs is very difficult when a FTTH business is launched. Therefore, support
systems must be able to handle anything that has not been anticipated - this is where OSS/BSS really start
to deliver value.
To be proactive, create an automation roadmap. What is the big picture according to the build plans, when
it comes to business and operational processes? What processes should be automated when customer
numbers reach 10,000, 100,000 and 1,000,000?
Automating gradually as the business grows is a smart choice. However, without a foundation or a good
toolbox, problems related to resource allocation and high operational costs will occur. Having an OSS/BSS
stack that can scale and adapt to the automation plan is key to avoiding a situation akin to trying to change
the tyres on a car while driving on the highway.
Customer Loyalty
The economic realities of customer care are harsh. Every call to customer service is expensive. A few
minutes can reduce profits already built up. For this reason, it is critical for operators to reduce the number
of service calls to a minimum.
Customer care is often restricted by complex service diagnostics and troubleshooting technical systems.
Most requests are forwarded to technicians, which can result in unnecessary delays and higher costs.
When a customer is experiencing a problem with a service, a large amount of technical data must be taken
into consideration. The issue for many operators is the fact that vast amounts of data are located across
multiple systems, so that drawing any conclusions from it is very complicated or even impossible.
Smart aggregation of service performance data and easy-to-use service assurance tools empower and
equip customer care to tackle a large proportion of all trouble tickets. Examples of service performance
data are traffic, network jitter and packet loss. Presenting an aggregated overview of all available service
performance data with a focus on the most important factors is a good idea.
Faults that result in customers experiencing problems should be detected and handled as soon as possible,
as these have a dual impact- direct profit reduction (SLA breach penalties) and loss of customer loyalty.
The illustration below shows an example of key entities in a fibre business. An OSS/BSS solution should
offer a good overview of the relationships between these entities. This is another reason why separating
OSS and BSS is not a good idea. A clear relationship between the operational and business aspects makes
it easier to serve customers and gain their loyalty.

Figure 13.3
The relations between different entities in a fibre busines
Common Pitfalls in OSS/BSS Strategy

Delay in automating
As volume increases, manual processing will lead to customer dissatisfaction, human errors, spending
a great deal of time on routine tasks, and unnecessary staff expansion. This, in turn, results in rollout
delays, changes of plan, stressed software design decisions, and a focus shift from network rollout to the
management of resources and IT.
Automating only for the initial deployment

The design fails to address occasional tasks that become daily tasks as volume increases. Unidentified costs
and other surprises come along later along with volume.
Automating for the current access technology and vendor

What effect will introducing a new vendor and access technology have? Will it bring cost increases and
surprises in the long run because of vendor lock-in or non-flexibility in design?
Lack of automated feasibility and availability processes

It may become impossible to differentiate offerings by area or by campaign. There may also be no
possibility to inform people about network build-out plans or products reaching end-of-life. This leads to
lost momentum compared to competitors, with the risk of losing market share and spending a great deal of
time communicating with customers about network rollout plans.

Trying to build the fibre business using generic IT solutions
Using ITIL ticketing tools (designed for datacentres and IT organisations), CRM systems, or ERP systems,
and integrating them using an Enterprise Service Bus (rule-based architecture which allows integration of
numerous applications), for example, will lead to significant integration costs and complexity in the long
term. This is due to lack of fibre business domain functionality and continual integration work.
Automating only residential services

This can lead to identifiable costs as the network grows. A substantial proportion of business customers
or IoT services will need appropriate automation support or even self-service. To remain competitive and
increase margins, the operator needs to automate for business as well as residential customers.
Adding service provider(s) when running a wholesale business

The business might start out with one or two providers but needs to add more - which can be difficult if
automation support, data separation and self-service are lacking. Heavy investments in these systems, for
example the development of API or self-service portals, may be required to manage this.
Not investing long-term

The largest part of system TCO is not the initial investment, but system and maintenance costs in the long
term. What happens if the business plan changes along the way? What happens if key resources leave?
How to ensure IT security aspects are covered? How are legal changes and regulations to be handled?
Can internal resources stay up-to-date with the latest technology and automation best practices? All these
factors can lead to significant costs and re-planning.
Conclusion
Operation Support System (OSS) software helps organisations manage their networks. Business Support
System (BSS) are used to manage all business activities such as orders, customers, products, or revenue.
The combination of OSS and BSS allow network operators to reliably offer services to vast – and growing -
numbers of subscribers. OSS/BSS systems help improve profitability, make planning easier, eliminate errors,
reduce sales cycle times, implementation times and help meet customers needs.
OSS/BSS needs to be considered at the outset of FTTH network design and business. Otherwise, planning,
provisioning, fulfillment, sales, billing and promoting end-user services will become increasingly difficult
as subscriber numbers grow. Without an adequate, scaleable solution, operating expenses and the risk of
error will increase exponentially as more manual processing is required. There is also a risk that customers
will receive more or less than what they are paying for. Resource allocation and network expansion will
become difficult due to a lack of visibility.
There is a considerable cost involved at the outset and a build-or-buy decision needs to be made. The time
it takes to recover this investment depends on several variables, particularly end-user uptake. However,
the investment will be lower than the cost of doing everything manually as the network expands and new
services are introduced.

Chapter 14
Operations &
Maintenance
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Strategy for Network OAM
14.3 Operating the Network
14.4 Maintaining the Network
14.5 Network Upgrades and Expansion

Section 14.1
Introduction
Operations and Maintenance (OAM) issues have become more significant in recent years as FTTH networks
have grown and as the number of customers connected has increased. These issues are likely to become
even more important in the post-Covid-19 world as people increasingly work from home.
It is a prerequisite to have well-documented policies, procedures, and processes to effectively operate and
maintain the network. These can help operators optimise their return on investment while delivering
on QoS.
This chapter provides an overview of the OAM aspects of a FTTH network infrastructure. While each
network design is different, OAM best practices remain a common requirement. This chapter will also
distinguish between the requirements for wholesale and retail users of the network. The ultimate aim of
OAM is to run the network reliably, efficiently and cost-effectively by using optimum processes
and procedures.
As FTTH networks grow, the number of customers connected increases and bandwidth requirements
change as a result of trends and technology developments. Operating and maintaining networks is
becoming increasingly important. Developing an effective OAM strategy needs to start during the initial
stages of network planning and design. The consequences of decisions made at the earliest stages need to
be considered. Well-documented policies, procedures, and processes are also essential, and help deliver
on QoS. It is vital to consider different rollout and access models, business aims, OPEX, the possibility of
sharing the network, and communication with service providers.
The operations structure needs to ensure FTTH networks are up and running 24/7/365, delivering the best
possible service to all users. This requires considering information from as-built drawings, GIS, document
management systems, services plans, policies and procedures, commissioning, testing and completion
documentation, type of network, construction and assets. Health & Safety considerations are also important
in planning, building, and operating the Network.
When planning network upgrades and expansions, all of the above needs to be taken into account. Finally,
regular preventive maintenance needs to be scheduled. Processes for this and corrective maintenance
need to be designed and implemented.

Section 14.2
Strategy for Network OAM
OAM strategy begins with key decisions that must be taken during the initial stages of network planning
and design. It is important that planners are aware of the implications of their decisions for OAM. Key
decisions include:
Business model options

FTTH network deployment may require costly construction in both MDU and SDU scenarios. These high
costs can make deployment difficult, especially, if the same costs have to be borne by every competing
operator. Therefore, one key question to be answered before implementation is - will the FTTH networks
only serve one operator or provide open access to others? This question leads to these three FTTH
rollout models:
• Open access model - supporting wholesale operations

• Vertically integrated model - dedicated to retail
• Mix model - supporting wholesale and retail operations within one organisation
Optical fibre resources are well suited for sharing in a wholesale model. Service providers (wholesale
clients) can help increase network penetration level. However, wholesale business requires a
different approach:
• Tailored to the needs of service providers

• Appropriate wholesale pricing models
• Additional technical services that may incur higher operating costs
Consideration of a wholesale business model is increasingly important to the investment case and market.
Regulators are often looking for ways to encourage new deployments to meet national Gigabit Society
targets, thereby allocating public funds to networks that must be made available to operators under non-
discriminatory conditions.
Business aims and OPEX considerations

Several parameters influence the business case of a given FTTH network. Each area requires a separate
analysis as the business perspective is highly dependent on actual competition in that area. Apart from
competition, there are various operational parameters that need to be considered. Appropriate sensitivity
analysis should be performed to analyse how they affect the business case. Examples of the key parameters
to be considered include:
• SLAs
• QoS levels
• Capacity utilisation & delivery
• Maintenance (corrective & preventative)
• Asset management

Implementation of open-access models
Open Access Network means a telecommunications network that is made available to different service
providers (wholesale clients) other than the owner, under fair and non-discriminatory terms. In other words,
the terms and conditions for access should be the same for all service providers. The cost of utilising an
open access network should be lower than the cost of building a separate infrastructure.
Fibre access networks are well suited to the wholesale open access model due to the abundance of
available bandwidth. This makes active sharing methods such as BSA (Bit Stream Access) possible
(see below) even in the presence of several service providers on a single network. Moreover, the PON
architecture, due to its passive design, which does not require any active distribution elements, allows the
use of passive sharing methods as described below. In general, wholesale products are offered at different
tiers of telecommunications infrastructure. There are various methods for classifying open access services.
The first method is based on the type of shared resource:
Passive Open Access - Ducts, sewers, poles, and dark fibre, offers telecommunications operators the
opportunity to share passive infrastructure. However, service providers must deploy their own active
equipment to provide telecommunications services to end users.
Active Open Access relies on active services such as TCP/IP model Layer 2 or Layer 3. The scope of
these services may vary and may even include white label internet service that could be offered to service
providers who do not possess a telecommunications infrastructure.
The second classification method, often used by regulators, is based on the location of the point of
interconnection in relation to homes passed provided by the shared infrastructure:
Wholesale Local Access (WLA) - Involves sharing the last drop connection between the local
serving distribution point and end users.
Wholesale Central Access (WCA) - refers to sharing the access providing connectivity to end
users and the networks connecting at a central serving node (higher in the network hierarchy).
WLA and WCA can offer similar wholesale service. However, due to the regional and national coverage of
WCA, it is a type of active open access. WLA, on the other hand, requires the service provider to have its
own access devices such as OLT in proximity, thus WLA is mainly a type of passive open access.
The most common technical services provided by open access operators are:
Local Loop Unbundling (LLU) - passive access service offered as WLA consisting of the local fibre optic
loop (from the end user premises to the local distribution point).
Bitstream Access (BSA) - an active access service offered primarily as a WCA consisting of an active Layer
2 or Layer 3 service from the end user to the central point of interconnection.

BSA is typically implemented as a Layer 2 (VLAN) service. If BSA is configured to provide internet-only
services, a dedicated VLAN is provisioned for each operator for each access node (most often OLT).
However, if BSA is configured to provide triple play services (Internet, TV, Telephony), then for each access
node (OLT) there are three separate VLANs per operator (one VLAN for Internet, one for TV, and a third for
Telephony). The diagram below illustrates the configuration of BSA service for a given SP (Service Provider).
A BSA specification usually includes QoS policy, security mechanisms (IP and MAC anti-spoofing) and
service client endpoint authentication.
Multi-vendor strategy and interoperability
A multi-vendor strategy allows telecom operators to buy equipment from multiple vendors, so that the
company does not become dependent on an individual supplier. Such a strategy not only allows the
operator to negotiate equipment prices with multiple parties, but also enables the implementation of a
robust supply chain and mitigation of technical problems.
Interoperability between equipment of different CPE and access equipment providers is important for
telecom operators. From the operator’s point of view, it is important to be able to have multiple sources of
access equipment and multiple sources of CPE.
For FTTH operators, the implementation of the multi-vendor strategy is not a trivial task if they have decided to
implement GPON (or XG-PON / XGS-PON) networks. The interoperability test plans have been defined by Broadband
Forum for GPON as TR-255 and for XG-PON / XGS-PON as TR-309. However, the lack of strict implementation
guidelines for the OMCI and PLOAM layers meant that suppliers have a lot of freedom in deciding the implementation
details. Therefore, if an operator wants to achieve differentiation between OLT and ONT providers, it should only focus
on ONTs that have passed the Broadband Forum BBF-247 ONT certification program. In addition, it is recommended
to use OMCI to configure Layer 2 parameters only, while configuration related to more advanced Layer 3 features (eg
Wi-Fi) should be done using separate configuration protocols such as TR-069.

Open API between wholesale and retail operators
Communication between an open access operator and service providers must be organised in such a way
as to enable smooth integration of processes on both sides. The communication channel must facilitate:
• Checking the availability of the service at the indicated location

• Scheduling of technician’s visit to the customer
• Device activation and deactivation
• Verification of the technician’s work status
• Sharing the technician team’s calendar
• Sending information about planned works and mass network disruptions
• Exchange of documents
There are two common approaches to organising this communication:
• Web portal - created by an open access operator for all service providers, through which the service
provider can place service orders, forecasts, submit complaints, modify services, etc.
• API – Programming interfaces which facilitate integration between IT systems of an access operator and
service providers. A comprehensive set of TM Forum’s open APIs was developed in collaboration with
operators. It covers most of the required communication between an open access operator and service
providers. Therefore, it is recommended to use TM Forum APIs listed on: https://projects.tmforum.org/wiki/
display/API/Open+API+Table in order to improve integration between operators as well as improve the
end customer experience.
A web portal is a good solution for organising communication when the number of orders is relatively
small. However, in the case of large service providers and large volumes of orders, it is recommended to
integrate IT systems with the open access operator via APIs. The portal is also useful during the period in
which a large service provider is adapting its IT systems to integrate with the API. Sometimes integration
takes several months, so by using a portal the service provider can quickly establish cooperation.
With this in mind, an open access operator should provide both forms of communication to enable
cooperation with large and small service providers.
tmforum.org
projects.tmforum.org
Sustainability and carbon footprint reduction

FTTH networks can be operated with significantly lower carbon emissions than legacy competing networks
such as copper or HFC.
There are two primary reasons for this: Reliability and Power Consumption.
FTTH networks are more reliable than their legacy competitors. This results in fewer faults which in turn
means far less resource is required to deal with network faults and customer issues. The Fiber Broadband
Association in North America has found that “Truck Rolls” and “Customer Churn” are responsible for 85%
of Access Network OPEX on average across all technologies. However, FTTH networks OPEX is significantly
lower because they do not experience the same level of Customer Churn or the same level of faults. The
reduced fault levels lead to reduced Truck Rolls and therefore a reduction in carbon emissions attributable
to the network. The graphs on the following page show the anticipated OPEX saving derived from FTTH.

Source: Fiber Broadband Association.
Secondly, FTTH networks require less electrical power. This is primarily because FTTH networks require
fewer active elements than legacy copper/HFC networks. Breko (a broadband industry association based
in Germany) has published a study comparing the energy consumption of these networks and found that
GPON is the best FTTH network in terms of sustainability, followed by FTTH Point-to-point and XGS-PON.
If all households in Germany were supplied (given a 100 % capacity rate) with GPON, this could save
almost 240 MW compared to FTTC. Based on a sum data rate of one Gbit/s, a full supply of FTTH point-to-
point systems can save almost 1100 MW in power compared to FTTC.
As Europe moves towards a carbon-neutral society in the coming years it will be important for operators to
accurately monitor and record the carbon emissions of their networks. This will be of significant importance
for incumbent operators who migrate their networks from traditional copper technologies to fibre and will
be a driver to accelerate their efforts to switch off copper networks.

Section 14.3
Operating the Network
FTTH networks need to operate round the clock and must consistently deliver high quality service to
all users. In order to ensure that the requisite performance is delivered, it is necessary to implement an
appropriately resourced operations structure. The establishment of such a structure requires the sourcing
and management of various items of information:
Details of the network and type of construction

In order for the operations team to carry out their role and associated tasks effectively and efficiently they
need to know the kind of network that has been implemented and how it was constructed (see earlier
Chapters in this Handbook). This will involve knowledge of and access to a wide range of data associated
with the network so that the operator can run and maintain it as efficiently as possible. The sustainability
of the network in being able to deliver the services required can be seriously undermined due to a lack of
effective and well-resourced OAM. Lack of, or poorly conceived, OAM systems will contribute to a cycle of
underperformance that can lead to poor service delivery.
As-built drawings / GIS mapping

To this end, as-built drawings in an agreed format supported with GIS mapping data are vital. This is the
focus of Chapter 12. A key consideration is the location of all the network assets as well as their proximity
to other utilities. A comprehensive IT Systems support structure will include the necessary Physical Network
Inventory as detailed in Chapter 7.
Services plans
Customer service plans are the policies and procedures put in place to establish, maintain, and enhance
the relationship between the network operator and its customers. These plans will include a number of
key elements such as customer types and profiles, past and current billing information, agreed SLAs of the
service offering, customer service support and so on.

Such a register of equipment, cables, and ducts is clearly important not only from an operational
perspective but financially. Not only that, maintaining this register is important to keep pace with all moves,
adds and changes. Technicians working in the field need good information about the equipment on which
they are going to work. The asset register should include associated information such as manufacturers’
instructions especially for active equipment as well as the associated guarantees and warranties.
Policies and procedures for OAM

It is a prerequisite that every operator or CP has robust policies and procedures for how they deal with
OAM on their network. This will form the basis of their SOP (Standard Operating Procedures) manual. It
provides the necessary guidance as to how issues are dealt with on a routine basis. As with all policies and
procedures they will require regular review and updating.

Document management system (DMS)
All the relevant documentation aimed at explaining “how to carry out activities” should be written bearing
in mind specific stakeholders (for example, field technicians, NOC operators, Customer Operators/SPs).
They should also be organised in a way which reflects the appropriate level of detail.
To meet the above-mentioned requirements, a reference documentation scheme should be adopted.
The figure below shows an example of a reference schema.
SP
Figure 14.1 - Document Reference Schema
This schema can be implemented in IT systems such as a Document Management Systems (DMS) or
company Intranet that can also be open to external users by means of secure and profiled link accesses.
Moreover, to improve the field experience, access to the DMS can be embedded in a Field Activities
Management Mobile App.
Figure 14.2 – Documentation access on the Field Activities Management Mobile App

The following examples, related to service activation, explain the hierarchy of the reference documentation
schema.
Receiving and accepting orders - every Order sent by the Requester must pass formal and meaningful
checks executed by CRM/SP Gateway System. If the check is OK, the Order Management system accepts
the order.
Customer Operator - check on the formal name and on the current availability of a commercial
agreement
POP/central office - check on the formal name aimed at verifying the actual belonging of the POP
to the Network Coverage
Building ID - check on the formal code aimed at verifying the actual belonging of the building to
the Network Coverage
PAD - Planned Activity Date: congruence check with commercial SLAs. In case of at least one failed
check, the Order will not be acquired in the Order Management System and instead go into the
“Acquired OK” state. If all the information checks are OK, the Order Management System acquires
the Order which goes in the “Acquired” state
Network Infrastructure Provisioning - the Order Management system sends relevant Order Information
to Physical Network Inventory/DB which performs a Passive Network Resources Availability check. If this is
OK, the Physical Network Inventory/DB reserves the network resources needed for the order provisioning,
thus generating a Circuit/Resource ID.
If the check is not OK, the Order Management suspends the Order. This triggers the Passive Infrastructure
Upgrade Process.
Field task Planning - In this phase, date and time slots for field tasks are planned, and coordination with
the final customer takes place. This engages the technician operating in a particular geographical location.
Service Activation - In this phase, new and existing services to multiple end-user devices are activated
simultaneously. It is vital to follow scheduled steps accurately as hundreds of results may be generated for
each PON activation, which is often taken care of by third parties / subcontractors.
Order Closing - The task is marked as closed, and important information is captured and added to the
network database, possibly including photographs and relevant documentation for future reference. If
required, a signature from the customer is obtained to validate closure.
Standard Delivery Operating Procedure - end-to-end “how to do?”

Operating instruction Optical Link Acceptance -> specific task detailed “how to do?”
During the Service Activation Phase of the Delivery Process, the field technician must assess the Optical
Quality of the FTTH Link under activation.
Preliminary task - App Configuration

Select server (for example from a from drop down box.)
- IP Adress: 100.100.10.100
- Port number
Step 1: App configuration Step 2: OTDR test with Reflector

in Optical Socket
The field technician will perform an OTDR acceptance test inserting the Line ID in the relative field and
clicking on the “Test” button.
In order to accept the Link, the field technician must assess wether the end-to-end attenuation of the link is
equal to or less than the agreed power budget threshold.

Commissioning and testing results and certificates
Optimal network monitoring and maintenance requires accurate commissioning and test results to be used
as reference data/values. For this reason, line/circuit reference data storage is a fundamental step of the
service activation phase of the Delivery Process.
Essential reference data/values consist of optical end to end attenuation and optical distance. These data
are typically acquired by means of an OTDR system. Further parameters such as downstream throughput,
upstream throughput, latency/ping time and jitter may also be considered. To obtain the optical quality
parameters, the OTDR system should “know” the optical path related to the line/circuit to be activated.
This is a 2-step process:
Step 1: a logical description of the ODN is needed. For this reason, the OTDR EMS is regularly populated
with network topology data from the PNI.
Step 2: when an Order is received, a logical description of the Line/Circuit under activation is needed. To
obtain this, the OTDR EMS (after Field Task Planning is completed), is specifically loaded with the unique
Circuit/Resource ID coming from the Order Management System.
Figure 14.4 – Preliminary tasks for line/circuit reference data storing after Service Activation during the Delivery Process
At the end of the Service Activation Phase the technician performs an OTDR test in order to verify that the
end-to-end attenuation of the link is equal to or less than the Power Budget Threshold.
If the attenuation exceeds the power budget threshold, the technician must assess the quality of the physical
infrastructure (too much bending, cleanliness of connectors) and take the appropriate corrective action. If the
attenuation falls within specification, the technician will create logical matching between the new reflective
event (properly highlighted in the Field Task Management Mobile App) and the Circuit/Resource ID loaded
by the Order Management System thus saving this Reference Data.
Upon Order completion, the end-to-end Order Management System will be automatically updated with the
relevant optical parameters - attenuation and optical distance of the new reflective event.

Completion Certificates
Certificates provide specific and accurate information about Delivery or Assurance task completion. This
information may from link quality data to details of the CPE.
Below is an example of a Completion Certificate.
Figure 14.5 - Example of completion certificate
Health & Safety

Every operator, CP and contractor should have regard to Health & Safety, for which they should have
developed the appropriate policies and procedures. Health and Safety is not the responsibility of the FTTH
Council Europe therefore nothing is this Handbook should be construed as an instruction in that regard.

Section 14.4
Maintaining the Network
Maintenance falls into two broad categories: preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance.
Preventive maintenance is scheduled periodically. It is designed to prevent operational failures and detect
defects before they cause failures. Corrective maintenance is carried out in the event of a failure or a
network defect that could potentially cause a failure. Corrective maintenance often needs to be carried out
on an ‘emergency’ basis in order to restore service to customers.
Maintenance
Preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance is aimed at proactive monitoring tasks to assess the network’s general status in
order to fix potential problems and assure optimal network operating conditions.
The figure below shows a general reference process.
Figure 14.6 – Preventive Maintenance Process
These tasks are usually carried out on a periodic basis. For this reason, it is important to keep track of issues
indentified on network elements and, any corrective action taken. To do this, appropriate information
systems management is essential.
Examples of activities are listed in the table below.

Preventive maintenance task planning
The PNI (or specific network views created by means of Business Intelligence tools) periodically selects
items to be scheduled for preventive maintenance. This could be done by setting several parameters such
as a timestamp of the last preventive maintenance task.
Selected network items are sent to the Trouble Ticket Management System (TTM) which automatically
creates a Ticket. The TTM engages field technicians or the central OTDR EMS. Work is assigned to field
technicians based on their geographic location and that of the network element.
Preventive maintenance task execution

The field technician completes the maintenance task information required in the Field Activities
Management Mobile App, attaching relevant documents such as photos of the inspection. The technician
then closes the task on the App leading to the simultaneous updating of the Ticket in the TTM which finally
sends a specific tag (timestamp) to the PNI.
Figure 14.7 – Preventive Maintenance System Information Flow
In the case of fibre performance monitoring, the TTM directly engages the central OTDR EMS to send the
Fibre Link name/Link ID as an input parameter.
Example - Leak test on junction box

1. The Field Technician uses the Field Activities Management Mobile Application
2. To recieve the Maintenance Task and reviews network item information (network ID, geographical
position, etc.)
3. Executing the leak test:
a. Calibration of the gas detector to the environment in which the junction box is positioned,
making sure no leaks are detected.
b. Introduce helium into the junction box, to 700hPa pressure; wait for dispersion of
any gas leaks during the operation.
c. For at least 15 minutes, check for any leaks of helium.
3. Insert requested information into the Mobile App.

Figure 14.8 – Preventive Maintenance Task example: pneumatic test
on junction box
Corrective tasks identified during preventive maintenance
If the output of the preventive maintenance task identifies corrective work, the technician notifies the NOC
operator who will open a specific ticket on the TTM system. The preventive task ticket is suspended and
will be closed when the corrective task is completed.
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance is typically addressed in two ways:
Reactive: In the case of Trouble Tickets opened by the Customer Service Team as a result of Service
Outage or Degradation.
Proactive:
o In response to alarms coming from monitoring systems , which can potentially

affect network services, such as Fault Management Systems giving rise to an
Incident Trouble Ticket
o As a result of an of Internal Trouble Ticket opened by NOC operators in response to

scheduled maintenance activities such as network expansions or civil works. The figure
below shows a general reference QA flow diagram of a Corrective Maintenance process.

Figure 14.9 – Corrective Maintenance Process Flow Diagram
Recieve Trouble Ticket (TT)

For reactive cases, every TT sent by the Requester must pass formal checks executed by the CRM Gateway
System. If the check is positive, the Trouble Ticket Management system (TTM) takes control of the TT. The
most relevant critical information is the unique Circuit/Resource ID of the line affected by service outage or
degradation.
For proactive cases, the Fault Management system intercepts alarms coming from several sources, thus
generating an Incident TT in the TTM System.
The table below shows some alarms which can be taken into account.
Information Interrogation and Collection

In this phase, using the Circuit/Resource ID, the TTM populates the TT with data from several sources in
order to initiate the subsequent phases with useful and relevant information.
The table below shows some data which can be gathered from several sources.

Meanwhile, the TTM correlates the current TT with others that can can be associated with it to better
manage all the necessary corrective tasks. Indeed, correlation can enable the TTM to identify a common
root cause across multiple TTs.
Diagnosis
The NOC operator takes charge of the TT and analyses the information in order to assess whether:
• The outage or degradation stated by the Customer Operator/Service Provider in the TT must be
addressed.
• The problem can be solved remotely or requires field mobilisation
In case of an alarm the NOC Operator must assess whether:
• The alarm must be addressed or not, thus closing the TT
• The problem can be solved remotely or requires field mobilisation
For every TT:
• For a problem that can be solved remotely, the NOC operator identifies the
appropriate stakeholder (second level technicians, vendor technicians, etc.) to be engaged.
• Where a mobilisation is required, the NOC operator can better understand and identify the
location of the problem by analyzing the OTDR results, thus adding useful information to the TT.
If the TT is related to an active service, the NOC operator can perform further tests (for instance on the OLT
configuration).
Corrective Task Planning

By using SLA data, the TTM defines the deadline for TT resolution and engages the resource responsible
for the corrective task. In particular, the TTM engages field technicians by creating a specific task in the
Field Activities Management Mobvile App taking into account their geographical distribution.
For TTs that can be solved remotely, the NOC operator engages the appropriate stakeholder (second level
technicians, vendor technicians, etc.)
Corrective Task Execution

The field technician travels to the location as described in the task information in the Field Activities
Management Mobile App. Fault locations fall into two categories:
- Locations which do not involve the engagement of the end user- for instance, when the fault is at
the cabinet or in the POP/central office.
- Locations that do require the engagement of the end user- for instance, when the fault is at the
drop, or equipment (CPE) location.
Depending on the case, the technician performs all the necessary repairs. If the problem is on the physical
passive infrastructure, the technician performs an OTDR test to verify that the end-to-end attenuation of
the link is equal to or less than the Power Budget Threshold.
For TTs that can be solved remotely, the appropriate stakeholder (second level technicians, vendor
technicians, etc.) works on the issue under NOC supervision.

Closing Trouble Ticket
The field technician enters the information required on the Mobile App (for instance the serial number/
barcode of the replaced CPE) and closes the task. The NOC operator verifies whether the issue solved.
In the case of a remote TT, the NOC operator closes the TT upon validation of task completion and
service restoration.

Section 14.5
Network Upgrades
and Expansion
Network upgrades and expansions will require similar procedures and processes in order to ensure that
they are correctly implemented. It is vital that these activities do not impact or disturb operation of the
existing network. Accordingly, a comprehensive set of MACs processes and procedures similar in structure
to those outlined above must be developed.

Chapter 15
Network
Monitoring and
Troubleshooting
15.1 Centralised Network Monitoring
and Troubleshooting
15.2 Troubleshooting
15.3 Optical Testing Tools
15.4 Optical Intrusion Detection Monitoring

Section 15.1
Centralised
Network Monitoring and
Troubleshooting
For FTTH network monitoring, the ONT Management and Control Interface (OMCI), as specified by ITU-T
Recommendation G984-4, defines the performance and fault management of the OLT, ONT and the
physical layer. However, the OMCI requires communication between the OLT and the ONT. If the ONT is
not responding, it is impossible to determine whether a problem stems from the ONT or the physical layer.
For this reason, many operators use an external physical monitoring system that can carry out tests on the
physical layer when the ONT cannot be reached.
An OTDR test from the OLT is often capable of pinpointing the location of faults in the FTTH network and
determining the quality of workmanship involved in the installation. The goal of the monitoring process is
to isolate and locate fibre degradations and faults - not to qualify the FTTH network.
Distinguishing Between the Different Segments of

a PON using an OTDR
Distinguishing the different segments of a FTTH network can be challenging when testing with an OTDR.
Figure 15.1 shows the OTDR trace for a simple 1x2 splitter when only one segment is connected. The
different lengths enable identification of the two segments.
Fig. 15.1 OTDR trace with a 1x2 splitter and only one connected segment

If the second segment is connected, the contributions of both segments appear on the trace, as seen below.
Fig. 15.2 OTDR trace with a 1x2 splitter and 2 segments of different lengths
If each segment is the exact same length, the OTDR trace will appear similar to that shown in Figure 15.3.
Fig. 15.3 OTDR trace with a 1x2 splitter and 2 segments of equal lengths

Several network topology parameters complicate testing with an OTDR. This should be considered when
designing the FTTH network:
• The distances between the last splitter and subscriber ONTs can be equal, as subscriber
residences are typically located at about equal distances from the splitter.
• Splitting ratios are not typically 1x2 but rather 1x16, 1x32, or 1x64, increasing the splitter loss.
For example, the typical loss of a 1x64 splitter is 18-20 dB.
The figure below shows an OTDR measurement from a 1x32 PON that has multiple segments after the splitter.
Fig. 15.4 OTDR measurement of a 1x32 splitter with close segments
The ideal PON OTDR would have a very high dynamic range, making it possible to detect optical events
on the fibre branches beyond the splitter, as well as very short dead zones to differentiate between
terminations (ONTs), which are usually not reflective. The multi-pulse OTDRs available today adress this to
some extent, but not fully. Consequently, it is necessary to add a reflective optical element (also referred
to as a reflective filter) at each ONT. When the reflective filter is present, the OTDR can distinguish this
element from noise using a very short pulse width, as shown in Figure 15.5.
Fig. 15.5 OTDR trace on PON equipped with reflective filters

PON troubleshooting and monitoring can be performed while the PON network is in service, as the OTDR
uses a wavelength that is different from the one used by traffic. The latest ITU-T G984.5 recommendation
allocates the bandwidth for test as 1625 - 1670 nm. The monitoring system inserts the test wavelength by
adding a wavelength division multiplexer (WDM) close to the OLT. ITU-T recommendation G984.5 states
that the ONT must not be sensitive to test wavelengths.
Automated Provisioning and Troubleshooting

In the context of setting up a centralised and automated testing and troubleshooting system in FTTH, an
optical switching unit is usually added. This is capable of testing multiple OLTs/PONs with the same OTDR,
as shown in Figure 15.6. Such an approach enables a single OTDR to handle the testing of an entire site.
With the installation of reflective filters at terminating locations one can discern each leg of a PON, based
on distance. Additionally, it is possible to test them in order to enable fault isolation, as well as capture
changes in end-to-end loss and determine whether a power drift can be attributed to the fibre layer or
active equipment.
Fig. 15.6: PON Test System integrating a switch and reflective termination filters that can be used as demarcation devices.
Figure 15.7 shows how to use the system for provisioning.
(i) Technicians log into the application from their smartphones. This mobile app can be either
delivered with the test solution or created by the network operator using open APIs typically
available with enterprise-class element management software.
(ii) The second step typically involves selecting the termination piece of inventory down to port level
where the high-reflectance demarcation filter (HRD) is permanently installed.
(iii) The PON test system automatically recognises the new peak and records its position and
attenuation in dB from the central office to this point in the network. It is possible that two
reflectors fall at the exact same position (typical limit for two reflectors to be discriminated is 50cm).
It can be expected that the test solution provides feedback if this occurs.
(iv) Reflectors can be installed at different interfaces- the drop terminal, second splitter location, the
subscriber premise, or directly at the input of the ONT. At the time of registration by the field
technician, the reflector is linked to a unique ID enabling on-demand testing and monitoring to
apply to the physical or inventory domain.

(v) This provisioning activity is typically conducted at the same time an end-to-end build or customer
connection activity is completed. It can serve as a validation that there is end-to-end connectivity,
that the build was conducted on the right PON and end-to-end loss falls within the expected
optical budget.
Fig. 15.7: Provisioning a high-reflectance demarcation filter
Troubleshooting
Figure 15.8 shows how to use the PON test system for troubleshooting.
Fig. 15.8: Automated troubleshooting scenario with fault detection analysis

(i) An alarm is opened that affects one or many OLTs and ONTs and an operation support system
(OSS) determines the OTDR port or route on which to trigger an automated trouble-shooting test.
(ii) Typically, the disappearance of a peak indicates that there is a fibre cut along the Network,
whilst a higher loss than expected indicates a bend or degradation.
(iii) In case no changes are detected, the OSS can escalate to additional verification and validation
steps to identity a possible cause of failure, and eventually open and assign a ticket or work
order with the required information.
(iv) Should the issue be confirmed as affecting any fibre section prior to the high-reflectance
demarcation filter, the location of the fault can be found by comparing the results obtained after
the alarms to the reference results obtained during system provisioning.
(v) The performance obtained in fault location after a splitter will vary from isolation only (i.e. from first
stage splitter to the reflector location) to a more precise measurement of distance from the splitter
or the OTDR depending on these key factors:
- Number of legs contributing to Rayleigh back-scattering at length of fault
- Whether high reflectance demarcation filters installed on other legs and set prior to
fault location are reflecting or not at the fault location test wavelength (if yes, they typically
create various deadzones)
- If the fault is reflective or not, and its reflectance level
- Whether or not automation is used to scan multiple OTDR pulses to improve the fault
detection analysis
Proactive Monitoring
Operators deploying a centralised test system to support automated troubleshooting can use the same
OTDR-based equipment to routinely test the fibre network. In FTTH networks, connecting a new area is
a progressive activity. After construction work is completed new connections can be added as required
over the life of the network. Some delivery points, homes, distribution terminals or entire PONs will not be
connected to ONTs as of yet. This limits the operators’ capability to monitor and validate the status and
quality of some fibres and their terminations.
The PON legs to be monitored must be equipped with high-reflectance demarcation filters, whether
it is used for efficient troubleshooting or monitoring. P2P fibres can be directly checked remotely and
monitored using standard OTDR test methods.
Monitoring essentially means pre-programmed tests running 24/7 in order to proactively detect and
report failures on one or multiple PON branches, as well as measure small and progressive increases in the
end-to-end loss, creating an alarm or alert for a change of 1dB or less, if required. Those fluctuations in
end-to-end loss or in peak level (depending on the test solution), can be tracked down using open-source
dashboarding tools such as Grafana, as seen below. Time-based analysis of an OTDR event such as a
degradation, leads to more accurate root cause analysis. A more complete and reliable diagnosis can be
obtained by using these OTDR ‘metrics’ in conjunction with other available time-series datasets, from an
external source or from OLT/ONT equipment.

Fig. 15.9 Analytic tools can be used to better understand event build-up over time.
Monitoring therefore not only applies in an ‘operation and maintenance’ context but also as a validation
tool to predict whether a new event (such as an increase in optical loss) could cause network failure now or
in the future.
In broad terms, monitoring of the fibre network without the OLT/ONT equipment enables its quality
behaviour to be reported as a function of numerous related and external data:
• Time elapsed, so how aging affects the end-to-end loss
• Environment, such as temperature and exposure to extreme cold or heat
• Type of installation – aerial vs buried
• The party that was responsible for construction
• Work orders that took place in the same area
• ONTs received power for the same PON (if present)
Monitoring a FTTH network where each central site can optically connect 100s to 1000s of fibres requires
the test system to cope adequately with scale, but also with the following:
• Strategic placement of high-reflectance demarcation filters on the PONs
• Fast testing, so that each fibre can be tested several times per day for the largest sites.
• Faster testing enables a small number of fibres within the same cable or area to be
analysed frequently for the impact of temperature change. This can fluctuate significantly in
a sub-hour period.
• OTDR and reflectors must be stable over time and temperature – temperature variations in
the network should not affect the end-to-end loss

Section 15.2
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting of an out-of-service FTTH network can be conducted simply with the use of a power meter
or OTDR.
However, most of the time, not all subscribers (ONTs) are affected. therefore it may be necessary to
perform in-service tests. Troubleshooting a live PON network with portable instruments requires a PON
power meter using through-mode to investigate which signals are out of tolerance. To pinpoint fibre
breaks, macro-bending, faulty splices or connectors, an OTDR with a live testing port (also called a filtered
port) must be used from the subscriber’s location.
Figure 15.10 shows how to perform PON network troubleshooting:
(i) Ensure the fibre length corresponds to the length in between the drop cable output and the splitter
location. If not, this indicates a problem (break or macro-bend) is present at this location.
(ii) If the length measurement is correct, every splice point should be checked to see that it does not
exceed the normal splice values.
(iii) Any point exhibiting an excessive loss value will indicate the presence of a macro-bend or kink in
the fibre or a bad splice.
Figure 15.10: PON network troubleshooting

Locating and resolving problems within Customer Premises
Typically, the in-house fibre installation is carried out under a great deal of time pressure. The most
common issues are related to badly terminated cable (bad splice for splice-on connector, bad mechanical
assembly) or fibre that is broken when the cable is pulled.
An Optical Fibre Multimeter (See Chapter 11) will quickly and easily verify that the link inside the unit is OK
to avoid the need to re-enter the premises. Typically, no reporting is needed for this.
It is important to carry out validation all the way from the endpoint to the basement or Distribution Point.
Check there is a properly working connector in the optical outlet (1). If there are any faults or concerns,
the technician will have the right equipment at hand and can replace it right away. Also check there are no
breaks in the cable inside the living unit (2). Again, the technician still has the opportunity to replace this
while inside. Finally, check whether there are bad splices or cabling faults between the dwelling unit and
the basement. Not only will the technician have the right tools available, but they will still be inside the
building and pathways will still be open.
Fig. 15.11 Validation at the customer premises

Section 15.3
Optical Testing Tools
Test Equipment Function Use
Inspection scope Visual inspection of connectors, Fibre connector assembly check and
this with automates Pass/ troubleshooting
Fail analysis according to IEC
standard
VFL (Visual fault locator) Continuity check up to 5km, Fibre link construction and troubleshooting
break/bend visual identifier for at locations where fibres are accessible
fibre along patch panel/hub areas
Optical talk set Enables communication between When two engineers are required for end
engineers using cable link to end test
Light source/power meter or Measures fibre link insertion loss, Fibre link construction, acceptance testing
bi-directional loss test set return loss and tests continuity and troubleshooting
Power meter Only Measure power output level of Equipment and fibre link turn up and
equipment troubleshooting
Power meter with clip-on Estimates optical power in link Equipment and fibre trouble-shooting at
device any location where fibres are accessible,
even when connectors can not be accessed
Clip-on fibre identifier Non-intrusively identify and track Equipment and fibre trouble-shooting at
live traffic or test tone on a fibre; any location where fibres are accessible,
May also estimate relative power even when connectors can not be accessed
along the link
1310/1490/1550/1270/1577 Measures power levels of Equipment and fibre trouble-shooting at

selective power meter with equipment and fibre link when any location where fibres are accessible,
through mode OLT/ONT connected even when connectors can not be accessed
ORL meter Measures overall optical return Fibre link and equipment (ONT/OLT) turn-
loss up and troubleshooting
OTDR Measures fibre link characteristics Fibre link and equipment, acceptance and
troubleshooting
Centrally operated OTDR Spine, first stage splitter and Auditing network using a smartphone
and optical switch PON legs testing in service from application connected to central, trouble-
central office shooting and proactive monitoring of fibre
networks to locate fibre breaks or fibre/
element degradations
OFM - Optical Fibre Measures fibre length, loss and fibre health check, acceptance and
Multimeter optical return loss (ORL) in under troubleshooting
3 seconds

Section 15.4
Optical Intrusion
Detection Monitoring
Monitoring fibre access chambers and outdoor distribution systems in the field are becoming ever more
important as the infrastructure takes on a critical role in sustaining the economy and society. Operators are
well aware of the adverse effects of targeted vandalism that occurs to predominately outdoor distribution
cabinets and occasionally to access chambers. Optical intrusion detection methods offer an additional layer
of security with peace of mind for those responsible for safeguarding overall network performance.
As described in previous Chapters, remote optical fibre intrusion detection systems will easily detect
network fibre damage with exact fault location and will furthermore enable security breach detection
of critical infrastructure. In most cases OSP fibre infrastructures, such as access chambers and outdoor
cabinets, have no dedicated AC/DC power supply for electrical contacts monitoring. Alternative battery-
operated solutions present a real maintenance challenge. In such cases an all-optical intrusion detection
sensor coupled with an OTDR-based monitoring system can be of some assistance. Optical intrusion
detection has the following unique advantages:
• Optical monitoring systems are not easily manipulated by an outside intruder without
the manipulation attempt itself being detected.
• Magnetic, EMP or sudden power disruptions at the monitored site cannot affect an
optical system.
• Maintenance-free solution – No batteries required
• Warning notices of unintended access to monitored objects is immediately available.
• Optical monitoring does not evaluate packet data on the fibre link- it directly monitors
reflected light of selected wavelengths.
• Detection of any new devices added to the fibre link.
• Detection of remote tampering, whether intentional or unintentional.
• No payload signal jamming possible as fibre data traffic is left untouched.
• Operates on fully functional PON networks by utilising WDM filters.
• Sensors operate on a splitter based PON network.
• Sensors can be cascaded on a single fibre link (to monitor multiple points using
asymmetrical splitters).
• Theoretical optical span is governed by optical budget and OTDR dynamics.
Operators planning to monitor their OSP fibre assets will choose to run the optical sensors on a dedicated
fibre to separate security from actual services. This method helps to separate the responsibilities in
maintenance cases. However, an optical intrusion detection system is not limited to dark fibre monitoring
as it can also be used to monitor in-service active fibre systems using standardised ITU-T defined passive
WDM filters.

Basic System Function
Either a wavelength selective reflector or wideband reflector is used to monitor the state of the fibre
link. The optical reflection (attenuation / time) is evaluated by an OTDR and the calculated insertion loss
is typically measured at 1650nm (OTDR reserved wavelength) or measured in a wideband if no other
wavelengths are present. The reflection results are constantly compared against stored initial reference
values of the system from first commission.
The actual measured OTDR event is typically a loss or strong attenuation of the reflected light. Optical
intrusion detection sensors are based on manipulating the attenuation/return loss of light from the reflector
device. In principle this can be achieved either by deforming/stressing the fibre (macrobending) until no
light can travel back to the OTDR due to internal losses or by removing the reflector altogether from the
fibre itself, in this case light will just be lost at the open end.
Any unauthorised manipulation of the fibre infrastructure (such as intrusion to an access chamber) is thus
detected and if necessary alarmed (within set and stored tolerances). External alarms can be triggered by
stand-alone systems or integrated (customised) to an existing NMS and GIS (for visualisation and location).
The network operator is able to evaluate the operational capability or quality of his infrastructure himself
and does not depend on the judgement or evaluation given by third parties (for example, fitting and
installation companies or the lessee of the infrastructure or the subscriber).
Fig. 15.12 Basic Operating Principle of the Optical Intrusion Detection system

Epilogue
We hope you have enjoyed reading this edition of the FTTH Handbook, and that it has contributed to your
understanding of planning, designing, building, and operating a fibre network.
Of course, we’d be interested in receiving your comments, questions, and suggestions about the
handbook, which will be regularly updated.
More info about the D&O Committee and the Council can be found on the FTTH Council website. We will
be happy to address any of your questions related to this. Please don’t hesitate to get in touch!
Vincent Garnier
Director General, FTTH Council Europe

Appendix I
Fibre, Connectors
and Splicing
A1.1 Optical Fibre
A1.2 Connectors, Patchcords and Pigtails
A1.3 Fibre-Optic Splicing
Section A1.1
Optical Fibre
Optical Fibre Basics
Optical fibre is effectively a ‘light pipe’ carrying pulses of light generated by lasers or other optical sources
to a receiving sensor (detector). Transmission of light in an optical fibre can be achieved over considerable
distances, supporting high-speed applications unsustainable by today’s copper-based networks. Conceived
in the 1960s, optical fibre has undergone major development and, as it is now standardised, has become a
reliable and proven foundation of today’s modern telecommunication transmission systems.
Fibre is manufactured from high purity silica. Initially

formed into glass rods, they are drawn into fine
hair-like strands and covered with a thin protective
plastic coating. Fibre consists of a core, cladding
and outer coating. Light pulses are launched into
the core region. The surrounding cladding keeps
the light travelling down the core and prevents
it from leaking out. An outer coating offering
mechanical protection to the glass, usually made of
a polymer, is applied during the drawing process
Fibres are subsequently packaged in various cable

configurations before installation. Details relating Figure A1.1
to the cables are available in other chapters of this Standard Single-mode fibre
handbook.
Whilst there are many different fibre types, this document concentrates on fibre for FTTH applications.
The fibre core is where light is guided and can be designed in various geometrical sizes which, depending
how the light pulse travels, produces different optical performances.
More in depth information on further aspects of single-mode fibre geometries can be read here
SINGLE-MODE FIBER GEOMETRIES
A number of parameters determine how efficiently light pulses are transmitted down the fibre. The two
main parameters are attenuation and dispersion.
Attenuation is the reduction of optical power over distance. Even with the extremely pure materials used
to manufacture the fibre core and cladding, power is lost over distance by scattering and absorption
within the fibre. Fibre attenuation limits the distance light pulses can travel and still remain detectable.
Attenuation is expressed in decibels per kilometre (dB/km) at a given wavelength or range of wavelengths,
also known as the attenuation coefficient or attenuation rate. Attenuation can also be caused by factors
external to the fibre such as bending.
ATTENUATION

Dispersion can broadly be described as the amount of distortion or spreading of a pulse during
transmission. If pulses spread out too far, the detector at the other end of the fibre is not able to distinguish
one pulse from the next, causing loss of information. There are three main dispersion types:
Modal dispersion is the most severe ‘speed limiter’ of the dispersion types and occurs in Multimode fibre.
The light modes travel along the fibre using different paths resulting in signal spreading due to the varying
distances/speeds travelled.
Chromatic dispersion occurs in all fibres and is caused by the various colours of light (components of a light
pulse) travelling at slightly different speeds along the fibre.
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) occurs in single-mode fibre when two polarization modes travel at
different speeds through the fibre due to random imperfections and asymmetries.
Dispersion is inversely related to bandwidth, which is the information carrying capacity.
DISPERSION
There are many other parameters, which affect fibre transmission performance. Further information can be
found in IEC 60793 (Optical Fibres) series of specifications.
Choice of FTTH Optical Fibre

Several types of optical fibre are available. FTTH schemes are usually based on single-mode fibre;
however multimode fibre may also be used in certain situations. The choice of fibre will depend on several
considerations. The list below is not exhaustive; other factors may need to be considered on a case-by-case
basis.
• Network architecture – The choice of network architecture affects the data rate that needs to be
delivered by the fibre as does the available optical power budget of the network. Both factors affect the
choice of fibre.
• Size of the network – Network size can refer to the number of premises served by the network.
However, in this context it refers to the physical distance across the network. The available power budget
will determine how far the POP can be located from the subscriber. Power budgets are influenced by all the
components in the optical path including the fibre.
• The existing network fibre type – If an existing network is expanded, the optical fibre in the new
network segments must be compatible with the fibre in the existing network.
• Expected lifetime – FTTH networks are designed with a lifespan of at least 30 years. Therefore, it is
imperative that investments in the FTTH infrastructure are suitable for future needs as changes to the
choice of fibre during the expected lifespan of the FTTH network are not always a realistic option. Fibre
reliability is also of high importance to the user.
FIBER RELIABILITY

Single-mode Fibre
Single-mode fibre has a small core size (<10μm) that supports only one
mode (ray pattern) of light. The majority of the world’s fibre systems
are based on this type of fibre.
Single-mode fibre provides very low optical attenuation loss and very Figure A1.2
high bandwidth transmission carrying capacity. Single-mode fibre Singlemode fibre
systems incur higher equipment cost and support longer transmission
distances than multimode fibre systems.
For FTTH applications, the ITU-T G.652 recommendations for single-

mode fibre are sufficient to cover the needs of most networks. For
quite some time now a newer type of single-mode fibre has been
available on the market that reduces optical losses at tight bends.
These fibres are standardised in the ITU-T G.657 recommendation. Figure A1.3
The in-force version, edition 4, was published in November 2016 and Multimode fibre
can be downloaded at:
Characteristics of a bending-loss insensitive single-mode optical fibre and cable
Graded-index multimode fibres

Multimode fibres have a larger core size (50 or 62.5μm) that supports many modes (different light paths
through the core). Depending on the launch characteristics, the input pulse power is divided over all
or some of the modes. The different propagation speed of individual modes (modal dispersion) can
be minimised by adequate fibre design. Multimode fibre can operate with cheaper light sources and
connectors. However, the fibre itself is more expensive than single-mode. Multimode fibre has a lower
bandwidth capability than singlemode fibre as well as a restricted transmission distance. It is used
extensively in data centres and sometimes in campus networks where such limitations are less of a concern.
The ISO/IEC11801 specification describes the data rate and reach of multimode fibre grades, referred to
as OM1, OM2, OM3, OM4 and OM5. OM1 and OM2 are no longer supported for new installations within
ISO/IEC 11801-1:2017.
Bend insensitive fibre

Inside buildings, many areas prove difficult to cable with conventional fibres, resulting in in the possibility
of poor optical performance, due to the minimum bend radius of G.652.D fibres being exceeded.
To avoid this, very careful and skilled installation practices are required or special fibre protection is
needed with ducts and cable designs. However, for some time now, fibre types meeting the ITU-T G.657
recommendation have been widely available that allow fibre-optic cables to be installed as easily as
conventional copper cables. The fibres inside these cables, which are termed ‘bend- insensitive’, are
capable of operating at a bend radius of 7.5mm, with some fibres fully compliant at 5mm.
The recommendation G.657 describes two categories of single-mode fibres. A & B are suitable for use
in access networks and contain sub-categories which differ in macro-bending loss due to the difference
between them in their permissible bending radius:

Category A (see table below) contains the recommended attributes and values needed to support
optimised access network installation with respect to macro-bending loss. However, the values for the other
attributes remain within the range recommended in G.652.D and emphasises backward compatibility with
G.652.D fibres. This category has two sub-categories with different macro-bending requirements: G.657.A1
fibre and G.657.A2 fibre.
Category B (see table below) contains the recommended attributes and values needed to support very
low bending radii particularly applicable to in-building installations. For the mode-field diameter and
chromatic dispersion coefficients, the range of values might be outside those recommended in ITU-T G.652
and thus NOT necessarily backward compatible. However, for some of these fibres, the only parameter
keeping them from being G.652 compatible is the Chromatic Dispersion – and as they tend to be used in
the “drop” or “in-home” section of the network, the length will typically be significantly less than the 10-
40km fibre length in which the higher Chromatic Dispersion may typically start presenting problems. There
are two sub-categories with different macro-bending requirements: G.657.B2 fibre and G.657.B3 fibre.
The table below shows equivalent IEC terminology for bend insensitive fibre and recommended minimum
fibre bend radius requirements for cable applications.
Deployment of G.657 fibres, especially G.657.A2 and G.657.B3, is recommended for indoor cables. Both
grades protect transmission over the whole 1260 - 1650nm window from the impact of tight bending
that may be introduced during in-building installation. 200 μm coating
versions of G.657.A1 and G.657.A2 grades are also available and deliver
higher fibre packing density in high-fibre count cables used outdoors.
These bending performances are of particular importance for installation

and maintenance operations for inside networks (central offices, multi-
dwelling units, apartments, individual houses) as well as covering
outdoor deployments (splice enclosures, joints, mid-span access, street
cabinets and similar).

Colour Coding of Fibres
Fibres within buffer tubes, as well as buffered fibres, are colour coded to differentiate the fibres within the
cable. This colour coding allows installers to easily identify fibres at both ends of a link. It also indicates the
appropriate position of each fibre in the cable. IEC 60304 defines the 12 colours (Blue, Yellow, Red, White,
Green, Violet, Orange, Grey, Turquoise, Black, Brown, Pink) for fibre identification, but does not specify
which colour is for which fibre.
For fibre counts above 12, additional groups of 12 fibres should be identified by combining the 12 current
colours with an additional identification (for example, ring marking, dashed mark or tracer). Some regions
have identified a further 4 colours for fibres 13-16 (Olive, Magenta, Tan, Lime) which can also be used.
A number of schemes for fibre identification have evolved in various regions but attempts to unify the
schemes have not yet been successful as they are embedded in the system architecture. IEC TR 63194
gives examples of regional colour codes used throughout the world.

Section A1.2
Connectors, Patchcords
and Pigtails
After the termination of OSP cables, individual fibres need to be accessible for distribution and/or
connection to active equipment. The transformation of cable bundles to individual manageable circuits is
achieved by splicing each individual fibre from the OSP to a fibre optic ‘pigtail‘. A fibre pigtail is a single,
short, usually tight-buffered, optical fibre that has an optical connector pre-installed on one end and a
length of exposed fibre at the other end.
Additional distribution and/or connection between these fibres to/from the active equipment requires
‘patchcords’ which are fibre optic cables with connectors installed on both ends. Pigtails and patchcords
are generally available in (but not limited to) the following two constructions:
Buffered fibre: consits of one or more layers of inert material with a nominal diameter of 0.3 to 0.9 mm
and specified as either ‘tight’, ‘semi-tight’ or ‘loose’ depending on the buffer stripability length.
Figure A1.4
Cross section buffered fibre
Ruggedised fibre: where further protection is provided to one or more fibres/ buffered fibres/ribbons
with non-metallic strength members within a sheath of suitable material. These are typically 1.2 to 4.8mm in
diameter.
Figure A1.5
Cross section ruggedised fibre
In contrast to their electromechanical counterparts, there is no differentiation between plug and jack with
fibre optic connectors. Fibre optic connectors contain a ferrule to accommodate for the exact positioning
of the fibre end and are attached to one another via a coupler or adapter with a sleeve. A complete plug-
in connection consists of the combination connector/coupler/connector. The two ferrules, with the fibre
ends, must mate as precisely as possible inside the connection to minimise the loss of light energy or its
reflection (return loss).
The extremely small core diameters of optical fibres demand the highest mechanical and optical precision.
With tolerances of 0.5 to 0.10µm (much smaller than a grain of dust), manufacturers operate at the limits of
precision engineering.
Manufacturers inspect connectors using specialist kit designed for the purpose. Core diameters of 8.3µm
for single-mode and ferrules with 2.5mm or 1.25mm diameter make a visual inspection of the connector
impossible. Naturally, it is possible to determine if a connector is correctly snapped in and locked.
However, for all other characteristics – the ‘intrinsic values’ – for example insertion loss (IL), return loss (RL),
or mechanical stability, users must be able to rely on the manufacturer’s data.

Common Connector Types
ST connector (also known as BFOC, IEC 61754-2)
Connectors with bayonet lock were among the first PC connectors (1996) and, their extremely robust
design, they can still be found world-wide in LAN networks (primarily industrial).
Figure A1.6 Figure A1.7

ST connector AT adaptor/coupler
DIN/LSA ([German: fibre-optic cable connector], version A, IEC 61754-3, DIN 47256)
These compact connectors with threaded couplers are predominately used in German-speaking countries.
SC connector (IEC 61751-4)
This type of connector with a quadratic design and push/pull system is recommended for new installations.
The compact design of the SC allows a high packing density and can be combined with duplex and
multiplex connections. Although it is one of the oldest connectors, due to its excellent properties, the SC
continues to gain in popularity to this day. SC is still the most popular WAN connector world-wide. SC is
also used widely in the duplex version, particularly in local area networks.

SC connector SC adaptor/coupler
MU connector (IEC 61754-6)
Among the first small form connector, it is based on a 1.25 mm ferrule and its appearance and
functionality is like the SC but is half the size.

FC (Fibre Connector, IEC 61753-13)
A first-generation connector that is robust and proven. This is the first true WAN connector still in
use in millions of applications. However, due to its threaded coupling it is not optimal in cramped
circumstances, and therefore not popular in modern racks with high packing density.

FC connector FC adaptor/coupler
E-2000 ™ (LSH, IEC 61753-15)
The LSH has an integrated protective shutter that guards against dust and scratches as well as laser
beams. The connector is fitted with a locking latch retention mechanism that is both colour and
mechanically coded.

E-2000™ Connector E-2000™ adaptor/coupler
MT-RJ (IEC 61751-18)
The MT-RJ connector is commonly used in LANs and has a similar appearance to that of the RJ45
connector found in copper networks. It is used as a duplex connector.
LC connector (IEC 61754-20)
Developed by the company Lucent it is part of the new generation of compact connectors. The
construction is based on a ferrule with a 1.25 mm diameter. The duplex coupler is the same size of an
SC coupler (SC footprint) thus allowing for very high packing density and making it attractive for use in
data centres and central offices.

LC duplex Connector LC duplex adaptor/coupler
F-SMA (Sub-Miniature Assembly, IEC 61754-22)
Threaded connector without physical contact between ferrules. Today is only used for PFC/HCS or POF.
BLINK (IEC 61754-29)
This is a small form connector with the same ferrule (1.25mm) as LC and is designed and best-suited for the
connection between the OTO (Optical Telecommunication Outlet) and the ONT or CPE. The BLINK has
integrated automatic shutters that protect against dust and scratches as well as laser beams. Furthermore,
it has an automatic self-release mechanism to prevent damage of the OTO or the ONT/CPE.
Figure A1.16 Figure A1.17 Figure A1.18

BLINK Connector BLINK to LC hybrid adaptor/coupler BLINK to CLIK hybrid adaptor in
Keystone- format
LX.5 (IEC 61754-23)
Similar in size to the LC with the same 1.25mm ferrule. The duplex coupler is the same size as an SC
coupler (SC footprint).

LX.5 Connector LX.5 adaptor/coupler
SC-RJ (IEC 61754-24)
As the name implies, this product is based on the RJ45 format. Two SC’s form a unit the size of an RJ45.
This is equivalent to the SFF (Small Form Factor). The 2.5mm ferrule sleeve technology is more robust
and reliable than the 1.25 mm ferrule. The SC-RJ impresses not only with its compact design, but also
its optical and mechanical performance. Seen as an all- rounder, its versatility means it can be used
in many areas, from Grade B to M, from single mode to POF, from WAN to LAN, from laboratory to
outdoors.

SC-RJ Connector SC-RJ adaptor/coupler
In contrast to their electromechanical counterparts, there is no differentiation between plug and jack
with the fibre-optic connectors. Fibre-optic connectors contain a ferrule to accommodate for the exact
positioning of the fibre end and are attached to one another via a coupler or adapter with a sleeve. A
complete plug-in connection consists of the combination connector/coupler/connector. The two ferrules,
with the fibre ends, must mate as precisely as possible inside the connection to minimise the loss of light
energy or its reflection (return loss).
The extremely small core diameters of optical fibres demand the highest mechanical and optical precision.
With tolerances of 0.5 to 0.10µm (much smaller than a grain of dust), manufacturers operate at the limits of
precision engineering.
Manufacturers inspect connectors using specialist kit designed for the purpose. Core diameters of 8.3µm
for single-mode and ferrules with 2.5mm or 1.25mm diameter make a visual inspection of the connector
impossible. Naturally, it is possible to determine if a connector is correctly snapped in and locked.
However, for all other characteristics – the ‘intrinsic values’ – for example insertion loss (IL), return loss (RL),
or mechanical stability, users must be able to rely on the manufacturer’s data.
Return Loss (RL) due to Reflection

As a result of contaminants at the junction between the two fibres,
eccentricities, scratches, and contaminants, portions of light or modes
are diffused at the coupling point (red arrow). A well-polished and
cleaned PC (physical contact) connector exhibits approx. 14.7 dB RL
against air and 45-55 dB when plugged in.
With the APC (angled physical contact) connector, although the modes Figure A1.23a (PC)
are reflected, they occur at an angle greater than the acceptance
angle for total internal reflection due to the 8 or 9 degree angle of the
ferule face. The advantage is that these modes are not carried back in
the fibre.
A good APC connector exhibits at least 45 dB RL against air and 65-90

dB when plugged in.
By comparison, the fibre itself has an intrinsic return loss of 79.4dB

at 1310nm, 81.7dB at 1550nm and 82.2dB at 1625nm (all values at a Figure A1.23b (APC)
pulse length of 1 ns).
Return loss (RL) due to reflection
Insertion Loss (IL)

For losses at the connection of two optical fibres, a distinction is generally made between ‘intrinsic’ losses
due to the fibre and ‘extrinsic’ losses resulting from the connection. Losses due to the fibre occur, for
example, when different core radii are used, with different refractive indexes or eccentricities of the core.
Losses resulting from the connection occur due to various reasons including reflections and roughness
on the end faces, pointing errors or radial misalignment. The following notes and information refer to
connection losses; not considered are the influence of fibre tolerances and fibre-optic cable quality.
The technical transmission grade of a fibre optic plug-in connector is primarily determined by two
characteristics - the insertion loss IL and the return loss RL.
Insertion loss is a measurement of the losses that occur at the connection point. It is calculated from the
ratio of the light power in the fibre cores before (PIN) and after (POUT) the connection and is expressed
in decibels. The smaller the value, the lower the signal losses. Typical IL values lie in the range from 0.1 to
0.5dB.
In the marketplace, specifications with the designation -dB in Attenuation and +dB in Insertion Loss are
also used; for example, a patch cable could be specified with -0.1 dB in attenuation or 0.1 dB Insertion
Loss. In both cases, the physical loss is identical.

Extrinsic losses
Less light energy is lost if the fibre cores meet more precisely. For this reason, high-precision fibres are
glued or epoxied in precise ceramic ferrules. The connection-dependent extrinsic losses result from
reflections, roughness on the end faces, angular errors (angular pointing error) or radial misalignment
(concentricity). Reflections and roughness play a subordinate role in the loss. Primary causes are
misalignment and pointing errors.
The ferrule hole must be larger than the fibre to allow the fibre to be inserted. As a result, the fibre always
has a certain clearance in the core. This causes additional concentricity, but also a pointing error.
Angular pointing error
The so-called angular pointing error should be <0.3°. Greater pointing errors cause stress on the fibre that
can lead to fibre breakage.
Figure A1.24
Angualr pointing error
Concentricity:
‘Concentricity’ refers to the positioning of a cylinder along the axis of another cylinder. The concentricity
of optical fibre cores determines the quality of light transmission and affects insertion and return loss.
According to IEC 61755-3-1 & 2, the maximum concentricity may be, depending on grade, between 1.0
µm and 1.6 µm (measured from the fibre axis to the ferrule exterior diameter).
Figure A1.25
Concentricity

Alignment
Figure A1.26
There are three possible types of

misalignment which may occur when
jointing compatible optical fibres: (a)
logitudinal misalignment; (b) lateral
misalignment; (c) angular misalignment
If two ferrules or plug-in connectors are plugged together without taking additional steps, there is a risk
that the concentricity and angular pointing error together increase the loss.
To minimise insertion loss of plug-in connections, the radial misalignment of two connected fibres must
be as small as possible. This is achieved by defining a quadrant of the ferrule in which the core must lie.
Connectors which can be tuned make it possible to turn the ferrule in 60° or 90° steps. When two tuned
connectors are connected to each other, the deviation of the core position is reduced in the ferrule,
leading to significantly improved performance compared with untuned connectors.
An angular pointing error >0.3° should be avoided to prevent stress on the fibre. Stress loads reduce the
service life and optical properties of the fibre – particularly BER (Bit Error Rate), modal noise and high-
power tolerance.
Precision work, first-class materials and total quality control are required for the manufacture of reliable
high-performance fibre-optic plug-in connectors. Stresses on the tiny components of a fibre- optic
connector are highly demanding. Products should be constructed for a service life of 200,000 to 250,000
hours, or 25 years. For patching, the connectors must also withstand high shearing forces and should easily
withstand 500 plug cycles.
Quality Grades for Fibre-Optic Connectors

The standard IEC 61753 series describes application-oriented grades for connection elements in fibre-
optic networks (see table below). Clear grade identification and necessary IEC test methods aid planners
as well as those responsible for networks during the selection of plug-in connectors, patch cables,
and pigtails. Data centre operators and telecommunications companies can determine the fibre-optic
assortment according to usage and make faster and more informed purchasing decisions. This also avoids
purchasing of over-specified products that do not deliver the expected loss values claimed.
The current requirements list is based in part on IEC 61753 which defines loss values. Additionally, the
standards IEC 61755-3-1 and IEC 61755-3-2 play a role as they define geometric parameters for fibre-
optic plug-in connectors. The interaction of these standards forms the basis for the compatibility of fibre-
optic plug-in connectors from different manufacturers and for the determination of manufacturer-neutral
loss values.

Table: Overview of performance criteria of the new performance grades for data transmission in fibre- optic connections according
to IEC 61753. The definition of Grade A* has not yet been defined. Criteria for multi-mode fibres are still under discussion.
Theoretically, the attenuation grades (A* to D) can be mixed at will with return loss grades. However, some
of these mix combinations would not make sense, and for this reason the following common combinations
have been established:
Each-to-each or Random Mate Values

The loss values specified in IEC 61753 are also referred to connector as each-to-each (or random mate)
values. Instead of plugging every connector to a reference connector and measuring loss, you take a batch
and measure every possible connection. The rational for this model is: loss values generated according
to the IEC specification for random connector pairs is much closer to actual operating conditions than
manufacturer-specified loss values that, in many cases, are based upon a best-case measurement under
factory or laboratory conditions where the connector is measured against a reference cable.
How are Mean Values Calculated?

A new development resulting from grades is the use of mean values instead of max values in optical link
budgets. This provides an optimal basis for the calculation of link attenuation and is particularly relevant in
large networks. The use of mean values (rather than maximum values as used in the past) results in more
efficient and realistic link attenuation budgets. This also eliminates unneccesary cost. This can be clearly
seen in the table below:

The causes of loss are known to the IEC standardisation committees. For this reason, they defined the
parameters H, F, and G presented below:
Figure A1.27
Tunes vs. Untuned
Geometric parameters for fibre-optic connectors according to IEC 61755-3-1 and 61755-3-2

Manufacturer Specifications and Real Life Conditions
The following is taken from real life and demonstrates why the use of grades is so important: A network
operator uses a patch cable with an insertion loss specified by the manufacturer of 0.1 dB. During
measurements on the ground, the patch cables exhibit values between 0.2 and 0.3 dB. Where do these,
(often occurring in real life), serious discrepancies originate?
The manufacturer had determined the value found in the product specification in a reference
environment. Used in this scenario are low-loss reference or master cables to achieve the lowest possible
value during insertion loss measurement. However, if the patch cables are connected each-to-each or
random mating, this value can no longer be reproduced and typically will be significantly above the best-
case measurement result.
This unrealistic, but unfortunately still common measurement method, has consequences. Unaware of
the precise measurement conditions for manufacturer’s specifications, network planners often purchase
expensive and over-specified products only to discover that the calculated insertion loss budget cannot
be met. Delays in initial start-up and expensive replacement purchases become unavoidable. In this
context, it is important to note that installation of fibre optics and the handling of connectors in daily
practice requires special expertise and extensive training. Therefore, the appropriate certification of the
specialist firm or personnel should be considered.

Section A1.3
Fibre-Optic Splicing
Two technologies are common for splicing fibre to fibre: fusion and mechanical.
Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing requires the creation of an electric arc between two electrodes. The two cleaved fibres are
brought together in the arc, so that both ends melt together.
Figure A1.28
Fusion splicing machines
Optical losses of a splice can vary from splicer to splicer, depending on the alignment mechanism. Splicing
machines with active core alignment match up the light-guiding channel of the fibre (9µm core) to one
another. These machines produce splices with losses typically in the region of <0.03dB.
Figure A1.29 a,b

Fusion splicing in progress
Some splice machines with active clad alignment, match up the fibre cladding (125um) to one another
instead of aligning the cores. These machines produce splices with losses typically in the region of
<0.05dB.
Finally, fusion splicers using the passive fixed v-groove method (smaller handheld versions or ribbon fibres
splicers, for example) splice fibres with no active alignment. The fixed v-groove machine is an inexpensive
technology and is a good termination tool for the last mile splicing in FTTH deployments.
Ribbon splicers, utilising the same fixed v-groove technology, can splice up to 12 fibres simultaneously and
save a lot of operational time. Typical insertion loss values for fixed v-groove splice machines are better
than <0.1dB.

Figure A1.30
Mass (ribbon) fusion splicing
Splicing compatibility between different fibre types

The splicing of different fibre types with different mode field diameters and tolerances may result in higher
splicing losses. Therefore the splicing machine needs to be set properly in each case. To determine the
correct splicing loss a bi-directional OTDR measurement should be performed. In practice the splicing loss
limit is set at ≤ 0.1dB.
IEC TR 62000 gives guidance for combining different single-mode fibre sub-categories.
Mechanical splicing
Mechanical splicing is based on the mechanical alignment of two cleaved fibre ends to allow a free flow of
light. This also applies to terminating fibres onto connectors. To facilitate light coupling between the fibres,
an index matching gel is often used. Manufacturers have different methods to terminate the fibres in the
mechanical splice.
Mechanical splices can be angle cleaved or non-angle cleaved, but the former has a higher return loss. The
insertion loss of a mechanical splice is typically <0.5 dB.
Figure A1.31
Mechanical splicers

Field-installable connectors
Field-installable connectors generally take the form of a standard connector body with a pre-prepared and
polished ferrule with a fibre stub inside. A mechanical splice is included within the body of the connector.
The installation process involves preparing the field fibre, inserting it into the rear of the connector,
activating the mechanical splice and, finally, mechanically locking the fibre and cable to the connector
body, normally with a crimp mechanism.

Cutaway of a field installable connector Field installable connector installation tool
A range of installation tools that support the installation process are available. Normally, these are
proprietary to different manufacturers’ connector types. Certain tools can provide an indicative result for
the performance of the assembled connector.
Splice-on connector
‘Splice on’ connector (SOC) is a solution combining fusion splice and connector together. This technology
allows users to splice fibre to the fibre stub (tail) of a pre-polished ferrule and assemble it into a connector
(any type, including MPO), wherever it is needed.
With these connectors, the ferrule contains a factory-installed stub fibre, which is fusion-spliced onto the
field fibre using a fusion splice machine. Normally a special adaptor is required to hold the connector in the
machine during the splicing process. A small heatshrink sleeve protects the fusion splice. Finally, the plastic
connector body parts are clipped into place onto the ferrule assembly covering the heatshrink sleeve. It
resolves pre-connectorised jumper’s length management issue, while delivering a similar insertion loss
(<0.3dB).
Figure A1.34
Splice-on connector

Appendix II
FTTH Standardisation
and Terminology
A2.1 Introduction
A2.2 Major Standardisation Activities and Guidelines
A2.3 Selection of Relevant Standards
Section A2.1
Introduction
The background of this chapter of the FTTH Handbook is to provide an overview of the relevant
standardisation bodies associated with FTTH.
FTTH has come a long way in recent years. New applications have driven bandwidth demand, with fibre
not only being brought to the home, but inside too due to innovative ideas and technical solutions. Some
parties active in this market still may not fully comprehend the ramifications in over specification or even
the risks involved in operating without proper specifications. There are also some builders of small networks
who may have insufficient understanding of the suitability and need for standardisation.
A standards guidance will help define system architectures, basic functionalities and product requirements
thus ensuring the appropriate selection of solutions, products, and suitable network quality. A clear
definition of the minimum quality standard of the access network will facilitate deployment and the
operation of reliable networks, especially as economic and every-day life is highly dependent on an
uninterrupted service delivery. Minimum quality levels should be guaranteed by incorporating standardising
test methods with functional product specifications that include minimum values for all the relevant product
parameters.
Through standardisation the industry will ensure a competitive market for components and subsystems for
the infrastructure.
Standardisation should reflect the consensus of the market and the voice of the users. Approved
standards should be flexible enough to allow developers the opportunity to implement their products and
incorporate innovative solutions to the overall system.
During network deployment minimum best practice standards should be followed. This is especially
relevant when installing cables for example, and also in matters relating to health and safety, such as laser
safety particularly when optical fibre solutions enter the home.
When developing standards, it is essential to ensure the vast number of terms and abbreviations in use
are used by everyone. An overall list of terms and abbreviations is published in the IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) “Electropedia” with the aim of providing all parties with the same technical
language and standards. The Electropedia (also known as the “IEV Online”) contains all the terms and
definitions in the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV). It is the world’s most comprehensive online
terminology database on “electrotechnology”, containing more than 22 000 terminological entries. The
Electropedia, which is available for free can be consulted by anyone.
The IEC is the world’s leading organisation that prepares and publishes International Standards for
all electrical, electronic, and related technologies. Close to 20 000 experts from industry, commerce,
government, test and research labs, academia and consumer groups participate in IEC Standardisation
work through their national electro technical committees (IEC National Committees).
Standards should specify the minimum functions and performance of subsystems and the basic interfaces
(hardware and software) between the various parts of the infrastructure, such as the mating interface
between cabling outside and inside buildings.

Since the complete network infrastructure is being considered, the way in which standards are imposed
will depend on the minimum requirements related to the specific area within the infrastructure and can be
subdivided into several areas:
1. The central office.
2. The outside plant (OSP): standards should relate to both environmental and optical performance as well
as lifetime requirements, without impacting on actual design.
3. Shared building space in an MDU deployment and basement equipment: standards should relate to
both environmental and optical performance as well as lifetime requirements, without impacting on actual
design.
4. In the home and public space: this is a new area which may require more activity as the public could be
affected by deployment and connectivity, essentially creating new demands (and therefore new standards)
on the products to be used.
Electropedia.org

Section A2.2
Major Standardisation
Activities and Guidelines
Several standardisation activities are in progress on international and national levels. Working groups
in the ITU, IEC, ISO/IEC JTC1, CENELEC and IEEE, as well as organisations such as the FTTH Council
are providing guidance for the design and implementation of fibre optic access networks. In addition,
standardisation activities are also taking place on the national level. The following is an overview of
key workgroups.
IEC TC 86 (and subcommittees SC 86A, SC 86B,

SC 86C)
Technical Committee 86 (“Fibre Optics”) and its Subcommittees SC86A (“Fibres and cables”), SC86B
(“Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passive components”) and SC86C (“Fibre optic systems and
active devices”) prepare standards, specifications and technical reports for fibre optic based systems,
subsystems, modules, devices and components. These are primarily intended, but not exclusively,
for use with communications equipment. This activity covers terminology, characteristics, related
tests, calibration and measurement methods, functional interfaces, and optical environmental and
mechanical requirements with the aim of ensuring reliable system performance.
SC46C/SC86A JWG8, hybrid cables

This group are creating documents related to hybrid cables intended to contain any combination of
optical fibres, twisted pair/quad, co-axial and current-carrying electrical conductor elements. Hybrid
cables are convenient for networks and customer premises wiring that transmit data, telecommunications
and signaling services over optical fibre, metallic twisted pairs, and/or broadband data over coaxial units,
and retains the option of supplying electrical current to remote equipment. The current work program
consists of:
IEC 62807-1: Hybrid Telecommunications cables – Part 1 – Generic Specification
IEC 62807-2: Hybrid Telecommunication cables – Part 2 – Indoor hybrid cables
IEC 62807-3: Hybrid Telecommunication cables – Part 3 – Outdoor hybrid cables
IEC 62807-3-10: Hybrid Telecommunication cables – Part 3-10 – Family specification for FTTA (Fibre to
the Antenna) hybrid communication.

ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25
ISO/IEC JTC1/SC25 write Cabling system standards for information and communication technology
(ICT), in all types of residential, commercial, and industrial environments for the design, planning and
installation, test procedures, automated infrastructure management systems and remote powering, most
notably ISO/IEC 11801 - Generic cabling for customer premises.
ITU-T
The Study Groups of ITU’s Telecommunication Standardisation Sector (ITU-T) assemble experts from
around the world to develop international publications known as ITU-T Recommendations which act as
defining elements in the global infrastructure of information and communication technologies (ICTs).
Unlike IEC and other well-known standards, these Recommendations are free to download. The ITU-T
Recommendation series structure can be found at the bottom link below.
ITU-T Study Groups
ITU-T Recommendations
ITU-T Recommendations Structure
ITU-T Handbook on Optical fibres, cables and systems

The Handbook is intended as a guide for technologists, middle-level management, as well as regulators,
to assist in the practical installation of optical fibre-based systems. Throughout the discussions on the
practical issues associated with the application of this technology, the explanations focus on how ITU-T
Recommendations address them. It provides the organised insights of those who have created and lived
with the evolution of the technology for several decades.
The 2015 ITU-T Handbook, Technical Report on Optical fibres, cables, and systems is available in the
link below.
ITU-T TR on Optical Fibres, cables and systems
Note: The soft-copy of this publication is downloadable free of charge.
ITU-T Study Group 15

The ITU-T Study Group 15 is concerned with optical transport networks and access network infrastructures
(further information available from ITU-T Study Group 15 at a glance). In its work, SG15 considers related
activities in other ITU study groups, standards development organisations (SDOs), forums and consortia,
and collaborates with them to avoid duplication of effort and identify any gaps in the development of
international standards.

ITU-T Recommendations under Study Group 15 responsibility can be found in the link below.
TU-T Study Group 15 at a glance
The work of Study Group 15 is subdivided into ‘Study Periods’ lasting 4 years, which are further subdivided
into “Questions” e.g., Q5/15 focuses on Characteristics and test methods of optical fibres and cables and
installation guidance, Q2/15 focuses on Optical systems for fibre access networks e.g., G-PON (G.984
series) and XG-PON (G.987 series).
The “Questions” for SG15 for the study period 2017-2020 can be found In the link below. The next study
period is 2021 to 2024.
SG15 - List of Questions and Rapporteurs
CENELEC
CENELEC is the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation and is responsible for
standardisation in the electrotechnical engineering field. CENELEC prepares voluntary standards,
which help facilitate trade between countries, create new markets, cut compliance costs and support
the development of a Single European Market.
CENELEC creates market access at European level but also at international level, adopting
international standards wherever possible, through its close collaboration with the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), under the Frankfurt Agreement. (previously known as the Dresden
Agreement). This is an IEC - CENELEC Cooperation Agreement on common planning of new work
and parallel voting.
Frankfurt Agreement
Along with its sister organisations CEN (European Committee for Standardisation) and ETSI (European
Telecommunications Standards Institute) they compose the so-called European Standards Organisations
(ESOs).
European Standards Organisations
The three CENELEC technical committees listed below, are involved in work relating to fibres, cables, and
cable accessories (such as mechanical splices, connectors, and enclosures).
Activities in CENELEC Technical Committee CLC/TC86A –

Optical Fibres and Optical Cables
Subcommittees and working groups/activities include:
• CLC/TC 86A/JWG TC46X – Fire Issues
• CLC/TC 86A/JWG TC86A/TC86BXA - Interaction between connectors and cables

• CLC/TC 86A/WG 04 - Ad-hoc working group for the revision of CLC/TR 50510. This is a
guide to building FTTX fibre optic networks. It provides information about the passive
infrastructure layers of a fibre access network as well as a glossary of terms.
• CLC/TC 86A/WG 05 - Topics covering the repair of optical fibre cables.
• Preliminary work on new items:
o Push Force - to determine how much force can be applied to the

cable when installed by blowing, especially for cables <3mm.
o New blowing route – there is a need for a more realistic blowing
route to be used for cable qualification.
CENELEC Technical Committee CLC/TC 86BXA – Fibre Optic

Interconnect, Passive and connectorised Components
• CLC/TC 86BXA/JWG TC86BXATC86A - Interaction between connectors and cables

• CLC/TC 86BXA/WG 01 - Fibre optic connectors & passive components
• CLC/TC 86BXA/WG 02 - Fibre management systems and protective housings
CENELEC Technical Committee CLC/TC 215 – Electrotechnical

Aspects of Telecommunication Equipment
The IEEE 802.3 Working Group develops standards for Ethernet networks. They have several active projects
and study groups as listed below:
• IEEE P802.3ck 100 Gb/s, 200 Gb/s, and 400 Gb/s Electrical Interfaces Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cp Bidirectional 10 Gb/s, 25 Gb/s, and 50 Gb/s Optical Access PHYs Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cr Isolation (Maintenance #14) Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cs Increased-reach Ethernet optical subscriber access (Super-PON) Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3ct 100 Gb/s over DWDM systems Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cu 100 Gb/s and 400 Gb/s over SMF at 100 Gb/s per WavelengthTask Force.
• IEEE P802.3cv Power over Ethernet (Maintenance #15) Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cw 400 Gb/s over DWDM systems Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cx Improved PTP Timestamping Accuracy Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cy Greater than 10 Gb/s Electrical Automotive Ethernet Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3cz Multi-Gigabit Optical Automotive Ethernet Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3da 10 Mb/s Single Pair Multidrop Segments Enhancement Task Force.
• IEEE P802.3db 100 Gb/s, 200 Gb/s, and 400 Gb/s Short Reach Fibre Task Force.
• IEEE 802.3 Beyond 400 Gb/s Ethernet Study Group.
• IEEE 802.3 New Ethernet Applications Ad Hoc.
• IEEE 802.3 PDCC Ad Hoc.
The IEEE GET Program TM allows free downloads of standards after they have been published for six months.
All standards available in the IEEE GET 802™ program will remain in the program until they are replaced by a
superseding document or are withdrawn. Drafts are not part of the program.
IEEE GET 802 Program

Broadband Forum
The Broadband Forum is a non-profit industry consortium dedicated to developing broadband network
specifications. Members include telecommunications networking and service provider companies, broadband
device and equipment vendors, consultants, and independent testing labs (ITLs).
Broadband Forum’s projects span across 5G, Connected Home, Cloud, and Access. Projects can be accessed
in the link below.
Broadband Forum
ETSI
ETSI produces globally applicable standards for Information and Communications Technologies (ICT),
including fixed, mobile, radio, converged, aeronautical, broadcast and internet technologies and is officially
recognised by the European Union as a European Standards Organisation.
ETSI standards are available free of charge and can be downloaded from the ETSI website. Over 1800
standards are published annually.
ETSI Website
The Technical Committee (TC) ATTM addresses Access, Terminals, Transmission and Multiplexing including
all aspects within the ETSI scope - cabling, installations, signal transmission, multiplexing and other forms
of signal processing up to digitalisation in private and public domain; excluding those aspects that relate to
Hybrid Fibre-Coaxial cable networks which are covered by TC Cable.

Section A2.3
Selection of Relevant
Standards
IEC Fibre optic - Terminology IEC TR 61931 Int
IEC Optical Fibres IEC 60793 Int

IEC 60793-1-1 - General & Guidance
IEC 60793-1-xx - Test Methods
IEC 60793-2 - Product Specifications
IEC Guidance for combining different single-mode fibre types IEC TR 62000 Int
IEC Optical Fibre Cables IEC 60794 Int

IEC 60794-1-1 - General
IEC 60794-1-2 - Test Methods
IEC 60794-1-3 - Ribbon Specs
IEC 60794-2 - Indoor Cables
IEC 60794-3 - Outdoor Cables
IEC 60794-4 - Aerial Cables
IEC 60794-5 - Microduct Cables for installation by blowing
IEC 60794-6 - Indoor/Outdoor Cables
IEC Fire Performance of communication cables installed in buildings IEC TR Int

62222
IEC Reliability of fibre optic interconnecting devices and passive IEC 62005 Int
optical components
IEC Semiconductor optoelectronic devices for fibre optic system IEC 62007 Int
applications
IEC Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passive components – IEC 62074 Int
Fibre optic WDM devices
IEC Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passive components IEC 62134 Int
– Fibre optic protective housings. Ed2 Withdrawn, Ed3 at CD
stage as of Jan 2021.
IEC Fibre optic active components and devices – Package and IEC 62148 Int
interface standards
IEC Fibre optic active components and devices – Performance IEC 62149 Int
standards

IEC Fibre optic active components and devices –Test and IEC 62150 Int
measurement procedures
IEC Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passive components – IEC TR 62627-01 Int
Part 01: Fibre optic connector cleaning methods
ISO/IEC Information technology – Generic cabling for customer premises ISO/IEC 11801 Int
Part 1 – General Requirements
Part 2 – Office premises
Part 3 – Industrial premises
Part 4 – Homes
Part 5 – Data centres
Part 6 – Distributed building services
ISO/IEC Information technology - Implementation and operation of ISO/IEC 14763 Int

subscriber premises cabling
ITU-T Characteristics and test methods of optical fibres and cables G.65x series Int
ITU-T Transmission characteristics of optical components and G.671 Int

subsystems
ITU-T Construction, installation and protection of cables and other L. xy series Int
elements of outside plant
ANSI Telecommunications pathways and spaces ANSI/TIA/ Reg

EIA 569
ANSI Residential telecommunications infrastructure standard ANSI/TIA/ Reg

EIA 570
ANSI Administration standard for telecommunications infrastructure ANSI/TIA/ Reg

EIA 606
ANSI Generic Telecommunications Bonding and Grounding (Earthing) ANSI/TIA/ Reg

for Customer Premises EIA 607
ANSI Customer-Owned Outside Plant Telecommunications ANSI/TIA/ Reg

Infrastructure Standard EIA 758
ANSI Structured cabling infrastructure standard for intelligent building ANSI/TIA/ Reg
systems EIA 862
CENELEC Fire classification of construction products and building EN 13501-6 Reg

elements Part 6: Classification using data from reaction to fire
tests on electric cables
CENELEC Information technology – Generic cabling systems EN 50173 Reg
CENELEC Information technology – Cabling Installation EN 50174 Reg
CENELEC Telecommunications bonding networks for buildings and other EN 50310 Reg
structures

CENELEC Information technology – Cabling installation – Testing of EN 50346 Reg
installed cabling
CENELEC Connector sets and interconnect components to be used in EN 50377 Reg

optical fibre communication systems - Product specifications
CENELEC Common test methods for cables under fire conditions – Heat EN 50399 Reg
release and smoke production measurement on cables during
flame spread test – Test apparatus, procedures, results
CENELEC Fibre organisers and closures to be used in optical fibre EN 50411 Reg
communication systems – Product specifications
CENELEC Simplex and duplex cables for use in terminated cable EN 50551 Reg
assemblies
CENELEC Power, control and communication cables – Cables for general EN 50575 Reg
applications in construction works subject to reaction to fire
requirements
CENELEC Optical fibres - Measurement methods and test procedures EN 60793-1 Reg
CENELEC Optical fibres - Product specifications EN 60793-2 Reg
CENELEC Optical fibre cables EN 60794 Reg
CENELEC Generic cabling systems – Specification for the testing of EN 61935 Reg
balanced and coaxial information technology cabling

Appendix III
Subsidy Programs:
Germany as a Case Study
High-performance telecommunication network infrastructure (Next-Generation Access) provides a basis for
developing society’s knowledge and economic potential, which has become a matter of strategic economic
importance. Therefore, the goal is to implement future-proof, sustainable, user / vendor neutral, open-
access passive networks based on fibre in underserved so-called ‘white areas’ and ‘grey areas’.
In 2013, The European Commission issued the ‘EU Guidelines for the application of State aid rules in
relation to the rapid deployment of broadband networks’. These guidelines defined to facilitate the
development of NGA broadband networks - access networks that rely wholly or partly on optical elements
(FTTx) - to meet targets as defined in ‘Digital Agenda of Europe 2020’ with the support of public funds.
The importance of using high-capacity broadband access is emphasised in strategic documents, which
recognise that future access networks will include fibre as an essential part of the network infrastructure in
order to meet the growing need for bandwidth.
Next Generation Access (NGA) networks are fibre based networks (e.g. FTTC, FTTN, FTTP, FTTH and
FTTB), advanced upgraded cable networks (e.g. DOCSIS 3.0 and above) and certain advanced wireless
access networks capable of delivering reliable high speeds per subscriber. To define which areas are
eligible for funding, fixed broadband area mapping has to be applied, defining the so-called NGA zones
showing existing NGA network(s) in scope:
• White NGA zones - no NGA networks at present (capable of delivering reliable download
speeds of at least 30 Mbps) and unlikely to be developed within three years. No broadband
market / competition is considered to exist and the area is eligible for public funding
support. This is particularly applicable for rural areas that remain underdeveloped and
unattractive for private investments due to market conditions. Therefore, FTTx deployment,
especially in rural areas is dependent partially or fully on government funding.
• Grey NGA zones - areas where only one NGA network is in place or is being deployed in
the upcoming three years and where no operator plans to deploy additional NGA network
in the coming three years. Subsidies for the construction of an alternative network could
distort market dynamics. Therefore, support for the deployment of alternative broadband
networks in ‘grey’ areas is only justified when it can be clearly demonstrated that a market
failure persists. A more detailed analysis will be necessary.
Subsidised NGA networks in Germany should be planned according to EU / German funding regulatory
frames / decisions:
• EU Guidelines for the application of State aid rules in relation to the rapid
deployment of broadband networks
• Federal Funding Guidelines (Förderung zur Unterstützung des

Breitbandausbaus in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland‘)
• Federal Regulation NGA Framework (Rahmenregelung der Bundesrepublik

Deutschland zur Unterstützung des Aufbaus einer flächendeckenden Next
Generation Access (NGA) – Breitbandversorgung)
• Project-specific grant decision (Der Zuwendungsbescheid des

Bundesministeriums für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur)

Preparing the Installation
In accordance with Federal Regulation NGA Framework and EU Guidelines, the NGA network has to be
planned as an Open-access network and has to be leased under non-discriminatory wholesale principles.
Furthermore, planning of such networks has to fulfil requirements according to:
• Specifications for the dimensioning of passive infrastructure in the context of subsidised

broadband deployment (Vorgaben für die Dimensionierung passiver Infrastruktur im
Rahmen des geförderten Breitbandausbaus)
• GIS Auxiliary Provisions (GIS-Nebenbestimmungen)
• Uniform material Concept (Einheitlichen Materialkonzepts)
Network planning in this context requires coordination with owners of third-party infrastructure systems
(gas, water, electricity) in order to gather the necessary data and plan NGA network elements (duct/
conduit systems, street cabinets / manholes (FCP), handholes) accordingly.
Network planning must allow non-discriminatory access for multiple providers. This is ensured by sufficient
dimensioning of the conduits and distribution points as well as by enabling equal access to the passive
collocation, without any discrimination for buyers of wholesale products.
NGA Network planning has to be in accordance with all the legal and technical requirements, as well as the
latest worldwide FTTH/B trends in order to develop state-of-the-art NGS networks.
The following requirements should be considered when planning the network:
• Dimensioning of ducts/ conduits should be large enough to cater for several cable
networks and to host point-to-multipoint as well as point-to-point solutions.
• Laying and dimensioning of new empty ducts /conduits as well as the construction
of distribution points, manholes, handholes and other related infrastructure must be
carried out in a way that the later expansion of the implemented cable network or the
development of alternative cable networks is ensured.
• Distribution and access points should be dimensioned in a way that the installation
of passive and active components for different network structures is possible (e.g.
components for the operation of FTTC, FTTB and FTTH networks).
• All the network components used should be vendor-neutral, with a possibility to be used by
different providers and having corresponding certificates and product labels
• Network planning approach has to ensure non-discriminatory access to a passive

collocation for multiple providers and sufficient dimensioning of the ducts/ conduits and
distribution points
During the planning process, both Point-to-point (P2P) and Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) topology options
based on open access, should be considered.

Figure A3.1
Network Topology in line with Regulation - Example
Passive collocation with network access can be ensured in 2 possible locations:
• Point-of-presence (POP) – access to P2P fibres or P2MP fibres (centralised splitter location
in POP)
• Fibre Concentration Point (FCP) – typically the street cabinet with access to P2MP fibres
(distributed splitter location). Sufficient duct/conduit capacity should be reserved for the
access seeker’s feeder cables from POP to FCP.

Appendix IV
OSS BSS
A4.1 Introduction
A4.2 Older Standards
A4.3 Emerging and Current Standards
Section IV.1
Introduction
Standardisation in the OSS/BSS domains is not new and always in development. In certain areas, such as
network management, standardisation is more developed. For example, Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP) or Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), two well-known standard protocols,
simplify interoperability between network management software and network devices. Other higher-level
aspects are generally less standardised, although TM Forum Frameworx, for example, provides a good
reference framework.
This chapter does not describe each standard in detail but rather serves as a reference list.

Section IV.2
Older Standards
The following are examples of standards that are less frequently discussed and utilised today but worth
mentioning. They have developed into the newer standards we see today.
TMN (Telecommunications Management Network)

from ITU-T
Telecommunications Management Network - Wikipedia
“The Telecommunications Management Network is a protocol model defined by ITU-T for

managing open systems in a communications network. It is part of the ITU-T Recommendation
series M.3000 and is based on the OSI management specifications in ITU-T Recommendation
series X.700.”
Illustration – ‘Telecommunications Management Network’.
FCAPS Model
FCAPS - Wikipedia
“FCAPS is the ISO Telecommunications Management Network model and framework for network
management. FCAPS is an acronym for fault, configuration, accounting, performance, security, the
management categories into which the ISO model defines network management tasks. In non-billing
organisations accounting is sometimes replaced with administration.”

Illustration – ‘The FCAPS model’.

Section IV.3
Emerging and Current
Standards
The following are examples of standards which have gained significant popularity.
TM Forum Open Digital Framework & Architecture

TM Forum Open Digital Framework & Architecture
“The TM Forum Open Digital Framework (ODF) provides a migration path from legacy IT systems
and processes to modular, cloud native software orchestrated using AI.
The framework comprises tools, code, knowledge and standards (machine-readable assets, not
just documents).”
TM Forum - ODA
“The TM Forum Open Digital Architecture (ODA) is a blueprint for modular, cloud-based, open digital
platforms that can be orchestrated using AI.
ODA replaces traditional operational and business support systems (OSS/BSS) with a new approach to
building software for the telecoms industry, opening a market for standardized, cloud-native software
components, and enabling communication service providers and suppliers to invest in IT for new and
differentiated services instead of maintenance and integration.”
Illustration – ‘TMF Open Digital Framework & Architecture’.

TM Forum Frameworx (Business Process Framework
eTOM, Information Framework SID, Application
Framework TAM, Framework Metrics)
TM Forum - Frameworx homepage
“Frameworx is created and evolved by TM Forum members who participate in the Forum’s
Collaboration Community. It continues to evolve to meet new business challenges introduced by
the cloud-native, 5G era.
It provides hundreds of standardized Business Metrics that have been embraced by the industry
and allow for benchmarking, as well as a suite of Open APIs that enable integration across systems
and platforms. Frameworx also includes adoption best practices to help companies implement and
use the standards and management best practices to ensure ongoing conformance.”
Illustration – ‘TM Forum The Applications Framework (formally

Telecom Application Map (TAM)).’
TM Forum Open API
TM Forum - Open API
“TM Forum’s suite of 50+ REST-based Open APIs has been collaboratively developed to be used in
a range of scenarios, internally enabling service providers to transform their IT and operational agility
and customer centricity, while externally delivering a practical approach to seamless end-to-end
management of complex digital services.”

The MEF standards
mef.net
MEF - MEF Standards
“The MEF develops standards which, once approved by the MEF membership, are published to the
public domain for voluntary adoption and for the benefit of the whole industry. There are currently
over 70 MEF standards covering MEF 3.0 orchestrated SD-WAN, IP, Carrier Ethernet and Optical
Transport services.”
ITIL and ITSM

Axelos - Best Practice Solutions
“ITIL is the most widely accepted approach to running effective IT/digital services and has been
adopted by individuals and organisations across the world. ITIL helps define the direction of the
service provider with a clear operating model and aligns services to the business strategy and
customer needs.
ITIL also provides a common language for businesses and professionals using IT-enabled services.”

Passionateaboutoss.com - oss/bss 1.4
“ITSM is a structured model for managing and delivering Information Technology (IT) services
to customers, both internal and external to an organisation. As more organisations become
dependent on their IT solutions, the field of IT Service Management (ITSM) gains further relevance.
For many e-businesses or service providers, the ITSM touch-points ARE the customer’s experience.
Whilst many OSS approach network, services and systems management from a technology
perspective, ITSM is a more process and people-centric approach.
ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library) is rapidly emerging as the leading framework.
The main elements of ITSM are:
• Incident Management
• Problem Management
• Change Management
• Asset Management
• Knowledge, Policy and Procedure
• Service Catalog
• Service Desk”

Appendix V
Network Evolution
Impacting Active
Equipment
Image credit: CommScope

Multiple converging business and technology shifts are affecting Service Providers currently deploying
FTTH networks. These are resulting in changes for all parties involved in the FTTH network build and active
equipment selection, from a conceptual and architectural point of view.
The first of these changes is related to 10Gbps as the baseline capacity for upcoming FTTH network
buildouts. The first FTTH networks were deployed at the beginning of this century, primarily using first-
generation technologies such as EPON and GPON. Those technologies continue to provide the backbone
of most FTTH networks today, but subscriber demand for bandwidth is quickly pushing towards the
adoption of 10Gbps technologies, mainly XGS-PON.
With 10Gbps PON capacity, Service Providers can stay ahead of the bandwidth consumption curve for
longer, while focusing on integrating open data centre technologies to improve the speed with which they
can deliver new services.
The adoption and integration of those open data centre tools and techniques represent the second
current major technological shift, followed up both by the Open Networking Foundation (ONF) and by the
Broadband Forum Organization (BBF).
Regular capacity increase is a constant change in broadband networks, resulting in ongoing network
upgrades and expansions for Service Providers. The combination of 10Gbps PON technologies and cloud-
based architectures will make it possible for Service Providers to address capacity growth more quickly and
economically. Additionally, Service Providers will be able to layer on more services without having to invest
in costly equipment upgrades. This is partly thanks to the abstraction of software drivers and applications
from underlying hardware, as well as the containerisation of applications running on top of that network
element’s hardware.
This section will focus on the key aspects of carrier network industry evolution scenarios that impact FTTH
network solutions
• Network disaggregation
• White box economics
• Software defined standards
• Open source software use
Disaggregated and Whitebox HW

A number of Operators have been advertising their research work on whitebox-OLT designs and SDN-
enabled components that make up a whole new architecture as described above. On the other hand,
the Operator community in united by the more general concept of Access Disaggregation as a network
transformation path encompassing the following:
• Introduction of distributed-OLT (dOLT) systems to more flexibly, nimbly and sustainably

evolve and manage the access network assets
• Re-organisation and modernisation of the aggregation infrastructure towards

bandwidthflexible Leaf/Spine architectures to follow service and traffic needs with a
scalable, invest-as-you-grow path
• Migration from traditional Delivery and Assurance chains to unified, multivendor and
multitechnology, automated SDN platforms to manage and control the underlying network
assets and service flows

Disaggregation in the access domain ties in with major disruptive industry trends related to Access/
Aggregation HW products and SW applications inside and outside the network elements, that is:
• HW simplification and modularity: HW designs based on merchant/proprietary chipsets

Reference Design and, for OLT applications, isolated per-port OLT MACs fitting a variety
of applications
• Programmable and re-purposable HW: hardware devices supporting an open installation

and execution environment (for example, Open Compute Project’s Open Network Install
Environment, ONIE), preferably based on an independent Network Operating System
(NOS) running on top of general-purpose processors
• SW modularity and openness: ability to move network functions from devices into the
cloud; this aspect backs HW simplification and programmability
By disaggregating application and control planes from the underlying infrastructure, Service Providers have
to worry less about how inevitable technology changes will impact their network platforms as well as their
technology suppliers, while their time-to-market for new services and applications will be greatly reduced.
The new disaggregated OLT architecture usually consists of data centre-influenced standalone OLTs paired
with non-blocking leaf-spine fabric and aggregation switching. A key characteristic of these leaf-spine
switching networks is that all leaf switches have full meshed connectivity to the spine switches.
One key value of these programmable network elements is the fact that they scale horizontally: as
the number of Ethernet aggregation ports grow, spine and leaf switches are added and the meshed
connectivity stays in place. The leaf and spine switching functions are sized to accommodate this growth
and can be easily upgraded as required, independently of the chosen vendor and technology.
SDN/NFV and Cloud technologies

Software-defined networking (SDN) and network functions virtualization (NFV) were introduced by Service
Providers who wanted to gain flexibility and programmability in existing networks. The goal was to enable
timely creation and deployment of new applications and services in days or weeks, as opposed to months
or years.
SDN was devised by researchers who were frustrated by the need to upgrade or change out software
in network hardware devices every time they wanted to try something new. They introduced the idea
of programmable, centralised control of the network and its elements. To achieve this, they separated
control and forwarding functions from the network and used well-defined interfaces to enable
programmable behavior of the network and its elements.
SDN initially proved its great value in cloud data centres. The ONF Consortium has been working for
some years now, on an effort called central office Re-architected as a Data Centre (CORD), which uses
SDN, NFV and Cloud to deliver data centre economies of scale and cloud-style agility to Service Provider
networks.
For more information on what SDN is and where the evolution of the SDN stands at this point, please
refer to
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) Definition
Ongoing ONF projects related to Broadband networks are named SEBA and VOLTHA.
SEBA consists of a platform that utilises open source components to build a virtualized PON network to
deliver residential broadband and mobile backhaul.

SEBA - Open Netwoking Foundation
VOLTHA is a hardware abstraction system architecture, providing a common control and management
framework shared by all OLTs and ONUs of the network
VOLTHA - Open Netwoking Foundation
Software-Defined access is an evolved access network strategy that uses open, modular, component based
architectures that leverage the vast open source market, reducing service integration cycles and minimising
service disruption as new applications are created and deployed. This approach represents a major shift
from closed, monolithic systems controlled by multiple misaligned vendor-specific management systems.
The image below illustrates a traditional telco environment with management silos that limit the ability to
automate servers with vendor- and device-specific APIs:
Networks of the future will see a shift from closed, vendor-locked systems to open, multi-vendor, multi-
technology networks programmed via SDN controllers as shown in the image below:
Software-Defined access networks are highly agile with the automation and scalability needed to support
mass market residential service deployments. This agility enables Operators to retain their current market
share and compete for new services revenue. Highly programmable Software-Defined access networks
support the adoption of network automation and simplified service orchestration.

The benefits:
• Reduced service provisioning times, human error and IT complexity.
• Enabling customer self-service capabilities.
• Enabling rapid service creation and time to market through an open micro-services
architecture which allows network operations and IT development teams to align. This
evolution enables Operators to vastly lower their cost to build, operate, innovate and
maintain their network.
Open source SW
With an open architecture approach, Service Providers have the freedom to choose best-of-breed elements
and control the introduction and rollout of new customer applications and broadband technologies,
eliminating high overhead costs.
The first Open source SW community to act was the previously mentioned ONF Consortium with its two
ongoing Broadband projects SEBA and VOLTHA, both based on open source Software components that
are made available by members of the Consortium to all members free of charge.
Sometime later the Broadband Forum Organization understood that “the future of Broadband will be the
result of the marriage between the flexibility, innovation, and speed of ‘open software’ and the discipline,
efficiencies, and global scale made possible by ‘open standards’.”
By bringing together the best open source ideas with the interoperability and standards required for mass
market solutions, the Broadband Forum Organization started the so-called Open Broadband initiative with
the intent to bring open source and open standards together, paving the way to dramatically change the
industry and bring the full promise of broadband to fruition.
More information about the projects in the umbrella of the Open Broadband Initiative by Broadband
Forum Organization
Initiatives - Open Broadband Software
Fixed Access Network Sharing

Software-Defined access enables an enhanced form of network infrastructure sharing known as Fixed
Access Network Sharing (FANS), allowing competing Service Providers to operate independently on
shared, open infrastructure.
Broadband Forum is defining Fixed Access Network Sharing to offer a highly enhanced form of virtual
unbundling of broadband access networks, enabling cost sharing and enhancing the dynamics of a
competitive landscape.
FANS target is to automate and harmonise data, control, and management interfaces among wholesale
Infrastructure Providers (InPs) and retail Virtual Network Operators (VNOs).
FANS logically partitions and isolates network resources shared among VNOs. This sharing can split the
cost of network upgrades among several entities. FANS works with virtualisation: control-plane functions
are migrated from dedicated network equipment into software running on commodity hardware, with FANS
providing Network as a Service (NaaS).

More information about FANS can be found at the Broadband Forum Organization website where various
papers are available:
• The Marketing Report https://www.broadband-forum.org/marketing/download/MR-453.

pdf describes Broadband Forum standards supporting FANS, use cases, FANS
components, and details of the architectures supporting FANS
MR-453 PDF
• The Technical Report https://www.broadband-forum.org/download/TR-370.pdf specifies

technical aspects associated with FANS, that involve the access network, including access
nodes and aggregation nodes. The report focuses on the cases of Passive Optical Network
(PON) and DSL and G.fast access technologies
TR-370 PDF

ABOUT THE DEPLOYMENT AND OPERATIONS COMMITTEE
The Deployment and Operations Committee discusses all technical aspects of fibre networks. This includes
the passive and active parts of the network as well as the deployment methods, network architectures and
new fibre technologies. The Deployment & Operations Committee has created white papers in the last
year based on innovative FTTH deployment technologies. The Committee is also responsible for producing
and revising the FTTH Handbook, which was created to help network operators understand the options
available for fibre access network infrastructure.
Contributors
FTTH HANBOOK EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Tom Bambury
Head Optical Network Solutions at Fujikura | D&O Committee
Chair, FTTH Council Europe
Tom is head of the Optical Network Solutions team at Fujikura Europe.

Prior to this he has held a number of business development and
operations roles at AFL – a wholly owned subsidiary of Fujikura. He has
over 20 years’ experience in the optical communications industry and
previously worked at ESB Telecoms in Ireland, as well as Corning and
Nortel Networks in the USA.
He has been heavily involved in a number of FTTH projects at AFL and

Fujikura in recent years and was elected as Chair of the FTTH Council
Europe Deployment and Operations Committee in May 2019.
Paul Ekpenyong
Paul has over 30 years’ experience in business development,
marketing, and sales with a wide range of international technology
companies. Most recently he was Marketing Projects Director with
PPC Broadband Fiber, the successor company to m2fx where he held
several senior positions and spearheaded the market development for
the Miniflex range of products.
Prior to that, he held general management positions in USA, Europe,

and UK in which roles he drove operational improvements to deliver
bottom line results as well as developing, acquiring, and sustaining
corporate customers. He has also worked in publishing and qualified
as a Maths teacher.

John Edwards
Sonix Communications
John is founder and owner of Sonix Communications, an agency

specialising in communications and strategy for the global hi-tech
sector, with an emphasis on fibre-optic and broadband networks. He
has some 20 years of experience working for the world’s largest fibre
cabling and equipment companies, as well as several FTTH Council
chapters.
Prior to this, he has held management positions with leading media

and marketing agencies, as well as in private banking and healthcare.
SPECIAL THANKS TO:
FTTH COUNCIL
Vincent Garnier
Director General
Michele Nardi
Communication & Digital Marketing Specialist
Emilija Borchers
Administration & Membership Officer
Marcus Benson
Conference and Membership Director
CONTRIBUTORS
Jose Luis Gonzalez
FTTH Network Architect, EMEA
CommScope
Phil Ward
Product Line Manager EMEA
PPC Broadband
Jonas Verstuyft
Fiber Product Manager
Comsof
Adrian Amezcua Correa

MMF Product Line Manager
Prysmian Group
Dorin Coman
Technical Sales Support Telecom Networks
Prysmian Group

Jan Schindler
Market Intelligence Manager Telecom Business
Prysmian Group
Barbara Tonarelli
Technical Sales Manager Broadband Access Networks
Adtran
Michael Timmers
Technology Strategist, CTO Office
Nokia
Karol Kowalik
Technology Development Manager
Fiberhost
Carlo Salatino
Technical Process Specialist - Network & Operations
Openfiber
Edoardo Fagiolini
European Affairs Specialist
Openfiber
Marcin Grochocinski
Technology & Innovation Director
Inea
Alessandro Quagliarini
Program Manager, PMP, MBA
Openfiber
Mike Harrop
Fibre Quality & Governance Delivery Manager at Virgin Media O2 (CURRENT POSITION)
formerly EXFO
Kai Grunert
Managing Partner
Detecon International GmbH
Boushra Kanj
Senior Consultant
Detecon International GmbH
Henrik Thurén
Product Evangelist
Netadmin Systems
Ulf Lindberg
CEO
Netadmin Systems
Christian Till
Senior Member Technical Staff / Subject Matter Expert
EXFO
Rachel Willetts
Technical Marketing Manager
OFS

CONTRIBUTORS / PEER REVIEWERS
Mike Knott
Market Development Manager – FTTH
Corning Optical Communications
Kelly Fournier
Head of Client Acquisition
Comsof
James Wheatley
Product Line Manager at GE
GE Digital
PEER REVIEWERS
Graham Bolton
Account Director
CommScope
Andreas Rüsseler
Chief Marketing Officer
R&M
Ané Nel
Europe and Africa Sales Manager Test & Inspection Division
AFL Global
Christophe Canepa
Product and standardization corporate manager
Groupe ACOME
Colin Kirkpatrick
Solutions Director
Emtelle
Mark McNeela
Head of Active Plan & Design
SIRO
Amanda Glancy
Director of Corporate Affairs
SIRO

DESIGN
Felix van Loon
Lead Designer
Sonix Communications / New Light
SUPPORT GRAPHICS AND IMAGES

Dennis Slobodian
Corporate Communications
Deutsche Glasfaser Unternehmensgruppe
Christof Sommerberg
Head of Public Affairs
Deutsche Glasfaser Unternehmensgruppe
Erica Monti
Head Corporate Communications
R&M
Bruna Chitoni
Business Communications Manager
Prysmian Group
Agnieszka Dul
Regional Marketing Specialist Broadband Network - Europe
CommScope
Arria Giulian
Senior Global Leader Strategy & Marketing
CommScope
Samantha Gorczowski
Digital Marketing Specialist
CommScope
Selected images provided by

Martin Wissen for Deutsche Glasfaser
Pages 8, 44, 161, 171, 172, 179, 182, 238

The FTTH Handbook is intended to be a source of valuable information for the reader. The provided
information is of a general nature only and is not intended to address the specific circumstances of any
particular individual or entity. It is not meant as a substitute for professional or legal advice, or as a step-
by-step manual. Every care has been taken to verify that all information presented is up to date and
correct, and the Handbook will be updated on a regular basis. However, owing to fast-moving technical
and legislative developments, sections may not be complete or accurate. The FTTH Council accepts no
responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the information. Without this list being exhaustive, FTTH
Council assumes no responsibility for errors, inaccuracies, omissions, or any other inconsistencies herein
and disclaim any liability for loss, damage, or disruption attributable to these.
All rights to the FTTH Handbook are reserved for all countries. No part of this publication may be
reproduced (including photocopying), modified, published, stored in a database or any other information
storage or retrieval system, made available to the public, or distributed in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, without the prior written consent of the
FTTH Council.

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Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe 3

Section 1.1: Why Fibre Networks? 8

Chapter 2: Strategic Network Planning 19

Section 2.1: Introduction 20

Chapter 3: Physical Layer Technology Summary - Passing Homes 39

Section 3.1: Introduction 40

4 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

Section 4.1: Introduction 65

Chapter 5: Active Equipment 83

Section 5.1: Introduction 84

Chapter 6: Fibre Management 99

Section 6.1: Introduction 100

Chapter 7: Digitalisation Workflow 134

Section 7.1: Introduction 135

Chapter 8: Strategic Design 150

Section 8.1: Introduction 151

Section II: Build 156

Chapter 9: Network Design 157

Section 9.1: Introduction 158

Chapter 10: Installation Techniques 164

Section 10.1: Fibre Deployment 165

Chapter 11: FTTH Test Guidelines 195

Section 11.1: Introduction 196

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Section 12.1: Introduction 209

Section 13.1: Introduction - Why OSS/BSS atters 227

Chapter 14: Operations & Maintenance 238

Section 14.1: Introduction 239

Chapter 15: Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting 258

Section 15.1: Centralised Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting 259

Appendix I: Fibre, Connectors and Splicing 272

Section A1.1: Optical Fibre 273

Appendix II: FTTH Standardisation and Terminology 297

Section A2.1: Introduction 298

Appendix III: Subsidy Programs: Germany as a Case Study 302

Appendix IV: OSS BSS 306

Section A4.1: Introduction 207

Appendix V: Network Evolution Impacting Active Equipment 314

6 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

What do FTTH access networks connect?

8 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

What are the main influences on the method of infrastructure

Types of Fibre Network Architecture.

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10 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

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Is the Development ‘Greenfield’ or ‘Brownfield’?

12 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

P2MP topology P2P topology

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) - This Point-to-point (P2P) - Dedicated fibres

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Point of Presence (POP) or Access Node

14 Full fibre for a digital and sustainable Europe

Fibre Distribution Point (FDP)

MDU Vertical Distribution and Drops