SECTION 2

MARITIME NAVIGATION TOPICS

 Unit 5 (6 t)
SHIP TO SHIP AND SHIP TO SHORE COMMUNICATION

5.1. Introduction to Maritime VHF Exchange

Any conversation at sea, i.e. a ship-to -ship, ship-to-shore or shore-to-
ship exchange, consists of the following stages: making contact; exchange of
messages; ending of the conversation. The two parties to communication are
called Calling Station and Responding Station.
Making contact stage includes five steps: initial call, responding to
initial call, indicating the working channel, agreeing/disagreeing working
channel, switching over procedure. Initial call consists of the following steps:
address the station you are calling (three times), identify your own station,
state the VHF channel on which you are calling, and give signal “Over”.
Responding to initial call should include the following: address the calling
station, identify your own station, and finish your turn by saying “Over”.
When your station is called but the identity of the calling station is uncertain,
you should reply immediately using the words “Say again”. Indicating the
working channel is follows immediately after contact has been established on
the calling channel 16 or any watch-keeping channel. The phrase
recommended by IMO is “Switch to channel”. If the suggested channel is not
available, use the phrase “channel…unavailable”.
Exchange of messages is the centre part of any VHF communication in
which a station asks for or gives information, reaches agreement with other
station, settle a request, etc. procedures are most common in spoken maritime
interactive communications. In many ways they resemble normal phone
conversations between two speakers. However, in maritime VHF exchanges
each speaker must wait for his turn. The exchange of messages normally
begins with a message marker. It is the word pronounced before the message
to introduce the purpose and content of the message to be communicated.
Such as the words: Question, Request, Information, and so on. In response to
the above markers, the responding station uses the reply corresponding to the
message markers. Such as the words: Answer, Request received, information
received, and so on.
When ending of the conversation, use the following format: address,
identity, respond to previous turn, expression of gratitude, and the word
“Out”.
The following is a 9-step outline diagram of a full exchange procedure
between two ships or a ship and a shore station.
CALLING STATION RESPONDING STATION
1. INITIAL CALL
2. RESPOND TO CALL

3. INDICATE WORKING
CHANNEL
4. AGREE WORKING
CHANNEL

5. SWITCH OVER PROCEDURE

6. MESSAGE
7. RESPOND TO MESSAGE

8. END TRANSMISSION
9. END PROCEDURE

Steps 1 -5 represent the Making Contact stage of conversation, steps 6-

7 represent the Exchange of Messages stage of conversation, and steps 8-9
represent the Ending of the Conversation.
In communications between coast stations and ship stations, the ship
station shall comply with instructions given by the coast station in all matters
relating to the order and time of transmission, to the choice of frequency and
to the duration and suspension of work.
In communications between ship stations, normally the calling station
is the controlling station. If the responding station is in agreement with the
calling station, it shall transmit an indication from that moment onwards that
it will listen on the working frequency or channel announced by the calling
station. However, if the station called is not in agreement with the calling
station on the working frequency or channel to be used, it shall transmit an
indication of the working frequency or channel to be used.
The following is an example of a maritime VHF communication between a
ship (Marlin) and a pilot station (Elbe Pilot)
MARLIN: Elbe Pilot, Elbe Pilot, Elbe Pilot. This is Marlin. On channel 1-
6. Over.
Elbe Pilot: Marlin, Marlin, Marlin. This is Elbe Pilot. Switch to VHF
Channel 2-2. Over.
MARLIN: Elbe Pilot. This is Marlin, Agree: Switching to VHF Channel
2- 2. Over
Elbe Pilot: Marlin, Marlin, Marlin. This is Elbe Pilot. Question: What is
your position? Over.
MARLIN: Elbe Pilot, This Is Marlin. Answer: Position: Three miles
Southwest of Elbe Lighthouse. Over
Elbe Pilot: Marlin. This Is Elbe Pilot. Understood. Your position: Three
miles Southwest of Elbe Lighthouse. Instruction: Rig pilot ladder on
the port side, one foot above the water. Over.
MARLIN: Elbe Pilot. This is Marlin. Understood: I shall rig pilot ladder
on the port side one foot above the water. Over.
Elbe Pilot: Thank you, Captain. Stand by on channel 1-6. Over.
MARLIN: Elbe Pilot. Thank you. Standing by on VHF channel 1-6. Out.
5.2. Message markers and standard phrases
5.2.1 Message markers
Message markers Examples
QUESTION QUESTION:
Indicates that the following message is of What is your course?
interrogative character
ANSWER ANSWER:
Indicates that the following message is the My course is 1-3-2 degrees
reply to a previous question true
REQUEST REQUEST:
Indicates that the contents of the following Immediate tug assistance
message are asking for action from others
with respect to the ship
INFORMATION INFORMATION:
Indicates that the following message is My ETA at Outer Pilot Station
restricted to observed facts is 1830hrs UTC
ADVICE ADVICE:
Indicates that the following message Anchor in position: bearing:
implies the intention of the one-two-five degrees true,
sender to influence the recipient(s) by a from Sydney lighthouse,
recommendation distance three miles

INSTRUCTION INSTRUCTION:
Indicates that the following message You must alter course
implies the intention of the sender to
influence the recipient(s) by a regulation.
WARNING WARNING:
Indicates that the following message Tanker aground in position …
informs other traffic participants about
dangers
INTENTION INTENTION:
Indicates that the following message I will drop the anchor
informs others about
immediate navigational actions intended to
be taken
5.2.2 Other standard phrases
a. When it is advisable to remain on a VHF Channel say:
"Stand by on VHF Channel ...."
b. When it is accepted to remain on the VHF channel indicated, say:
"Standing by on VHF Channel ...."
c. When it is advisable to change to another VHF Channel, say:
"Advise, change to VHF Channel ...."
d. When the changing of a VHF Channel is accepted, say:
"Changing to VHF Channel ...."
e. When a mistake is made in a message, say:
 "Mistake ..." followed by the word: "Correction ..." plus the corrected
part of the message.
Example: "My present speed is 14 knots - mistake.
Correction, my present speed is 1-2 knots."
f. If any part of the message is considered sufficiently important, say: "Repeat
..." - followed by the corresponding part of the message.
Example: "Do not overtake - repeat - do not overtake."
5.3. Exercises
a) Role play:
A: Vessel Manta
B: Nha Trang Port Control
A: Nha Trang Port Control, Nha Trang Port Control, This is Manta,
Manta. Over
B: Manta, this is Nha Trang Port Control. Over
A: Port Control, This is Manta. My radar is not working. Is shore-base
radar assistance available? Over.
B: Shore-base radar assistance is available. Do you require a pilot?
A: I require a pilot. Where can I take a pilot?
B: You can take a pilot off Bamboo Island. What is your present
position, course and speed? Over.
A: My present position: Bearing 2-0 degrees from entrance buoy,
distance 2.5 miles. I am altering course to 2-5-2 degrees. My present
speed is 7 knots. Over.
B: Manta, this is Nha Trang Port Control. You are getting closer to the
vessel ahead. Advice: You must reduce speed. Over.
A: Nha Trang Port Control, This is Manta. Message understood. I will
reduce speed to 4 knots. Over.
B: Thank you.
b) What is the difference between saying the word “Over” and the word
“Out”?
c) Role play:
 A: Calling station: M/V SEACAT, call sign HRAV7
B: Responding station: first unknown, container ship, hull red, course
226, speed 18 knots; (M/V GOLDFISH, call sign DGYY3)
- Working channel: 0-4
- Topic: - M/V SEACAT asks about the other ship’s intention
- The container ship responds that she is turning to starboard and will
pass astern of SEACAT
 Unit 6 (6 t)
DISTRESS, URGENCY AND SAFETY SIGNALS

6.1. Introduction to Distress, Urgency and Safety Calls

DISTRESS: the radiotelephone distress signal MAYDAY is used to
indicate that a ship or aircraft or person is threatened by grave and imminent
danger and requires IMMEDIATE assistance.
URGENCY: the radiotelephone urgency signal PAN PAN is used to
indicate that a ship has a very urgent message to transmit concerning its
safety. For instance, a ship is drifting as her engine was broken down.
SAFETY: the radiotelephone safety signal SÉCURITÉ (pronounced
SAY- CUR-E-TAY) is used to indicate that the calling station has an
important navigational or meteorological warning to transmit.
6.1.1. Distress signal and message
A station in distress may use any means at its disposal to attract
attention, make known its position and obtain help. The radiotelephone
distress signal is MAYDAY and its use is prohibited except in the case of
distress. The distress call has absolute priority over all other transmissions.
All ships and coastal stations hearing it must immediately cease any
transmissions capable of interfering with the distress communications, and
must continue to listen on the frequency being used. Distress calls and distress
messages may be sent only on the authority of the master/captain or person
responsible for the station. Stations involved in distress communications
should exercise great care not to interfere with the transmissions of the station
in distress or with other assisting stations.
VHF radio distress calls are transmitted on VHF channel 16. The
radiotelephone distress call is the distress signal MAYDAY (spoken three
times), the words THIS IS and the name and callsign of the ship in distress
(spoken three times).The distress call should be followed immediately by the
distress message. This message consists of:
1. The distress signal MAYDAY
2. The name and callsign of the ship in distress
3. The ship’s position
4. The nature of the distress
5. The type of assistance required
 6. the number of people on board
7. Any other information that may help the rescue such as the sea
conditions and description of the ship
8. The word Over.
Example
MAYDAY; MAYDAY; MAYDAY
This is
Sea Star ABCD; Sea Star ABCD; Sea Star ABCD
Position: 5 nautical miles west of Coconut Island.
Engine room flooded; require immediate assistance.
Five people on board.
Seas rough
OVER.
Any station hearing a distress call and message should write it down. If
no response is heard from a shore station, acknowledge the distress call and
take all possible steps to attract the attention of other stations that may be able
to help.
Example of the acknowledgement of a distress message
MAYDAY
Sea Star ABCD; Sea Star ABCD; Sea Star ABCD
This is
Blue Duck HLZZ; Blue Duck HLZZ; Blue Duck HLZZ
RECEIVED MAYDAY
We are 3 miles away from you
We are proceeding to your position; we should arrive within 1 hour
Over.
The station in distress, or any station in the immediate vicinity, may
impose silence on a particular station or stations in the area if interference is
being caused to distress traffic. The station in distress shall use the expression
SILENCE MAYDAY. Other stations imposing silence during a distress
situation shall use the expression SILENCE DISTRESS. If radio silence is
imposed during a distress situation, all transmissions shall cease immediately
except from those stations involved in distress traffic.
Example
MAYDAY
All stations, all stations, all stations
This is
Black Prince VY4321, Black Prince VY4321, Black Prince VY4321
SILENCE DISTRESS
Out.
When a station is no longer in distress, or when it is no longer necessary
to observe radio silence (that is, rescue operation has concluded), the station
that was in distress, the rescue vessel or the station that controlled distress
traffic shall transmit a message addressed to ALL STATIONS on the distress
frequency advising that the distress traffic has ended. The proper procedure
for canceling a distress message is as follows:
1. the distress signal MAYDAY (once),
2. the words ALL STATIONS (three times),
3. the words THIS IS,
4. the name or call sign of the station transmitting the message, or both,
(three times),
5. the time of the message,
6. the call sign of the station in distress (once),
7. the words SILENCE FINISHED
8. a short plain-language description of why the distress situation is
being cancelled (that is, vessel clear and under tow),
9. the name and call sign of the station transmitting the message,
10. the word OUT.
Example
MAYDAY
All stations, All stations, all stations
This is
 North Wind VY3344, North Wind VY3344, North Wind VY3344
Time: one six one five, UTC
Seadog VH1234
SILENCE FINISHED
All persons are safe on board this vessel - the vessel Seadog sunk
North Wind VY3344
OUT
6.1.2. Urgency signal and message
The radiotelephone urgency signal is PAN PAN (spoken three times)
and indicates that the calling station has a very urgent message to transmit
concerning the safety of a ship or person. Medical emergencies are normally
designated as a PAN PAN message. The urgency signal has priority over all
other communications except distress. All stations hearing it must take care
not to interfere with the transmission of the message which follows the
urgency signal. The urgency message may be addressed either to ALL
STATIONS or to a particular station. The format of an urgency message is
similar to a distress message.
Example
PAN PAN; PAN PAN; PAN PAN
All stations; all stations; all stations
This is
Sea Star AB26; Sea Star AB26; Sea Star AB26
Position: Latitude 15 degrees, 20.5 minutes North; longitude 106
degrees, 25.6 minutes East.
Engine breakdown and drifting; require tow; sea smooth; no immediate
danger; 6 people on board.
Over.
As soon as the station responsible for the transmission of the urgency
message knows that action is no longer necessary, it must cancel the message.
The cancellation message shall be addressed to ALL STATIONS.
Example
PAN PAN
 All stations, All stations, All stations
This is
North Wind VY3344, North Wind VY3344, North Wind VY3344
TIME: 1340 UTC
URGENCY ENDED
Helicopter has evacuated injured person
This vessel now proceeding normally to Sydney Habour
North wind VY3344
Out.
6.1.3. Safety signal and message
The radiotelephone safety signal is SECURITE (pronounced SAY-CUR-
E-TAY). Spoken three times, it indicates that the coastal or ship station is
about to transmit a message containing an important navigational or
meteorological warning. Navigational and meteorological warnings are
broadcast by Maritime Radio stations as soon as possible after they have been
received, repeated following the next silence period, and thereafter at the
scheduled times, until they are cancelled or replaced. The safety signal and
call should normally be sent on VHF Channel 16, and the safety message that
follows is transmitted on a working frequency. Safety messages are usually
addressed to ALL STATIONS, but in some cases may be addressed to a
particular station.
Example
SECURITE, SECURITE, SECURITE
All stations; All stations; All stations
This is Nhatrang Radio; Nhatrang Radio; Nhatrang Radio.
For weather information, switch to VHF channel 22
Out.
6.2. Vocabulary and Phrases
Correction: An error has been made in this transmission (message indicated).
The correct version is _____.
Go ahead: Proceed with your message.
How do you read me? How well do you receive me?
I read you…: poor/fair/good/excellence.
I say again: Self-explanatory (use instead of “I repeat”).
Negative: No, or that is not correct, or I do not agree.
Affirmative: Yes, or permission granted.
Over: My transmission is ended and I expect a response from you.
Out: Conversation is ended and no response is expected.
Standby: I must pause for a few seconds or minutes, please wait.
Say again: request a repetition when a message is not properly heard.
Drifting: Floating, caused by winds and current with a determinable direction.
ETA: Estimated Time of Arrival.
I am on fire: Indicate that fire happening on board
I am sinking: Indicate that the vessel is sinking
I am grounding: the vessel is grounded and need assistance
Require immediate assistance: I am in danger and need immediate assistance.
6. 3. Exercises
a) Role play
A: Vessel Seagull
B: Vessel Happy Prince
C: Vessel North Wind
A: Mayday, Mayday, Mayday. This is Seagull HR1225, Seagull
HR1225, Seagull HR1225. Position: latitude 5-2 degrees 1-1 minutes
north, longitude 1-2-8 degrees 4-0 minutes west. Ship on fire. Require
immediate assistance. 19 persons on board. Abandoning ship to life rafts.
Over.
B: Mayday. Seagull HR1225, Seagull HR1225, Seagull HR1225. This is
Happy Prince BS 432, Happy, Prince BS432, Happy Prince BS432.
Mayday received.
Over.
B: Mayday.
Seagull HR1225, Seagull HR1225, Seagull HR1225. This is Happy
Prince BS4321. Position: latitude: 5-0 degrees 2-2 minutes North;
longitude: 1-3-9 degrees 1-5 minutes West. I am proceeding to your
assistance. Speed: 2-1 knots. ETA: 1-8 –3- 0 UTC.
Over
A: Mayday.
Happy Prince. This is Seagull. Message understood. You are coming to
my assistance. Your position: latitude: 5-0 degrees 2-2 minutes north;
longitude: 1-3-9 degrees 1-5 minutes west. Your speed: 2-1 knots, ETA:
1-8 –3 0 UTC.
Over.
B: Mayday relay, Mayday relay, Mayday relay. This is Happy Prince
BS432, Happy Prince BS432, Happy Prince BS432.
Mayday
Seagull HR1225.
Following received from Seagull
Time: 2-2- 3-5 UTC
Mayday
Position: latitude 52 deg 11 min. north
longitude 128 deg. 40 min west
Ship on fire. 19 persons on board. Abandoning ship for life rafts.
This is Happy Prince BS432.
Over.
B: Mayday.
All stations, all stations, all stations. This is Happy Prince BS432, Happy
Prince BS432, Happy Prince BS432. Silence distress.
Out
C: Mayday.
All stations, all stations, all stations. This is North Wind NTVR, North
Wind NTVR, North Wind NTVR.
Time 2-3-5-4 UTC.
 Seagull HR 1225. Silence finished.
All persons are safe on board this vessel. The vessel Seagull sunk. Port
of destination Newport. North Wind NTVR.
Out.
b) What is the default channel for VHF distress call?
c) What kind of VHF signal which has absolute priority over all other
transmissions?
 Unit 7 (6 t)
PATROL AND BOARDING PROCEDURES

7.1. Maritime Patrol and Boarding Procedures

Maritime patrols could be divided into Coastal Patrols and Offshore
Patrols. Coastal patrols are most effective if smaller patrol vessels are
deployed to areas of fishing concentrations or area of suspected illegal
activities. Offshore patrol vessels are usually the most costly of patrol assets,
but are necessary for actual apprehension operations. It is most cost-effective
if these assets can be targeted to trouble spots.
All patrols should commence with a planning and briefing session for
key participants to ensure that everyone knows what to expect. Upon
completion of a patrol, de-briefing of key participants should be carried out,
with appropriate documentation for record purposes and for confirming
follow-up actions and lessons learned as required.
Each patrol vessel should have the necessary equipment to carry out
assigned duties, e.g. clear identification that it is on government service,
copies of regulations, inspection gear, communication and safety equipment
and so on.
7.1.1. Pre-boarding procedures
The commanding officer (CO) of the patrol vessel must determine if
weather and sea conditions permit a safe boarding. Pre boarding observations
are necessary to determine the degree of risk and to establish personnel,
equipment and arming requirements. A series of observations on the type,
activities, and potential problems that may be encountered when boarding
should be conducted. The CO and the leader of the boarding team must
decide if the boarding party will actually board a particular vessel or not. If
boarding is to be conducted, the CO and boarding leader should brief the
boarding team on all circumstances and possible violations surrounding the
subject vessel and review roles and responsibilities of each team member.
Boarding instructions are then issued to the subject vessel through radio
contact. The patrol vessel should inform the captain of the subject vessel of
the intention to board and instruct him to stop the vessel or maintain course
and speed, to assist the boarding team, and to gather identification documents
and vessel papers.
 Many patrol vessels board fishing vessels or vessels involved in illegal
activities by bringing the patrol vessel directly alongside. This is not normally
recommended as it places the patrol vessel and the entire crew at risk. A small
boarding craft to carry the boarding team is recommended. This leaves the
larger patrol vessel in a position to observe and monitor the safety of the
boarding party.
Language differences may pose an initial concern for both boarding team
and foreign vessel masters. One of the options is to carry on board a small
handbook of questions in various languages with a common numbering
system so that the appropriate numbered question can be asked and shown to
the master of foreign vessel in his/her language. This procedure has been used
effectively by many coastal states. Where possible, at least one member of the
boarding team should be able to understand the language of the master of the
vessel being boarded.
In general, a check list for pre-boarding is set out in the table below.
1. Pre-boarding briefing 2. Sighting the Target 3. Pre-boarding
procedure
· Identification of vessel. · Confirm sighting. . Note-taking
· Weather and sea state. · Check position. .Check both sides of the
· Type of boarding - · Identify the vessel target vessel for any
routine/resistance unusual activities;
· Discuss the type of
expected. expected boarding. . Order the target vessel’s
· Boarding team · Call the boarding captain to steer a course
composition and order for team for the boarding that provides a lee for
boarding. boarding
briefing.
· Boarding team tasks - · Move into a boarding . Order the target vessel’s
radio communications, position as soon as the captain to gather his crew
security of crew, note boarding in a designated open
team is space before boarding.
taking on both the patrol prepared to board.
vessel and boarding boat, . Position the patrol
etc. · Call the target vessel vessel for launching the
and notify her that you boarding craft.
· Communications - call intend to board.
signs and frequencies. . Launch the boarding
· Security cover from the craft and approach from
patrol vessel. the leeward side of the
· Boarding positions of target vessel.
patrol vessel and boarding . Patrol vessel maintains
boat for security. security watch and
· Equipment checks. regularly checks
· Special instructions as communications with the
are appropriate. boarding party.

7.1.2. Boarding procedures

This section considers the actual at-sea inspection of a subject vessel.
Generally, a minimum of five persons should be in the boarding team. In
cases when the boarding team might meet some resistance, a full and
equipped boarding crew is advised. Normally, before boarding, all crew of the
subject vessel are instructed to move to the bow of the vessel. The Captain is
instructed to stay at the helm or the bridge. The boarding team boards the
vessel and firstly secures the crew at the bow and captain in the bridge. At
least one armed officer should stay with the crew at all times. The rest of
boarding team conducts the inspection. One at the wheelhouse with the
captain to check documents and others divide the vessel into starboard and
port sides and engine room for inspection. The patrol boat should always
monitor the subject vessel during the time of boarding and ready for action if
necessary. The figure below is an example of boarding team’s positions

Figure 7.1 positioning of boarding team on vessel to be inspected

The minimum information obtained during an investigation of a
maritime vessel should be included as following:
 Name of vessel
Nationality/flag of vessel
Vessel registration/documentation/official number
Length overall
Tonnage
Purpose of voyage
Last port of call
Next port of call
Master/Operator’s name
Master/Operator’s date of birth
Master/Operator’s citizenship
Nationalities, names, and date of birth of additional persons on board
Whether there are weapons on board
Documentation request and review:
Certificate of seaworthiness
Commercial vessel operators/masters license
Commercial fishing license (if applicable)
Fishworkers licenses (if applicable)
Personal identification cards or drivers license
Number and type of lifesaving equipment on board
Description of communication and navigational gear on board
A certificate of inspection must be issued and signed by the captain and a
crewmember as witness after an inspection regardless of whether there are
items seized or violations detected.
Depending on the results of the search and inspection, the boarding team
disembarks or makes an arrest. The results of the boarding are communicated
through the chain of command and leadership. If making an arrest is
necessary, the patrol vessel should request the Captain of the subject vessel to
return to port for further investigation. If he/she refuses, order him/her to do
so. If the Captain still refuses, bring additional crew to the vessel, conduct
arrest procedures, remove the Captain from the vessel, and bring the vessel to
port. Remember that upon removal of the Captain, the Patrol Vessel has
immediately assumed full responsibility for the safety of the subject vessel,
equipment and crew safety.
7.1.3. The concept of Hot pursuit under the Law of the Sea Convention
The Hot pursuit is an international doctrine which exists when a foreign
vessel suspected of violating the laws and regulations of a coastal state in
waters subject to its jurisdiction is pursued onto the high seas. Under the Law
of the Sea Convention (LOSC), the following conditions must exist for you to
establish hot pursuit:
- A foreign vessel is suspected of violating your laws in waters subject
to the jurisdiction of your country;
- The vessel has been visually and/or audibly signaled to stop;
- The pursuit commences while the foreign vessel is in your
jurisdictional waters; and
- The vessel flees from those waters onto the high seas.
Hot pursuit must be stopped when the pursued vessel enter into its own
or another country’s territorial waters.
The LOSC also states that a vessel on the high seas may be subject to hot
pursuit if she is a mothership, working as a team with other craft that violated
coastal state law while located within coastal state’s waters.
7.2. Vocabulary and Phrases
7.2.1. Some prior boarding questions
a. Fishing Vessel Sea Fox, this is the Vietnamese Marine Police Vessel
calling you on VHF channel 16, over.
b. Request you to switch your communications to channel 22, over.
c. Fishing vessel (name), this is patrol vessel (name), you are in the water
sovereignty of Vietnam (You are in the water sovereign rights of Vietnam).
We intend to board and inspect your vessel. Prior to our boarding of your
vessel, we need to ask you a few questions.
d. Under which country’s flag are you registered?
e. What was your last port of call?
f. What is your next port of call?
g. What is the name and nationality of your master?
h. How many crews do you have onboard and what are their nationalities?
i. Do you have any weapons onboard? If so, where are they located?
k. We will be sending over a boarding party in thirty minutes; please assist
them in getting onboard and by complying with all of their instructions.
l. To assist our boarding party in boarding your vessel, we request you to stop
your vessel (or to lower a ladder on the starboard side).
7.2.2. Some initial boarding questions
a. Good morning, are you the master of the vessel?
b. I am here to inspect your vessel for compliance with the laws and
regulations of Vietnam.
c. Do you understand?
d. Is there anyone here who speaks English/Vietnamese?
e. Please muster your crew on the bow.
f. Please indicate where you keep your weapons onboard
g. Please show me your vessel’s documents.
h. Please show me your plotting charts and log book.
i. Your documents and records indicate you are not in complete compliance
with the regulations of Vietnam
k. I am seizing this item for evidence
l. Thank you for your assistance on this boarding
m. Let me know if you have any questions
n. I have completed the inspection of your vessel
o. We are departing your vessel at this time
7.3. Exercises
a) Who decides whether the boarding party will actually board a particular
vessel or not?
b) What should the patrol vessel inform the captain of the subject vessel
before boarding?
c) How many people should be in a boarding team?
 Unit 8 (4 t)
MARITIME JOINT PATROLS

8.1. The General Procedures for Maritime Joint Patrols

Joint patrol operations between the navies of two bordering countries are
aimed at the effective implementation of the Law of the Sea Convention,
controlling fishery activities, protecting natural resources of both countries
from violation by third country, conserving marine environment, preventing
and suppressing smuggling, drug trafficking, illegal migration and piracy, and
building trust and understanding between the two countries. Sometimes,
search and rescue operations at sea are also conducted to ensure the safety of
vessels and people of both nations.
Maritime Joint patrol between the Navies of two countries is conducted
according to the plan that was set up by the two Navies. The Plan normally
consists of the objectives of joint patrol, the aims of joint patrol, the duration
of joint patrol, the patrol forces, the coordinated patrol area, the rendezvous,
the joint patrol conduct, the coordination activities, the command of joint
patrol, the organization of communication, and other supports.
In general, each Navy has two or three ships involved in joint patrol.
Normally, ships participating in the joint patrol operations shall arrive at
rendezvous points 30 minutes before the joint patrol commenced. Rendezvous
of each patrol forces is at a particular distance from the maritime boundary
between the two countries and should be designated as coordinated points.
The coordinated patrol area (CPA) is an area that agreed by the two Navies.
Generally, a CPA is a rectangular area determined by corner points with
latitudes and longitudes, on a particular chat. For instance, the CPA can be
designated as the following:
- Point A: Latitude 08036,5’N; Longitude 102001,0’E
- Point B: Latitude 08056,5’N; Longitude 102023,0’E
- Point C: Latitude 07059,5’N; Longitude 103013,5’E
- Point D: Latitude 07040,5’N; Longitude 102051,0’E
The patrol ships of each country operate under the direction of the
Centre Command Office of their Navy. Each navy is responsible for ensuring
communication efficiency of its ships.
 Time must be determined and agreed during the joint patrol, whether
UTC or Local time. For instance, 131000G Feb .12 means 10 hours zero
minute, local time (zone G) on 13 February, 2012.
English is the language used to communicate during the maritime joint
patrol. It must be spoken clearly and slowly enough to be easily understood
without repetition.
Upon arrival of participating ships at the rendezvous points, the two
commanding vessels of the two navies will send messages to great each other
and to inform situation by radio circuit. After completion of satisfying
communications check between both commanding ships and between those
ships with their own respective standing offices, the participating ships start
their ways of patrolling with all lines within the CPA. The patrolling course,
patrolling speed, distance of patrolling, and time period for each patrol line
should be assigned clearly in the plan. Below is the Map for Joint Patrol of
the 17th Joint Patrol between the Vietnam People’s Navy and the Royal Thai
Navy
Rendezvous point Rendezvous point
VPN patrol ships RTN patrol ships

12.15 NM 12.15 NM

6.15 NM 6.15 NM

0.15 NM 0.15 NM

Figure 9.1. Map for Joint Patrol

 During the joint patrolling, each patrol vessel shall observe, identify and
examine the operation of passing by vessels in the CPA, in accordance with
the joint patrol procedures, keep line of communications, exchanges
necessary information and ready to coordinate to engage the violating vessels
in accordance with the agreed regulations.
After finishing the last patrol line, the patrolling forces of the two navies
shall inform each other and each patrol force may proceed to the rendezvous
points in order to bid farewell each other before leaving the CPA to finish the
patrol.
8.2. Vocabulary and phrases
8.2.1. Vocabulary
Patrol. When soldiers or police patrol an area they move around it in order to
make sure that there is no trouble there.
Traffic. Traffic refers to the movement of ships, trains, or aircraft between one
place and another. Traffic also refers to the people and goods that are being
transported.
Migration. If people migrate, they move from one place to another, especially
in order to find work or to live somewhere for a short time.
Smuggling. If someone smuggles things or people into a place or out of it,
they take them there illegally or secretly.
Rendezvous. A rendezvous is a meeting that you have arranged with someone
for a particular time and place. A rendezvous is also the place where you have
arranged to meet someone, often secretly.
Rectangle. A rectangle is a four-sided shape whose corners are all ninety
degree angles. Each side of a rectangle is the same length as the one opposite
to it.
Regulations. Regulations are rules made by a government or other authority
in order to control the way something is done or the way people behave.
8.2.2. Common communication phrases
What is your present position?
My position: 1-9 degrees 5-2 minutes north; 109 degrees 1-4 minutes east
What is your present speed?
My present speed is 10 knots
What is your present course?
My present course is 1-5-0 degrees
Advice you make course 0-9-0
Advice you to keep your present course
Do not overtake!
What are your intentions?
Do not pass on my port side
I am not under command
You are proceeding at a dangerous speed
You are running in to danger
Vessel HQ 12 ready for helicopter
Helicopter now proceeding to you
Request permission to land on deck
I need help, I am on fire
I need help, I am sinking
I am making water
I need help, I am aground
I am on fire in the engine room
Is fire under control?
I require fire fighting assistance
I require medical assistance
I require divers
8.3. Exercises
a) What are the purposes of maritime joint patrol between navies?
b) What does the Plan of joint patrol consist of?
c) When should patrol ships participating in the joint patrol operations arrive
at rendezvous points?
d) What should the patrolling forces of the two navies do after finishing the
last patrol line?
 Unit 9
THE SEARCH AND RESCUE SYSTEM

9.1. The Search and Rescue System

9.1.1. Global SAR System Organization
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) coordinate, on a global basis,
member States’ efforts to provide search and rescue (SAR) services. Briefly,
the goal of ICAO and IMO is to provide an effective world-wide system, so
that wherever people sail or fly, SAR services will be available if needed.
The overall approach a State takes in establishing, providing, and improving
SAR services is affected by the fact that these efforts are an integral part of
a global SAR system. A basic, practical, and humanitarian effect of having a
global SAR system is that it eliminates the need for each State to provide
SAR services for its own citizens wherever they travel world-wide. Instead,
the globe is divided into search and rescue regions (SRRs), each with a
rescue co-ordination centre (RCC) and associated SAR services, which
assist anyone in distress within the SRR without regard to nationality or
circumstances.
9.1.2. National and Regional SAR System Organization
States, by being Party to the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
Convention, the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue,
and the Convention on International Civil Aviation, have accepted the
obligation to provide aeronautical and maritime SAR co-ordination and
services for their territories, territorial seas, and, where appropriate, the
high seas. SAR services are to be available on a 24-hour basis. To carry out
these responsibilities, a State either should establish a national SAR
organization, or join one or more other States to form a regional SAR
organization.
9.1.3. SAR Co-ordination
The SAR system has three levels of co-ordination associated with SAR
coordinators (SCs), SAR mission coordinators (SMCs), and on-scene
coordinators (OSCs).
SAR Coordinators (SCs). SCs have the overall responsibility for
establishing, staffing, equipping, and managing the SAR system, including
providing appropriate legal and funding support, establishing RCCs and
rescue sub-centres (RSCs), providing or arranging for SAR facilities,
coordinating SAR training, and developing SAR policies. SCs are the top
level SAR managers; each State normally will have one or more persons or
agencies for whom this designation may be appropriate. SCs are not
normally involved in the conduct of SAR operations
SAR Mission Coordinator (SMC). Each SAR operation is carried out
under the guidance of an SMC. This function exists only for the duration of
a specific SAR incident and is normally performed by the RCC chief or a
designee. For complex cases or those of long duration, the SMC usually
has an assisting team. The SMC is in charge of a SAR operation until a
rescue has been effected or until it has become apparent that further
efforts would be of no avail, or until responsibility is accepted by another
RCC. The SMC should be able to use readily available facilities and to
request additional ones during the operation. The SMC plans the search and
coordinates the transit of SAR facilities to the scene. The SMC should be
well trained in all SAR processes and be thoroughly familiar with the
applicable SAR plans. The SMC must competently gather information
about distress situations, develop accurate and workable action plans, and
dispatch and coordinate the resources which will carry out SAR missions.
The plans of operation maintained by the RCC provide information to assist
in these efforts.
On-scene Coordinator (OC). When two or more SAR units are working
together on the same mission, there is sometimes an advantage if one person
is assigned to coordinate the activities of all participating units. The SMC
designates this on-scene coordinator (OSC), who may be the person in
charge of a search and rescue unit (SRU), ship or aircraft participating in a
search, or someone at another nearby facility in a position to handle OSC
duties. The person in charge of the first SAR facility to arrive at the scene
will normally assume the function of OSC until the SMC directs that the
person be relieved. The OSC should be the most capable p er so n
available, taking into consideration SAR training, communications
capabilities, and the length of time that the unit the OSC is aboard can stay
in the search area. Duties which the SMC may assign to the OSC,
depending on needs and qualification, include any of the following:
- assume operational co-ordination of all SAR facilities on-scene;
- receive the search action plan from the SMC;
- modify the search action plan based on prevailing environmental
 conditions and keeping the SMC;
- advised of any changes to the plan (do in consultation with the
SMC when practicable);
- provide relevant information to the other SAR facilities;
- implement the search action plan;
- monitor the performance of other units participating in the search;
- Co-ordinate safety of flight issues for SAR aircraft;
- develop and implement the rescue plan (when needed); and make
consolidated reports (SITREPs) back to the SMC
9.1.4. SAR Resources
The SAR organization includes all of those agencies which perform
distress monitoring, communications, co-ordination, and response functions.
This includes providing or arranging for medical advice, initial medical
assistance, or medical evacuation, if necessary. SAR facilities consist of all
of the public and private facilities, including co-operating aircraft, vessels,
other craft and installations operating under co-ordination of an RCC. In
establishing a SAR service, States should use existing facilities to the fullest
extent possible. A successful S AR organization usually can be created
without having designated, full time SRUs.
Ship Reporting System. Vessels at sea, although not always available to
participate in extended s e a r c h operations, are potential SAR assets.
Masters of vessels have a duty to assist others whenever it can be done
without endangering the assisting vessel or crew. Various States have
implemented ship reporting systems. A ship reporting system enables the
SMC to quickly know the approximate positions, courses, and speeds of
vessels in the vicinity of a distress situation by means of a surface picture
(SURPIC), and other information about the vessels which may be valuable.
The Amver system. The only world-wide system operated exclusively
to support SAR, makes information available to all RCCs. Any United
States RCC can be contacted for this type of SAR information.
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System. After 31 January 1999,
ships subject to the SOLAS Convention should be outfitted with certain
communications equipment, collectively referred to as the shipboard portion
of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). Certain
fishing vessels and other marine craft also may be obligated to carry
GMDSS-compatible equipment, or may do so voluntarily. GMDSS is
intended to provide automatic alerting and locating with minimal delay, a
reliable network for SAR communications, integration of satellite and
terrestrial communications, and adequate frequencies in all maritime bands.
9.1.5. SAR Operations Stages
The success of a SAR mission often depends on the speed with which
the operation is planned and carried out. The prompt receipt of all available
information by the RCC is necessary for thorough evaluation of the
situation, immediate decision on the best course of action, and a timely
activation of SAR facilities. While no two SAR operations follow exactly the
same pattern, SAR incidents do generally pass through defined stages,
which can be used to help organize response activities. These stages are
discussed in general terms below and expanded discussion is found in the
remaining chapters of this Volume. These stages should be interpreted wi th
flexi bi li ty, as many of the actions described may be performed
simultaneously or in a different order to suit specific circumstances.
Awareness Stage: A period during which the SAR system becomes
aware of an actual or potential incident. The SAR organization cannot
respond to an incident until it becomes aware that people or craft need
assistance. Therefore, the general public should be encouraged to report
any abnormal occurrence which they have heard about or witnessed. SAR
authorities must ensure that notification that an aircraft has crashed, or that
an aircraft, ship or other craft is overdue or in a state of emergency, can
reach an RCC from any source, either directly or via an alerting post. A
coast radio station (CRS) usually receives the first information that a ship or
other craft on the water is in distress. A CRS is required by international
regulations to relay this information to SAR authorities. As a result, an
RCC will often receive first notification that a ship or other craft is in
distress from a CRS with which it is associated, or via its own
communications facilities. The RCC must keep a complete r ecor d of
information it receives. Pre-printed forms often are used to ensure that full
information about the SAR incident is obtained and remains available for
review.
Initial Action: Initial Action stage is a period during which preliminary
action is taken to alert SAR facilities and obtain amplifying information.
Once an RCC receives an initial report about persons or craft in distress,
some immediate action often is appropriate pending receipt and evaluation
of more complete information. RCCs usually have in their plans of operation
a checklist of steps to accomplish for each type of incident with which the
RCC expects that it may become involved. After evaluating all available
information and taking into account the degree of emergency, the SMC
should declare the appropriate emergency phase and immediately
inform all appropriate centers, personnel and facilities. Three emergency
phases have been established for classifying incidents and to help in
determining the actions to be taken for each incident. These are:
uncertainty phase; alert phase; and distress phase.
Planning Stage: Planning Stage is a period during a SAR incident
when an effective plan of operations is developed. Comprehensive planning
of SAR response tasks is essential, especially when the location of the
distress situation is unknown and the survivors move due to wind and
water currents. Proper and accurate planning is critical to SAR mission
success; if the wrong area is searched, there is no hope that search
personnel will find the survivors, regardless of the quality of their search
techniques or the amount of their search effort. This requires proper
training of the SMC and other RCC watchstanders. Computers can
eliminate much of the detailed work in search planning, and can improve
accuracy.
Operations Stage: The SAR operations stage encompasses all
activities that involve searching for the distressed persons or craft, providing
assistance, and removing them to a safe place. In this stage, the SMC
assumes a monitoring and guidance role, ensuring that the search plan is
received, understood, and followed by SAR facilities. The RCC staff
usually will spend most of this stage planning subsequent searches, based
on updated information and the assumption that the present search will be
unsuccessful.
Conclusion Stage: Concl usi on St age i s a period during a SAR
incident when SAR facilities return to their regular location and prepare
for another mission. SAR operations enter the conclusion stage when:
- information is received that the aircraft, ship or persons who are
the subject of the SAR incident are not in distress;
- the aircraft, ship or persons for whom SAR facilities are searching
have been located and the survivors rescued; or
- during the distress phase, the SMC determines that further search
 would be to no avail because the area has been adequately
searched and all probability areas have been investigated or
because there is no longer any reasonable probability of survival
of the persons on board.
9. 2. Vocabulary and phrases
Search: An operation, normally co-coordinated by a rescue co-ordination
centre or rescue sub-centre, using available personnel and facilities to locate
persons in distress.
Rescue: An operation to retrieve persons in distress, provide for their initial
medical or other needs, and deliver them to a place of safety.
SMC: The official temporarily assigned to coordinate r e s p o n s e to an
actual or apparent distress situation.
On-scene coordinator: A person designated to co-ordinate search and rescue
operations within a specified area.
Emergency Phase: A generic term meaning, as the case may be, uncertainty
phase, alert phase, or distress phase.
Distress Phase: A situation wherein there is reasonable certainty that a vessel
or other craft, including an aircraft or a person, is threatened by grave and
imminent danger and requires immediate assistance.
Alert Phase: A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an
aircraft or marine vessel, and of the persons on board.
Uncertainty Phase: A situation wherein doubt exists as to the safety of an
aircraft or a marine vessel, and of the persons on board.
9.3. Exercises
a) Explain the chain of command in SAR system
b) Describe the differences between Uncertainty Phase and Distress Phase?
c) Who has authority to designate On-Scene Coordinator?
d) What criteria does the SMC need to consider before designating OSC?
 Unit 10 (6 t)
INITIAL RESPONSE AND SEARCH PLANNING

10. 1. Initial Response and Search Planning

Effective, efficient prosecution of a SAR incident requires well thought
out procedures. Not every incident will develop into a full SAR case, but
every case has the potential to greatly expand. This guidance provides
processes necessary for a rapid and thorough reaction upon receiving
notification of a potential or actual distress.
10.1.1. Initial Response
Upon receiving a SAR incident, the initial response datum shall be
quickly established. In the interest of saving time and effort when doing drift
computations manually, the datum for the initial response may be determined
by calculating drift using the object's last known position and the effects of
water current and wind without considering leeway divergence (Figure 11-1).
Time of datum must take the underway and transit times for the search and
rescue unit (SRU) into consideration.

Figure 11-1 Vessel Adrift (Quick Calculation for Initial Response)

The purpose of drawing a radius around the datum is to describe the
geographical area most likely to contain the search object. The formula uses
the Total Probable Error (E), which includes the Initial Position Error (X) of
the distressed craft and the Navigation Error of the SRU (Y), but does not
include Drift Error (De). For coastal SAR cases when an SRU arrives on
scene and the search object is not seen, a 5 nm position error for the distressed
craft and a 1 nm navigation error for the SRU may be assumed. Using the
formula, when X = 5 and Y = 1 then:
E=
E= 5.009 NM
 Applying the safety factor for the first search fs =1.1, then
R = E x fs or R = 5.6NM
This is round up to 6 NM
If the initial response SRU reports arriving on scene without finding the
search object, the SMC shall develop a more comprehensive search plan and
shall notify appropriate additional resources that they may be needed and may
deploy some of them immediately if conditions warrant. Examples of issues
to consider include, but are not limited to, the survival prospects of the
distressed person(s), remaining daylight hours, remaining endurance of the
initial response SRU, etc.
10.1.2. Search Planning
Search planning consists of determining where to deploy the available
search facilities, developing an attainable search plan, selecting search
patterns, planning on scene coordination, developing a Search Action Plan
(SAP) containing specific SRU assignments and all necessary coordination
details, transmitting the complete SAP to the OSC and all participating search
facilities, and reviewing the search results. Many factors influence the
movements of the search object and the range of its possible locations as of
the time when search facilities can be on scene. The SMC judges the impact
of these factors to determine the region to search and methods to use,
evaluates the number and capabilities of available search facilities, and tries
to increase the probability of success (POS) as quickly as practicable with
those search facilities.
Search planning involves the following steps:
(a) Evaluate the situation, including any previous search results;
(b) Estimate the possible distress incident positions
(c) Estimate the survivors’ post-distress movements to produce an
estimate of their possible locations and associated probability densities at
the time when search facilities can be on scene;
(d) Determine the best way to deploy the available search facilities so
the chances of finding the survivors are maximized;
(e) Define search sub-areas and search patterns for assignment to
specific search facilities;
 (f) Provide a comprehensive search action plan to the OSC, all search
facilities, and other appropriate parties that includes a current summary
of the situation, detailed search object description(s), specific search
assignments for the search facilities, on scene coordination instructions,
and search facility reporting requirements.
Since objects in the marine environment tend to drift under the influence
of wind and current, it is necessary to estimate the search object’s location
when planning a search, which is done by updating the datum position(s) to
account for drift. The size of the search area depends on the size of the total
probable error of position (E) and on the amount of searching effort that is
available. The size of the total probable error of position depends on the
probable error of the initial distress position (X), the probable error due to
uncertainty in the drift estimate (De), and the probable error of the search
craft’s position while searching (Y). The uncertainty of the drift estimate
depends, in turn, on the uncertainties associated with the environmental
factors affecting drift (wind and current) and the limitations in our knowledge
of how drifting objects respond to these environmental factors.
The total probable error of position (E) is calculated from the formula:
E=
Initial Position Error (X) of the distressed craft and Search Craft Position
Error (Y) are the estimated errors of position based on navigational accuracy
of the distressed craft and of the search assets.
If the information on the means of navigation to be used by the
distressed craft or by a search facility is available, the navigational fix errors
listed in table 11.1 may be used for positions reported as navigational fixes.
Table 11.1 Navigational fix errors

Means of navigation Fix errors (Nautical mile)

GPS 0.1
Radar 1
Visual fix ( 3 lines) 1
Celestial fix ( 3lines) 2
Marine Radio Beacon (3 beacon fix) 4
LORAN C 1
 When the initially reported position is based on dead reckoning (DR), an
additional error is assumed for the distance traveled since the last fix. The
initial position error is the sum of the fix error and DR error (DRe). Table
11.2 gives DRe, which may be assumed for various types of craft.
Table 11.2 Dead Reckoning Errors
Type of Craft DRe (% of the DR distance)
Ship 5
Submarine 5
Aircraft (more than 2 engines) 5
Aircraft (twin-engine) 10
Aircraft (single-engine) 15
Submersible 15
Boat 15
Calculating the Survival Craft Drift Error (De)
Over land, the Datum is the last known position; however when
survivors are known or thought to be in or on the water an allowance must be
made for movement of the water resulting from the effects of wind and
current. The degree of displacement of the Datum from the last known
position assumes increasing importance with the passing of time, and must be
allowed for in search planning. Survival Craft Drift, as the displacement is
called, is a function of:
a. The average sea current;
b. The average wind current; and
c. Leeway.
To determine a value for Survival Craft Drift Error (De) it is necessary to
complete a Datum Plot. To construct the plot, draw the sea current vector
from the last known position, add the wind current vector, and then from the
end of the wind current vector draw the two leeway vectors. Although not
quite correct mathematically, the mid point between the ends of the leeway
vectors may be taken as the Datum.
Drift Error (De) is the radius of a circle of probability around the Datum.
The circle is externally tangential to two circles of probability drawn around
the end of each leeway vector, the radius of each circle being equal to 12.5%
of the distance from Last Known Position (LKP) to the end of the appropriate
leeway vector.
LKP

Distance right
Sea Current

Distance left

Leeway right Wind Current

Dr

Leeway left

Datum

Dl

Figure 11.2 Plotting Datum

The value of De therefore, is the sum of the radii of the two leeway
probability circles and the distance between the ends of the leeway vector, LR
divided by two
De = [de(R) + de(R) + distance LR]/2
Determining Search Area
The search area is determined by two steps:
a. Plotting a circle with radius R = De x f (for the first search, f = 1.1).
b. Plotting a square circumscribes that circle (Figure 11.2).
Once a search area has been established, a search plan that maximizes
the chances for finding the survivors can be developed.
10.2. Vocabulary and phrases
SAR facility. Any mobile resource, including designated search and rescue
units, used to conduct search and rescue operations.
Track spacing. The distance between adjacent parallel search tracks.
Sweep width. A measure of the effectiveness with which a particular sensor
can detect a particular object under specific environmental conditions.
Coverage factor. the ratio of sweep width (W) to track spacing (S). C =
W/S.
Datum point (D). A point, such as a reported or estimated position, at the
centre of the area where it is estimated that the search object is most likely to
be located.
Dead reckoning (DR). Determination of position of a craft by adding to the
last fix the craft’s course and speed for a given time.
Drift. The movement of a search object caused by environmental forces.
Initial position error. The estimated probable error of the initial position(s) at
the beginning of a drift interval.
Last known position. Last witnessed, reported, or computed DR position of a
distressed craft.
Leeway (LW). The movement of a search object through water caused by
winds blowing against exposed surfaces.
Leeway divergence. The average angle between an object’s direction of
leeway and the downwind direction. Leeway may diverge to either the right
or the left of the downwind direction.
On-scene endurance. The amount of time a facility may spend at the scene
engaged in search and rescue activities.
Sea current. The residual current when currents caused by tides and
local winds are subtracted from local current. It is the main, large-scale flow
of ocean waters.
Tidal current. Near-shore currents caused by the rise and fall of the tides.
Wind current. The water current generated by wind acting upon the surface of
water over a period of time.
Total water current. The vector sum of currents affecting search objects.
Search pattern. A track line or procedure assigned to an SRU for searching a
specified area.
10.3. Exercises
a) Describe steps to plot Total Water Current on the chart
b) Describe how to plot the Datum left, Datum Right and Search Area?
c) How to establish initial response datum quickly?
 Unit 11 (12 t)
MERCATOR PROJECTION AND NAUTICAL CHARTS

11.1. Introduction to Mercator Projection and Nautical Chart

The Nautical Chart is a graphical representation of a navigable portion of
the Earth’s surface on a plane surface. Nautical Charts generally show the
depth of water available, the shore line of any adjacent land, any
topographical features that may serve as landmarks, aids to navigation, and
any dangers to the mariner and other information of interest.
A chart used for navigation purpose should have four basic properties
which can be represented accurately: Area, Direction, Shape, and Scale.
A fundamental problem faced by all mapmakers is how to depict the
three-dimensional curved surface of Earth on the two-dimensional flat surface
of a paper chart. To deal with this problem, mapmakers use mathematical
constructions known as “projection systems” to approximate Earth’s curved
surface in two dimensions. One of the most familiar projection systems is the
Mercator projection, which is often explained as projection of Earth’s surface
features onto a cylinder wrapped so that the long axis of the cylinder is
parallel to Earth’s polar axis and the inner surface of the cylinder touches
Earth’s equator. This projection is the best projection available to retain
shape, bearing and scale.
In a Mercator projection, meridians of longitude are parallel. Lines of
latitude, while still parallel, are no longer equidistant but wider apart further
north. This causes distortion in the shape and size of land and ocean masses as
these features are enlarged closer to the poles.
The advantage of a Mercator chart is that meridians and parallels cross
each other at right angles to form a rectangular grid. This means a straight-
line course through the water can be plotted as a straight line on the chart —
something that's not possible on other projections.
On a Mercator chart, the latitude scale on the sides of the chart serves as
the distance scale. It's worth remembering that only the vertical, latitude scale
on a Mercator chart can be used to measure distance, not the horizontal
longitude scale. This is because each minute of latitude equals one nautical
mile, while the distance between minutes of longitude decreases between the
equator and the poles.
 Figure11.1. Mercator Projection
11.1.1. Latitude and Longitude
To obtain a position from a chart you need to know the Latitude and
Longitude of that position.
Latitude is an angular distance measured in Degrees, Minutes and
Seconds, or decimals of a Minute, from the centre of the Earth, North or
South of the Equator. Longitude is measured from the Prime Meridian, which
runs through Greenwich, England, eastward and westward through to 180 0.
This angular distance is measured in Degrees, Minutes and Seconds, or
decimals of a Minute.

Figure 11.2: Geographic position

11.1.2. Chart Classification by Scale
Charts are constructed on many different scales. Small-scale charts
covering large areas are used for route planning and for offshore navigation.
Charts of larger scale, covering smaller areas, are used as the vessel
approaches land. Several methods of classifying charts according to scale are
used in various nations.
Sailing charts are the smallest scale charts used for planning, fixing
position at sea, and for plotting the dead reckoning while proceeding on a
long voyage. The scale is generally smaller than 1:600,000. The shoreline and
topography are generalized and only offshore soundings, the principal
navigational lights, buoys, and landmarks visible at considerable distances are
shown.
General charts are intended for navigation outside of outlying reefs and
shoals. The scales range from about 1:150,000 to 1:600,000.
Coastal charts are intended for inshore navigation, for entering or leaving
bays and harbors of considerable width, and for navigating large inland
waterways. The scales range from about 1:50,000 to 1:150,000.
Harbor charts are intended for navigation and anchorage in harbors and
small waterways. The scale is generally larger than 1:50,000.
11.1.3. Coordinates for the Mercator Chart
The format for the Mercator projection is rectangular. Latitude and
longitude are the coordinates used for the Mercator projection. The parallels
of latitude usually appear as horizontal, straight lines, with the projections
oriented such that north is at the top of the chart and south at the bottom, east
at the right margin, and west at the left. The meridians appear as straight,
parallel lines running from the bottom of the chart to its top. The scale for the
meridians (longitude scale) is indicated on the top and bottom margins of the
chart. The scale for the parallels (latitude scale) is provided on the right- and
left-hand margins, and is also used for distance measurement. Compass roses,
indicating true and magnetic directions, are placed at convenient locations on
the chart.
11.1.4. Features of a Mercator Chart
The characteristic features of a Mercator Chart are:
- All meridians are projected as equidistantly spaced parallel straight
lines.
 - All parallels of latitude are projected as parallel straight lines
perpendicular to the projected meridians.
- All rhumb lines are projected as straight lines
- All arcs of great circles, with the exceptions of arcs of the equator or
any meridian, are projected as curves which are concave to the
projected equator.
- Angles, such as course and bearing angles are easily and accurately
determined.
Because meridians are projected as parallel straight lines where as on the
globe they converge toward the poles, it follows that the exaggeration of arcs
of parallels of latitude increases polewards. As a result, the distance between
successive parallels of latitude must also increase polewards in the same ratio.
Although the Mercator Chart satisfies the principal needs of the
navigator, it does have defects. The principal defects of the Mercator Chart
are:
- Every latitude has a different scale of distance
- Great circle arcs, except those of equator or meridians are projected
as curves. This makes for difficulty in the practice of great circle
sailing.
11.1.5. Establishing a position using the Mercator chart
Since the Mercator projection results in a rectangular presentation, a
rectangular coordinate system using latitude and longitude makes establishing
a specific position on the globe an easy process on the chart:

Figure 11.3: Latitude and longitude scales

 Using the latitude scale at the right or left margins simply take the
latitude value and draw a light pencil line from this point across the chart
parallel to the top, bottom, and other parallels on the chart. Every point on this
line has that same latitude. To specify the position uniquely, now use the
longitude scale at the top or the bottom of the chart to locate the desired
longitude value and draw another light pencil line up or down, parallel to the
meridians and the sides of the chart. All points on this line are at the same
longitude. Where the two light pencil lines intersect, the position is uniquely
specified.
11.1.6. Use of parallel rulers and dividers to plot a position on the Mercator Chart
Parallel rulers and the dividers help to minimize unnecessary marks on
the chart while plotting a position. A common task in navigation is to plot a
position on the chart. For example, a navigator may read the vessel’s present
position in latitude and longitude from a Global Positioning System (GPS)
and wish to plot this position on the chart. The technique is simple and is
illustrated in Figure 11.4:

Figure 11.4: Using parallel rulers and dividers

 Place the parallel rulers, which are two straight edges constrained to
remain parallel as they are “walked” with one edge along a parallel of latitude
shown on the chart. Holding the base ruler along the parallel, swing the other
ruler to the desired latitude value on the left or right scale, a light pencil line is
drawn only in the vicinity of the approximate longitude, which is “eyeballed”
or estimated from the longitude scale at the top or bottom of the chart.
After the latitude line has been drawn, take the dividers and set their
points so that one point falls on the nearest meridian of longitude and the
other at the value of longitude desired. Now, bring the dividers, carefully so
as not to disturb the setting, down along the meridian until the desired latitude
line (parallel) is encountered. If the line crosses the meridian, simply measure
along the latitude line with the dividers from the meridian. Where the other
point of the dividers falls is the desired longitude. The two coordinates now
specify the vessel’s position, uniquely. If the latitude line does not cross the
meridian, simply swing the parallel rulers (keeping the base ruler along the
parallel) so that the other ruler falls along the desired parallel and crosses the
meridian, as well. Then, as above, measure the increment of longitude from
the meridian along the parallel ruler to the position. The process can also be
used with the meridian first, and the dividers set off of the parallel and the
latitude scale.
11.1.7. Reading a position from the Mercator chart
It is often of interest to reverse the above process, i.e., to find the latitude
and longitude of some object on the chart. Taking (reading) such a position
from the Mercator chart is a very simple process, similar to plotting one:
- At the desired position, walk the parallel rulers from a parallel of
latitude. Measure the latitude increment along a nearby meridian with
the dividers.
- Taking the dividers over to the latitude scale at the right or left
margin of the chart, determine the value of latitude by measuring the
length set on the dividers from the parallel up or down along the
scale.
- Now, take the dividers and measure along the parallel rulers from the
position to the nearest meridian. Take the set dividers to the top or the
bottom of the chart and measure from the meridian along the
longitude scale to determine the value of the longitude increment.
Read the longitude directly under the point of the dividers.
11.1.8. Measuring direction on the Mercator projection
A nautical chart developed on the Mercator projection usually has
several compass roses (true and magnetic) placed at convenient locations on
the chart. Directions are measured from these roses using the parallel rulers,
or other suitable method. The process is very simple:
- Align the parallel rulers along the course or bearing line to be
measured.
- Holding the base ruler along the line, walk the rulers, keeping them
parallel to the line, to the center of the rose, which is indicated by a
small cross.
- With the ruler through the center cross, simply read the direction off
of the true (or magnetic) rose in the desired direction. The reciprocal
(180°) is read in the opposite direction.

Figure 11.5: Compass Rose

11.1.9. Measuring distance on the Mercator chart
The latitude scale, shown on either side of the Mercator chart, is used for
distance measurement. Since one degree of latitude is equal in distance on the
earth’s surface to 60 nautical miles, and one minute of latitude is, therefore,
equal to one nautical mile, the degrees and minutes and tenths of minutes or
seconds markers indicating the latitude along the meridians on the sides of the
chart provide excellent scales to measure distance on the Mercator chart.
Remember, however, that Mercator’s projection expands the scale as latitude
increases. So, it may be important where on the scale the distance is
measured. Distance is measured using a set of dividers. If the length of the
course is shorter than the maximum extension of the dividers, the dividers are
extended to the length of the course. The dividers are then moved (without
changing their setting) so that they are aligned with one of the meridians at
the right or left edge of the chart, and the length read out in minutes and
tenths of minutes or minutes and seconds. Distance is determined by
remembering that one minute is equal to one nautical mile. A distance of 10.7
minutes, for example, translates to 10.7 nautical miles. If the length of the
course is longer than the maximum extension of the dividers, it is measured
by setting the dividers to a convenient distance on the meridian and walked
along the course in a series of “steps,” mentally counting in multiples of the
convenient distance. The final “step” will be shorter, and the dividers are reset
to this length and the increment read on the meridian.
11.2 Vocabulary and phrases
Chart. A chart is a map used by navigators.
Scale. The scale of a chart is the ratio, express as a fraction, between a unit of
length on the chart and the number of such units of the Earth’s surface which
it represents. If say, 1cm on a chart represents 1km on the Earth, the scale of
the chart is 1/100.000. A small scale chart is one on which a relatively long
distance of the Earth’s surface is represented by a relatively short distance on
the chart. A large scale chart, on the other hand, is one on which a relative
short distance of the Earth is represented by a relative long distance on the
chart.
Rhumb lines. A line on the earth’s surface which cut every meridian at the
same constant angle.
Great circle. A circle drawn on the surface of a sphere, whose plan passes
through the centre of the sphere. It is the largest circle that can be drawn on a
sphere, and given any two points on the sphere, there is only one great circle
that can be drawn through those points.
The Equator. A great circle on the earth’s surface, the plan of which is at right
angles to the axis of rotation of the earth. Every point on the equator is at an
angular distance of 900 from each pole.
Dividers. Dividers are similar to drawing compass except that both legs are
pointed.
Parallel rulers. A plotter consists of two plastic or wood straight-edges linked
and held parallel by metal hinges. After the original alignment is made, the
rulers are walked across the chart by spreading and bringing together the
straight edges, one edge is always kept immobile while the other edge is
move.
11.3 Exercises
a) What are the main requirements of a navigational chart?
b) Describe the features of a Mercator chart? State the advantages and
disadvantages of a Mercator chart to navigators.
c) Distinguish between a small scale chart and a large scale chart.
d) Distinguish between sailing chart and coastal chart.
e) Explain how distances are measured on a Mercator chart.
f) Describe how to measure distance on the Mercator chart.
g) Describe how to measure direction on the Mercator chart.
 Unit 12 (6 t)
TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

12.1. Introduction to Tides and Tidal Current

Tides are the periodic motion of the waters of the sea due to changes in
the attractive forces of the Moon and Sun upon the rotating Earth. Tides can
either help or hinder a mariner. A high tide may provide enough depth to clear
a bar, while a low tide may prevent entering or leaving a harbor. Tidal current
may set the ship toward dangers or away from them. By understanding tides
and making intelligent use of predictions published in tide and tidal current
tables and descriptions in sailing directions, the navigator can plan an
expeditious and safe passage through tidal waters.
12.1.1. Tide and Current
The rise and fall of tide is accompanied by horizontal movement of the
water called tidal current. It is necessary to distinguish clearly between tide
and tidal current. For the sake of clarity mariners have adopted the following
definitions: Tide is the vertical rise and fall of the water and tidal current is
the horizontal flow of the water. The tide rises and falls, the tidal current
floods and ebbs. The navigator is concerned with the amount and time of the
tide, as it affects access to shallow ports. The navigator is also concerned with
the time, speed, and direction of the tidal current, as it will affect his ship’s
position, speed, and course.
12.1.2. Causes of Tides
The principal tidal forces are generated by the Moon and Sun. The Moon
is the main tide-generating body. Due to its greater distance, the Sun’s effect
is only 46 percent of the Moon’s. Observed tides will differ considerably from
the tides predicted by equilibrium theory and other factors are neglected in
this theory. Nevertheless, equilibrium theory is sufficient to describe the
magnitude and distribution of the main tide-generating forces across the
surface of the Earth.
Newton’s universal law of gravitation governs both the orbits of celestial
bodies and the tide-generating forces which occur on them. The force of
gravitational attraction between any two masses, M1 and M2, is given by:
FM =
where d is the distance between the two masses, and G is a constant
which depends upon the units employed. This law assumes that M1 and M2
are point masses. Newton was able to show that homogeneous spheres could
be treated as point masses when determining their orbits. However, when
computing differential gravitational forces, the actual dimensions of the
masses must be taken into account.

Figure 12.1. Earth-Moon Barycenter.

Figure 12.2. Orbit of Earth-Moon Barycenter

Using the law of gravitation, it is found that the orbits of two point
masses are conic sections about the barycenter of the two masses. If either one
or both of the masses are homogeneous spheres instead of point masses, the
orbits are the same as the orbits which would result if all of the mass of the
sphere were concentrated at a point at the center of the sphere. In the case of
the Earth-Moon system, both the Earth and the Moon describe elliptical orbits
about their barycenter if both bodies are assumed to be homogeneous spheres
and the gravitational forces of the Sun and other planets are neglected. The
Earth-Moon barycenter is located 74/100 of the distance from the center of
the Earth to its surface, along the line connecting the Earth’s and Moon’s
centers. See Figure 12.1.
Thus the center of mass of the Earth describes a very small ellipse about
the Earth-Moon barycenter, while the center of mass of the Moon describes a
much larger ellipse about the same barycenter. Newton’s law of gravitation
also predicts that the Earth-Moon barycenter will describe an orbit which is
approximately elliptical about the barycenter of the Sun-Earth-Moon system.
This barycentric point lies inside the Sun. See Figure 12.2.
12.1.3. The tide raising force
The tide-raising forces at the earth's surface thus result from a
combination of basic forces: (1) the force of gravitation exerted by the moon
(and sun) upon the earth; and (2) centrifugal forces produced by the
revolutions of the earth and moon (and earth and sun) around their common
center-of-gravity or barycenter. The effects of those forces acting in the earth-
moon system will here be discussed, with the recognition that a similar force
complex exists in the earth-sun system.
With respect to the center of mass of the earth or the center of mass of
the moon, the above two forces always remain in balance (i.e., equal and
opposite). However, at local points on, above, or within the earth, these two
forces are not in equilibrium, and oceanic, atmospheric, and earth tides are the
result.
As the earth and moon go around this common center of revolution, the
centrifugal force produced at any point in or on the earth will always be
directed away from the moon. The magnitude of the centrifugal force
produced by the revolution of the earth and moon around their common center
of mass is the same at any point on or beneath the earth's surface. Any of
these values is also equal to the centrifugal force produced at the center-of-
mass of the earth.
While the effect of this centrifugal force is constant for all positions on
the earth (say F1), the effect of the gravitational force produced by the Moon
will be different at different positions on the earth because the magnitude of
the gravitational force varies with the distance of the attracting body.
Assume that the Earth is completely covered with water and that there
is no friction between the Earth and the sea. Referring to the figure 12.3, at a
point on the equator directly under the Moon, the distance to the Moon is less
than that to the centre of gravity so that, the gravitational force acting on a
unit mass of water there will be greater. Equally at a point on the equator on
the far side from the Moon the gravitational force is less.
The combination of the gravitational force and the centrifugal force, say
Fmt, will produce two measurable ‘bulges’ in the sea directly underneath the
Moon and at the point furthest away from the Moon. This is the basic
principle of the tide raising force.
 A

r
MOON
O
Z N
d

B
Figure 12.3. Tidal generating forces
Now consider the effect of the rotation of the Earth. If the declination of
the Moon is 0, the bulges will lie on the equator. As the Earth rotates, an
observer at the equator will note that the Moon transits approximately every
24 hours and 50 minutes. Since there are two bulges of water on the equator,
one at the sub-lunar point and the other at the antipode, the observer will also
see two high tides during this interval with one high tide occurring when the
Moon is overhead and another high tide 12 hours 25 minutes later when the
observer is at the antipode. He will also experience a low tide between each
high tide.
12.1.4. Features of Tides
At most places the tidal change occurs twice daily. The tide rises until it
reaches a maximum height, called high tide or high water, and then falls to a
minimum level called low tide or low water. The rate of rise and fall is not
uniform. From low water, the tide begins to rise slowly at first, but at an
increasing rate until it is about halfway to high water. The rate of rise then
decreases until high water is reached, and the rise ceases. The falling tide
behaves in a similar manner. The difference in height between consecutive
high and low waters is the range.
 Figure 12.4. The rise and fall of tide
Figure 12.4 is a graphical representation of the rise and fall of the tide at
New York during a 24-hour period. The curve has the general form of a
variable sine curve.
12.1.5. Types of Tide
Tides are classified as one of three types, semidiurnal, diurnal, or mixed,
according to the characteristics of the tidal pattern.
In the semidiurnal tide, there are two high and two low waters each tidal
day, with relatively small differences in the respective highs and lows.
In the diurnal tide, only a single high and single low water occur each
tidal day.
In the mixed tide, the diurnal and semidiurnal oscillations are both
important factors and the tide is characterized by a large inequality in the high
water heights, low water heights, or in both. There are usually two high and
two low waters each day, but occasionally the tide may become diurnal.

Figure 12.5a. Semidiurnal type of tide. Figure 12.5b. Diurnal tide.

 Figure 12.6. Mixed tide.
12.1.6. Variations in Range
The combined lunar-solar effect is obtained by adding the Moon’s
tractive forces to the Sun’s tractive forces. The resultant tidal bulge will be
predominantly lunar with modifying solar effects upon both the height of the
tide and the direction of the tidal bulge. Special cases of interest occur during
the times of new and full Moon. With the Earth, Moon, and Sun lying
approximately on the same line, the tractive forces of the Sun are acting in the
same direction as the Moon’s tractive forces (modified by declination effects).
The resultant tides are called spring tides, whose ranges are greater than
average.
Between the spring tides, the Moon is at first and third quarters. At those
times, the tractive forces of the Sun are acting at approximately right angles to
the Moon’s tractive forces. The results are tides called neap tides, whose
ranges are less than average.

Figure 12.7. Spring tides and neap tides

12.1.7. Tidal datums
a. Low Water Datums
A tidal datum is a given average tide level from which heights of tides
and overhead clearances are measured. It is a vertical datum, but is not the
same as vertical geodetic datum, which is a mathematical quantity developed
as part of a geodetic system used for horizontal positioning. There are a
number of tidal levels of reference that are important to the mariner.
The most important level of reference is the sounding datum shown on
charts. The sounding datum is sometimes referred to as the reference plane to
distinguish it from vertical geodetic datum. Since the tide rises and falls
continually while soundings are being taken during a hydrographic survey,
the tide is recorded during the survey so that soundings taken at all stages of
the tide can be reduced to a common sounding datum. Soundings on charts
show depths below a selected low water datum (occasionally mean sea level),
and tide predictions in tide tables show heights above and below the same
level. The depth of water available at any time is obtained by adding
algebraically the height of the tide at the time in question to the charted depth.
By international agreement, the level used as chart datum should be low
enough so that low waters do not fall very far below it. At most places, the
level used is the one determined from a mean of a number of low waters
(usually over a 19 year period); therefore, some low waters can be expected to
fall below it. The following are some of the datums in general use.
Mean low water (MLW) is the average height of all low waters at a
given place. About half of the low waters fall below it, and half above.
Mean low water springs (MLWS), usually shortened to low water
springs, is the average level of the low waters that occur at the times of spring
tides.
Mean lower low water (MLLW) is the average height of the lower low
waters of each tidal day.
Some sounding datums are based on the predicted tide rather than an
average of observations. A British sounding datum that may be adopted
internationally is the Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT). LAT is the elevation
of the lowest water level predicted in a 19-year period. Canadian coastal
charts use a datum of Lower Low Water, which is the average of the lowest
low waters, one from each of the 19 years of predictions.
 Inconsistencies of terminology are found among charts of different
countries and between charts issued at different times.
b. High Water Datums
Heights of terrestrial features are usually referred on nautical charts to a
high water datum. The one widely used in the world is mean high water
(MHW), which is the average height of all high waters over a 19 year period.
Other high water datums are mean high water springs (MHWS), which is the
average level of the high waters that occur at the time of spring tides; mean
higher high water (MHHW), which is the average height of the higher high
waters of each tidal day.

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Figure 12.8. Tidal datums

12. 2. Vocabulary and phrases
Datum: When conducting a survey, the surveyor needs to measure heights
and depths above or below certain fixed levels, which are referred to as
datums.
Sounding Datum (SD): This is the datum plane to which soundings are
reduced in the course of a hydrographic survey and is therefore the datum
used when compiling the Fair Chart or Final Tracing. Ideally Sounding
Datum should be the same as Chart Datum, but may well differ particularly
when the original survey is very old.
Chart Datum (CD): This is the datum plane that is adopted by the national
authority for its published chart and tidal predictions.
Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT): LAT is the lowest level that can be
predicted to occur under average meteorological conditions and under any
combination of astronomical conditions. There is no simple formula or rule
available to calculate LAT from observations or tidal constituents. It can only
be obtained properly by studying tidal predictions covering several years
(18.6 years ideally), as the level of LAT will not be reached every year.
Barycenter: The center of mass of two or more bodies, usually bodies orbiting
around each other, such as the Earth and the Moon.
Equilibrium tide: The motions of Sun and Moon can be used as a basis to
identify the mathematical components of the tide-raising force. The tide
generated by this theoretical tide raising force is called the equilibrium tide.
Bulges: something that bulges out or projects from its surroundings
Mean Sea Level (MSL): MSL is the natural reference level of the geoid, and
is defined as the average level taken up by the sea over a long period (18.6
years if possible). In practice it is obtained from the mean of all tide readings.
Mean Tide Level (MTL): Mean Tide Level is defined as the mean of all HWs
and LWs over a period of time. It is not possible to convert simply from MSL
to MTL (or vice versa ) at any point. MTL and MSL will only coincide when
the tidal curve is a perfect sine curve.
Benchmark. A permanent, stable object containing a marked point of known
elevation with respect to a datum used as a reference level for tidal
observations or as a control point for levelling.
Declination. In astronomy, the angle at the centre of the celestial sphere
between the radius passing through a celestial body and the plane of the
celestial equator. Declination is measured by the arc of the hour circle
between the celestial body and the celestial equator. It is plus when the body
is north of the equator, and minus when south of it.
12. 3. Exercises
a) What is the gravitational force?
b) What is the tide?
c) Which tidal datum is widely used in the world to determine charted
height?
d) In general, how many types of tide and what are their characteristics?
e) Describe the differences between spring tides and neap tides?
f) Between the Moon or the Sun, which one is the main tide-generating
body? Why?
 Unit 13 (14 t)
THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS)

13.1. Introduction to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
13.1.1. Background of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea
The law of the sea developed from the struggle between coastal states,
who sought to expand their control over marine areas adjacent to their
coastlines. By the end of the 18th century, it was understood that states had
sovereignty over their territorial sea. The maximum breadth of the territorial
sea was generally considered to be three miles - the distance that shore-based
cannon could reach and that a coastal state could therefore control.
After the Second World War, the international community requested
that the United Nations International law Commission consider codifying the
existing laws relating to the oceans. The commission began working towards
this in 1949 and prepared four draft conventions, which were adopted at the
first UN Conference on the Law of the Sea:
On April 29, 1958, the First United Nations Conference on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS I) adopted the four conventions, which are commonly
known as the 1958 Geneva Conventions:
- The Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone;
- The Convention on the High Seas;
- The Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living
Resources of the High Seas; and
- The Convention on the Continental Shelf.
While considered to be a step forward, the conventions did not
establish a maximum breadth of the territorial sea.
The Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS II) from March 17 until April 26, 1960. UNCLOS II did not result
in any international agreements. The conference once again failed to fix a
uniform breadth for the territorial or establish consensus on sovereign fishing
rights.
The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS
III) held its first session in 1973, and worked for several months each year
until it finally adopted a convention in 1982. The conference was divided into
three main committees. Committee One dealt with the problem of the legal
regime of the deep sea bed. Committee Two dealt with the regimes of the
territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the continental shelf, the exclusive
economic zone, the high seas, as well as with specific aspects of these topics,
such as the questions of straits and archipelagic states. Committee Three dealt
with the questions of the preservation of the marine environment and
scientific research. Over 160 nations participated in the 9-year convention,
which finally came into force on November 16, 1994, 21 years after the first
meeting of UNCLOS III and one year after ratification by the sixtieth state.
The first sixty ratifications were almost all developing states. With 320
articles and 9 annexes, the Convention covers many new areas of concern,
including in particular the protection and preservation of the environment and
the resources of the deep ocean floor.
A major feature of the convention included the definition of maritime
zones- the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone,
the continental shelf, the high sea, the international sea-bed area and
archipelagic waters. The convention also made provision for the passage of
ships, protection of the marine environment, freedom of scientific research,
and exploitation of resources.
13.1.2. Baselines
In determining the extent of a coastal state’s territorial sea and other
maritime zones, it is necessary first of all to establish from what points on the
coast the outer limits of such zones are to be measured. This is the function of
baselines. The baseline is the line from which the outer limits of the territorial
sea and other coastal state zones are measured. The waters on the landward
side of the baseline are known as internal waters. Thus the baseline also forms
the boundary between internal waters and the territorial sea.
Under the UNCLOS, there are two types of baselines, the normal
baseline and the straight baselines. Article five of the UNCLOS states that
“the normal baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea is the low
water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially
recognized by the coastal State.” Article 7 of the UNCLOS states that: “In
localities where the coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if there is a
fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity, the method of
straight baselines joining appropriate points may be employed in drawing the
baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.”
In practice, most States use straight baselines because the use of such
lines is likely to place their baseline father seawards than the method of
drawing normal baseline. The UNCLOS lay down a number of conditions
governing the way in which straight baselines may be drawn. Article 7 of the
UNCLOS states that: “The drawing of straight baselines must not depart to
any appreciable extent from the general direction of the coast, and the sea area
lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to
be subject to the regime of internal waters.”
If a river flows directly into the sea, the baseline shall be a straight line
across the mouth of the river between points on the low-water line of its
banks (Article 9). The determination of juridical bay closing lines is a
complex operation, with detailed and objective criteria provided by Article
10. UNCLOS provides for closing lines only in juridical bays where the
coasts belong to a single State. UNCLOS specifies some objective tests to
determine whether or not a well-marked indentation is a juridical bay by
comparing two areas:
a. the area (A1) of a semi-circle the diameter of which is equal to the
length of a line joining the bay’s natural entrance points. If there is
more than one mouth, then the diameter of the semi-circle is to equal
the sum of the lengths of the lines joining the entrance points of the
different mouths.
b. the area (A2) of the waters of the indentation enclosed by the lines
across the entrance points and the shore (low-water line) of the
indentation. The area of any islands within the indentation is to be
included as part of the water area.

a. Not a juridical bay b. A juridical bay

Figure 13.1: Juridical bay
It can be seen in Figure 13.1a) that the area A2 bounded by the bay
closing line and the low water line of the indentation is smaller than the area
within the semi-circle A1 and, hence, it does not qualify as a juridical bay. In
figure 13.1b the area A2 bounded by the bay closing line and the low water
line of the indentation is larger than the area of the semi-circle A1 and
therefore does qualify as a juridical bay.
Having determined that an indentation is a juridical bay, it then
becomes necessary to consider where the closing line(s) may be placed. The
critical parameter in this process is the length of the closing line between
entrance points, or the combined lengths if there are two or more closing
lines. For the purposes of this discussion, that length will be referred to as the
“closing length”. If the closing length does not exceed 24 nautical miles, then
the line or lines may be used to close the bay. If the closing length exceeds
24 nautical miles, it will be necessary to develop a new and shorter closing
line within the bay.
In case of low-tide elevation, the Convention states that where a low-
tide elevation is situated wholly or partly at a distance not exceeding the
breadth of the territorial sea from the mainland or an island, the low-water
line on that elevation may be used as the baseline for measuring the breadth
of the territorial sea. Where a low-tide elevation is wholly situated at a
distance exceeding the breadth of the territorial sea from the mainland or an
island, it has no territorial sea of its own. Figure 13.2 illustrates how low-tide
elevations can be use to generate the territorial sea.

Figure 13.2. Low-tide elevation

13.1.3. Maritime zones under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea
a. Internal waters
Internal waters are those waters which lie landward of the baseline
from which the territorial sea and other maritime zones are measured. Thus
internal waters of a maritime character mostly comprise bays, estuaries and
ports, and waters enclosed by straight baselines.
The coastal State enjoys full sovereignty over its internal waters. By
entering foreign ports and other internal waters, ships put themselves within
the territorial jurisdiction of the coastal State. Accordingly, that State is
entitled to enforce its laws against the ship and those on board, subject to the
normal rules concerning sovereign and diplomatic immunities, which arise
chiefly in the case of warships.
While a warship is lawfully within foreign internal waters, it is
sovereign immune from local jurisdiction and remains under the exclusive
jurisdiction of its flag State. No legal proceedings may be taken against the
warship and no official of the foreign State is permitted to board it against the
wishes of the Commanding Officer. The warship cannot be arrested, detained,
or searched and the only sanction thatmay be imposed on it for breach of the
coastal State’s laws is to require it to leave. However, the existence of this
immunity does not mean that the warship can disregard local law. By
accepting the hospitality of the port, the Commanding Officer and crew of a
warship agrees to observe the local regulations with regard to such matters as
rules of the road, navigation and anchorage, health and quarantine restrictions
and control of pollution. If a warship persists in committing offences against
the coastal State’s law it could be required to leave the coastal State’s internal
waters.
b. The territorial sea
Under the UNCLOS, every States has the right to establish the breadth
of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured
from the baselines determined in accordance with the convention. The
sovereignty of a coastal state extends, beyond its land territory and internal
waters to the territorial sea. This sovereignty extends to the airspace over the
territorial sea as well as its bed and subsoil.
According to the Convention, ships of all States, whether coastal or
landlocked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea. The
definition of passage is a relatively easy matter. It includes not only actual
passage through the territorial sea, but also stopping and anchoring in so far
as this is incidental to ordinary navigation or rendered necessary by force
majeure or distress. The Convention expressly extends the distress exception
to cases where one ship seeks to assist another ship, person or aircraft in
danger or distress. Otherwise, passage must be continuous and expeditious.
No right of innocent passage for aircraft through the territorial sea. All
submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the
surface and show their flags.
The territorial sea is subject to the sovereignty of the coastal State, and
the only right which foreign ships enjoy there is the right of innocent passage.
In consequence, if the foreign ship ceases to be innocent or steps outside the
scope of passage it may be excluded from the territorial sea. The coastal State
may take the necessary steps in its territorial sea to prevent passage which is
not innocent. Ships that have stepped outside the right of innocent passage are
subject to the full jurisdiction of the coastal State and may(subject to the usual
exception for warships and other vessels enjoying sovereign immunity) be
arrested by the coastal State for any violation of its laws.
c. The contiguous zone
The contiguous zone is a zone of sea contiguous to and seaward of the
territorial sea in which States have limited powers for the enforcement of
customs, fiscal, sanitary, and immigration laws and regulations. However,
action may be taken only in respect of offences committed within the territory
or territorial sea of a State, not in respect of anything done within the
contiguous zone itself. It can be understood from the convention that if a
vessel already in the territorial sea or internal waters has violated customs,
immigration, fiscal or sanitary laws of the coastal State and escaped into the
contiguous zone, then the coastal State enforcement authorities can arrest that
vessel in the contiguous zone and prosecute it or punish it.
Under the Convention, the contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24
nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea
is measured. All ships have complete freedom of navigation through the
contiguous zone provided their conduct does not infringe the customs, fiscal,
immigration and sanitary laws of the coastal State.
d. The exclusive Economic zone
The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a zone extending up to 200
nautical miles from the baseline, within which the coastal State enjoys
extensive rights in relation to natural resources and related jurisdiction rights,
and other states enjoy the freedom of navigation, overflight by aircraft, and
the laying of cables and pipelines. In the EEZ, coastal State has sovereign
rights for the purpose of exploiting, conserving and managing the living and
non living resources of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed
and its subsoil. Coastal States also have jurisdiction, as provided for in the
relevant provisions of the UNCLOS, in relation to the establishment of
artificial islands, installations and structures; marine scientific research; and
the protection and preservation of the marine environment. The coastal State
may, where necessary, establish reasonable safety zones around such artificial
islands, installations and structures in which it may take appropriate measures
to ensure the safety both of navigation and of the artificial islands,
installations and structures. Such zones shall be designed to ensure that they
are reasonably related to the nature and function of the artificial islands,
installations or structures, and shall not exceed a distance of 500 metres
around them. In the EEZ, measures that may be employed to enforce the laws
and regulations of the coastal State include boarding, inspection, arrest and
judicial proceedings.
e. The continental shelf
The continental shelf of a coastal State comprises the seabed and
subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea through
out the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the
continental margin, or to the distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines
from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measure where the outer edge
of the continental margin does not extend up to that distance. According to
the Convention, the coastal State shall establish the outer limit of the
continental shelf where the continental margin extends beyond 200 nautical
miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured.
To determine the extended continental shelf, the coastal State shall
refer to Article 76 of the Convention, including formula lines and constrain
lines as following:
+) Formula Lines:
- The location of the line where the thickness of sedimentary material is
equal to 1% of the distance back to the foot of the continental slope,
Article 76.4 (a) (i);
 - The foot of the continental slope projected seaward by 60 nautical
miles, Article 76.4 (a) (ii);
+) Constraint Lines:
- The 2500 metre isobath projected seaward by 100 nautical miles,
(Article 76.5);
- The 350 nautical mile limit, measured from the territorial sea baseline.
the final outer limit, usually a combination of Formula and Constraint
Lines, and approximated by a succession of straight line segments (geodesics)
not exceeding 60 nautical miles in length.
Under most circumstances, the outer limit of the continental shelf will
be constructed by merging the outer limit of the continental margin (which
may be a combination of the formula lines) with the combined constraint line.
Where the continental margin lies inside of the combined constraint line, the
former’s outer limit will define the outer limit of the continental shelf; where
it extends beyond the combined constraint line, the latter will truncate the
former and become the outer limit of the continental shelf.
Coastal States have sovereign right over non-living resources and living
resources of the sedentary nature on its continental shelf.

Figure 13.3. The outer limit of the extended continental shelf

The coastal State shall make payments or contributions in kind in
respect of the exploitation of the non-living resources of the continental shelf
beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the
territorial sea is measured after first five years of production. For the sixth
year, the rate of payment or contribution shall be 1 per cent of the value or
volume of production at the site. The rate shall increase by 1 per cent for each
subsequent year until the twelfth year and shall remain at 7 per cent thereafter.
f. The High Seas
These are all parts of the sea that are not included within the EEZ,
territorial sea, internal waters or archipelagic waters of any State. No State
may validly purport to subject any part of the high seas to its sovereignty. The
high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked.
All States enjoy freedom of navigation; freedom of over flight; freedom
to lay submarine cables and pipelines; freedom to construct artificial islands
and other installations permitted under international law, freedom of fishing;
freedom of scientific research.
All States shall co-operate to the fullest possible extent in the
repression of piracy on the high seas or in any other place outside the
jurisdiction of any State. A Coastal State may conduct hot pursuit on to the
high seas and arrest a foreign ship on the high sea if this foreign ship has
violated the laws and regulations within internal waters, the archipelagic
waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the EEZ or the continental
shelf of the coastal State.
13.2. Vocabulary and phrases
Baseline: The line from which the outer limits of a State's territorial sea and
certain other outer limits of coastal State jurisdiction are measured.
Continental margin: The continental margin comprises the submerged
prolongation of the land mass of the coastal State, and consists of the sea-bed
and subsoil of the shelf, the slope and the rise. It does not include the deep
ocean floor with its oceanic ridges or the subsoil thereof.
Continental rise: A submarine feature which is that part of the continental
margin lying between the continental slope and the deep ocean floor; simply
called the Rise in the Convention.
Continental slope: That part of the continental margin that lies between the
shelf and the rise.
Deep ocean floor: The surface lying at the bottom of the deep ocean with its
oceanic ridges, beyond the continental margin.
Foot of the continental slope: the foot of the continental slope is the point
where the continental slope meets the continental rise or, if there is no rise,
the deep ocean floor.
Installation: Manmade structure in the territorial sea, exclusive economic
zone or on the continental shelf usually for the exploration or exploitation of
marine resources. They may also be built for other purposes such as marine
scientific research, tide observations, etc.
Isobath: A line representing the horizontal contour of the sea-bed at a given
depth.
Low-tide elevation: A low-tide elevation is a naturally formed area of land
which is surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at high
tide.
Outer limit: The extent to which a coastal State claims or may claim a specific
jurisdiction in accordance with the provisions of the Convention.
Roadstead: An area near the shore where vessels are intended to anchor in a
position of safety; often situated in a shallow indentation of the coast.
Subsoil: All naturally occurring matter lying beneath the sea-bed or deep
ocean floor. The subsoil includes residual deposits and minerals as well as the
bedrock below.
Superjacent waters: The waters overlying the sea-bed or deep ocean floor.
Water column: A vertical continuum of water from sea surface to sea-bed.
13.3. Exercises
a) How many types of baselines?
b) Describe maritime zones under coastal State’s sovereignty?
c) Describe maritime zones under coastal State’s sovereign right?
d) How many methods can be used to determine the outer limit of the
continental shelf?
e) If a low-tide elevation is located wholly outside the outer limit of the
territorial sea, does it have its own territorial sea?
 Unit 14
THE LAW OF THE SEA OF VIETNAM

14.1. Introduction
The Law of the Sea of Vietnam was adopted by the 13 th National
Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam at the 3 rd Session on 21 June
2012. This Law took effect on 1 January 2013.
This Law provides for the baseline, the internal waters, the territorial
sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone, the continental shelf,
islands, the Paracel and Spratly archipelagos and other archipelagos under the
sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Viet Nam; operations in Viet
Nam's maritime zones; maritime economic development; the management
and protection of the sea and islands.
Article 2 of the Law of the Sea of Vietnam states that:
1. The provisions of this Law shall prevail in case there are differences
between the provisions of this Law and those of other laws in relation
to the sovereignty and legal status of Viet Nam's maritime zones.
2. In case there are differences between the provisions of this Law and
those of an international treaty to which the Socialist Republic of Viet
Nam is a party, the provisions of the international treaty shall prevail.
14.2. Terminology used in the Law of the sea of Vietnam
According to Article 3 of the Law of the Sea of Vietnam, the following
terms are understood as follows:
1. The maritime zones of Viet Nam covers the internal water, territorial
sea, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf
under Viet Nam's sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction,
determined in accordance with Vietnamese legislation, the international
treaties on boundaries and territory to which the Socialist Republic of
Viet Nam is a party and in conformity with the 1982 United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea.
2. The high seas cover all parts of the sea beyond the exclusive
economic zones of Viet Nam and other states, and not including the
seabed and the subsoil thereof.
3. Vessels mean vehicles operating on or under the water surface,
including ships, boats, other engined or non-engined vehicles.
 4. Military vessels mean vessels of the armed forces of a state bearing
outer signals that clearly manifest the nationality of that state,
commanded by a navy officer serving that state, whose name appears in
the list of officers or in equivalent documents. Such vessels are
operated by a crew working under military orders.
5. Vessels for official service mean vessels that are used primarily for
the conduct of non-commercial State activities.
6. Resources include living and non-living resources underwater, on the
seabed and the subsoil.
7. The isobath is the line connecting points of the same depth at sea.
14.3. The Maritime Zones of Vietnam
14.3.1. Establishment of the baseline
The baseline used for measuring the breadth of Viet Nam's territorial
sea is straight baselines publicised by the Government. The Government of
Viet Nam shall determine and, upon approval by the National Assembly's
Standing Committee, publicise the baselines in areas where baselines have not
been established.
14.3.2. Internal waters
The internal waters are the waters adjacent to the coast on the landward
side of the baseline and constitute part of Viet Nam's territory.
The State of Viet Nam exercises full and absolute sovereignty over the
internal waters as it does over the land territory.
14.3.3. Territorial sea
The territorial sea of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam is the water
area extending 12 nautical miles from the baseline. The outer limit of the
territorial sea is Viet Nam's national maritime border.
The State exercises full and absolute sovereignty over the territorial
sea, the air space over, as well as the seabed and subsoil of the territorial sea
in accordance with the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea.
Vessels of all states enjoy the right of innocent passage through Viet
Nam's territorial sea. Foreign military vessels exercising the right of innocent
passage through Viet Nam's territorial sea shall give prior notice to
Vietnamese competent authorities.
 Innocent passage of foreign vessels shall be conducted on the basis of
respect for the peace, independence, sovereignty, legislation of Viet Nam and
international treaties to which the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam is a party.
Foreign aircrafts are not permitted to enter the air space over the
territorial sea of Viet Nam unless otherwise agreed upon by the Vietnamese
Government or in accordance with international treaties to which the Socialist
Republic of Viet Nam is a party.
The State has sovereignty over any type of archaeological and
historical objects in Viet Nam's territorial sea.
14.3.4. Contiguous zone
The contiguous zone is the sea area adjacent to and beyond the
territorial sea, which is 12 nautical miles wide from the outer limit of the
territorial sea.
The State exercises control within the contiguous zone to prevent and
punish acts of infringement of legislation on customs, tariff, health or
immigration committed in the territory or the territorial sea of Viet Nam.
14.3.5. Exclusive economic zone
The exclusive economic zone is an area adjacent to and beyond the
territorial sea of Viet Nam, which integrates with the territorial sea to form a
maritime zone extending to 200 nautical miles from the baseline.
Within the exclusive economic zone, the State of Viet Nam exercises
the following rights:
a) Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, managing
and conserving the natural resources of the waters superjacent to the
seabed, of the seabed and its subsoil; as well as with regard to other
activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone.
b) Jurisdiction with regard to the establishment and use of artificial
islands, installations and structures; as well as marine scientific
research, protection and preservation of the marine environment.
c) Other rights and duties in accordance with international law.
The State of Viet Nam respects freedoms of navigation and overflight,
the right to lay submarine cables and pipelines and lawful uses of the sea by
other states in Viet Nam's exclusive economic zone in accordance with the
provisions of this Law and international treaties to which the Socialist
Republic of Viet Nam is a party, provided that those operations are not
detrimental to the sovereign rights, jurisdiction and national maritime interest
of Viet Nam. The laying of submarine cables and pipelines is subject to the
consent in writing by Vietnamese competent authorities.
Foreign organizations and individuals are allowed to participate in
exploring, using and exploiting natural resources, conducting scientific
research, establishing installations and structures in the exclusive economic
zone of Viet Nam on the basis of international treaties to which the Socialist
Republic of Viet Nam is a party, contracts signed in accordance with the
provisions of Vietnamese legislation or with the permission granted by the
Vietnamese Government.
14.3.6. Continental shelf
The continental shelf of the Viet Nam is the seabed and subsoil of the
submarine areas adjacent and beyond the territorial sea of Viet Nam,
throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory, islands and
archipelagos of Viet Nam, to the outer edge of the continental margin.
Where the outer edge of the continent margin does not extend up to 200
nautical miles measured from the baseline, the continental shelf in that area
extends to a distance of 200 nautical miles measured from the baseline.
Where the outer edge of the continent margin extends beyond 200
nautical miles measured from the baseline, the continental shelf in that area
extends to a distance not exceeding 350 nautical miles measured from the
baseline or not exceeding 100 nautical miles measured from the 2,500 meter
isobath.
The State of Viet Nam exercises sovereign rights over its continental
shelf for the purpose of exploring and exploiting natural resources.
The sovereign rights stipulated in the above paragraph are exclusive in
the sense that no one may conduct activities of exploring the continental shelf
or exploiting natural resources of the continental shelf of Viet Nam without
the consent by the Vietnamese Government.
The State of Viet Nam has exclusive rights to exploit the subsoil,
authorize and regulate drilling on the continental shelf for any purpose.
The State of Viet Nam respects the right to lay submarine cables and
pipelines and other lawful uses of the sea by other states on the continental
shelf of Viet Nam in accordance with the provisions of this Law and
international treaties to which the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam is a party,
provided that those operations are not detrimental to the sovereign rights,
jurisdiction and national maritime interest of Viet Nam. The laying of
submarine cables and pipelines are subjected to the consent in writing by
Vietnamese competent authorities.
Foreign organizations and individuals are allowed to participate in
exploring, using, exploiting natural resources, conducting scientific research,
establishing installations and structures on the continental shelf of Viet Nam
on the basis of international treaties to which the Socialist Republic of Viet
Nam is a party, contracts signed in accordance with the provisions of
Vietnamese legislation or with the permission granted by the Vietnamese
Government.
14.4. Sea patrol and surveillance
14.4.1. Sea patrol and surveillance forces
Sea patrol and surveillance forces shall include competent forces under
the People's Army, the People's Police, and other specialized patrol and
surveillance forces.
Militia and civil defence forces of coastal provinces and cities under
central administration, guards of agencies and organizations located in coastal
areas and other forces shall have the responsibility to participate in sea patrol
and surveillance when requested by the competent agencies.
14.4.2. Duties and scope of responsibility of sea patrol and surveillance.
The patrol and surveillance forces shall have the following duties:
a) Protect the sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction and national
interest in the areas of Vietnamese sea and islands;
b) Ensure the observance of Vietnamese law and international treaties
to which the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam is a party;
c) Protect state assets, marine natural resources and environment;
d) Protect, assist, search and rescue persons and vessels operating in the
Vietnamese maritime zones and island areas;
e) Deal with unlawful acts in the maritime zones and island areas of
Viet Nam in accordance with Vietnamese law.
Specific scope of responsibility of sea patrol and surveillance shall be
stipulated in accordance with the provisions of the law.
 The State shall ensure necessary conditions for sea patrol and
surveillance forces to fulfill their assigned tasks.
14.4.3. Flag, uniform and badge
When on duty, vessels of the sea patrol and surveillance forces shall be
provided with sufficient Vietnamese national flags, number signs and
pennants; sea patrol and surveillance personnel shall be provided with
military uniforms, uniforms of the forces and other typical signs in
accordance with the provisions of the law.
14.5. Vocabulary and phrases
Archipelago: A group of islands
Prevail: If one side in a contest or dispute prevails, it wins. If a proposal, or
opinion prevails, it gains influence or is accepted,
Treaty: A treaty is a written agreement between countries in which they agree
to do a particular thing or to help each other.
Manifest: Become visible or obvious
Adjacent: If one thing is adjacent to another, the two things are next to each
other.
Consent: If you give your consent to something, you give someone
permission to do it.
Provision: A provision in a law or an agreement is an arrangement which is
included in it.
Asset: The assets of a company or a person are all the things that they own.
Pennants:
Badge: A badge is a piece of metal or cloth which you wear to show that you
belong to an organization.
Stipulate: If you stipulate a condition or stipulate that something must be
done, you say clearly that it must be done.
Surveillance:
Grant: If someone in authority grants you something, or if something is
granted to you, you are allowed to have it.
In accordance with: If something is done in accordance with a particular rule
or system, it is done in the way that the rule or system says that it should be
done.
Competent: If you are competent to do something, you have the skills,
abilities, or experience necessary to do it well.
Detrimental: Something that is detrimental to something else has a harmful or
damaging effect on it.
Infringement: An infringement of a law or rule is the act of breaking it or
disobeying it.
Constitute: If something constitutes a particular thing, it can be regarded as
being that thing.
14.6. Exercises
a. When did the Law of the Sea of Vietnam enter into force?
b. What is the Viet Nam's national maritime border?
c. If there are differences between the provisions of the Law of the Sea of
Vietnam and those of an international treaty to which Viet Nam is a party,
which provisions shall prevail?
d. If a foreign military vessel wants to exercise the right of innocent passage
through Viet Nam's territorial sea, what should she do?
e. Do foreign aircraft have the right to exercise innocent passage in the air
space over the territorial sea of Viet Nam?
 Unit 15
MAGNETIC COMPASSES
15.1. Introduction to Magnetic Compasses
The magnetic compass consists of a magnetized needle allowed to
rotate in the horizontal plane. Any magnetized piece of metal will have
regions of concentrated magnetism called poles. Any such magnet will have
at least two poles of opposite polarity. Magnetic force (flux) lines connect one
pole of such a magnet with the other pole. The number of such lines per unit
area represents the intensity of the magnetic field in that area. If two magnets
are placed close to each other, the like poles will repel each other and the
unlike poles will attract each other.
Magnetism can be either permanent or induced. A bar having
permanent magnetism will retain its magnetism when it is removed from a
magnetizing field. A bar having induced magnetism will lose its magnetism
when removed from the magnetizing field. Whether or not a bar will retain its
magnetism on removal from the magnetizing field will depend on the strength
of that field, the degree of hardness of the iron, and upon the amount of
physical stress applied to the bar while in the magnetizing field.
15.1.1. Terrestrial Magnetism
Consider the Earth as a huge magnet surrounded by lines of magnetic
flux connecting its two magnetic poles. These magnetic poles are near, but
not coincidental with, the Earth’s geographic poles.
Figure 15.1 illustrates the Earth and its surrounding magnetic field. The
flux lines enter the surface of the Earth at different angles to the horizontal at
different magnetic latitudes. This angle is called the angle of magnetic dip,
and increases from 0 at the magnetic equator to 90 at the magnetic poles.
The total magnetic field is generally considered as having two
components: H, the horizontal component; and Z, the vertical component.
These components change as the angle changes, such that H is at its
maximum at the magnetic equator and decreases in the direction of either
pole, while Z is zero at the magnetic equator and increases in the direction of
either pole.
Since the magnetic poles of the Earth do not coincide with the
geographic poles, a compass needle in line with the Earth’s magnetic field will
not indicate true north, but magnetic north. The angular difference between the
true meridian (great circle connecting the geographic poles) and the magnetic
meridian (direction of the lines of magnetic flux) is called variation. This
variation has different values at different locations on the Earth. These values
of magnetic variation may be found on pilot charts and on the compass rose of
navigational charts.

Figure15.1. Terrestrial magnetism

The poles are not geographically static. They are known to migrate
slowly, so that variation for most areas undergoes a small annual change, the
amount of which is also noted on charts.
15.1.2. Ship’s Magnetism
A ship under construction or repair will acquire permanent magnetism
due to hammering and vibration while sitting stationary in the Earth’s
magnetic field. After launching, the ship will lose some of this original
magnetism as a result of vibration in varying magnetic fields, and will
eventually reach a more or less stable magnetic condition. The magnetism
which remains is the permanent magnetism of the ship.
In addition to its permanent magnetism, a ship acquires induced
magnetism when placed in the Earth’s magnetic field. The magnetism
induced in any given piece of soft iron is a function of the field intensity, the
alignment of the soft iron in that field, and the physical properties and
dimensions of the iron. This induced magnetism may add to, or subtract from,
the permanent magnetism already present in the ship, depending on how the
ship is aligned in the magnetic field.
15.1.3. Magnetic Adjustment
 The magnetic compass must be corrected for the vessel’s permanent
and induced magnetism so that its operation approximates that of a
completely nonmagnetic vessel. Ship’s magnetic conditions create magnetic
compass deviations. Deviation is defined as deflection right or left of the
magnetic meridian caused by magnetic properties of the vessel. Adjusting the
compass consists of arranging magnetic and soft iron correctors near the
compass so that their effects are equal and opposite to the effects of the
magnetic material in the ship.
15.1.4. Correcting the compasses
Ship’s heading is the angle, expressed in degrees clockwise from north,
of the ship’s fore-and-aft line with respect to the true meridian or the
magnetic meridian. When this angle is referred to the true meridian, it is
called a true heading. When this angle is referred to the magnetic meridian, it
is called a magnetic heading. Heading, as indicated on a particular compass, is
termed the ship’s compass heading by that compass. It is essential to specify
every heading as true (T), magnetic (M), or compass. Two abbreviations
simplify recording of compass directions. The abbreviation PGC refers to
“per gyro compass,” and PSC refers to “per steering compass.” The steering
compass is the one being used by the helmsman or autopilot, regardless of
type.
Variation is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the true
meridian at a given location. If the northerly part of the magnetic meridian
lies to the right of the true meridian, the variation is easterly. Conversely, if
this part is to the left of the true meridian, the variation is westerly.

Figure 15. 2. Magnetic variations

The local variation and its small annual change are noted on the
compass rose of all navigational charts. Thus the true and magnetic headings
of a ship differ by the local variation.

Figure 15.3. Compass rose of chart

Deviation, as previously explained, a ship’s magnetic influence will
generally cause the compass needle to deflect from the magnetic meridian.
This angle of deflection is called deviation.

Figure 15.4 Examples of deviation

If the north end of the needle points east of the magnetic meridian, the
deviation is easterly; if it points west of the magnetic meridian, the deviation
is westerly.
A summary of heading relationships follows:
- Deviation is the difference between the compass heading and the
magnetic heading.
- Variation is the difference between the magnetic heading and the
true heading.
- The algebraic sum of deviation and variation is the Compass error.
The following simple rules will assist in correcting the compass:
- Compass least, error east; compass best, error west.
- When correcting, add easterly errors, subtract westerly errors
For example, if the variation is 100E and the deviation is 50E, then
compass error will be 150E. However, if the deviation is 50W, then compass
error will be 50E. In case when the error and variation are given, it is desired
to find the deviation, then the variation must be subtracted from the error as
the error is the sum of the two. The variation may be subtracted by reversing
its name. The deviation is then named according to the greater. The following
examples indicate the method:
Examples
Error 200W error 60E
Var 150W var 200E
Dev 50W dev 140W
Use the memory aid “Can Dead Men Vote Twice, At Elections” to
remember the conversion process (Compass, Deviation, Magnetic, Variation,
True; Add East). When converting compass heading to true heading, add
easterly deviations and variations and subtract westerly deviations and
variations. Complete familiarity with the correcting of compasses is essential
for navigation by magnetic or gyro compass. The professional navigator who
deals with them continually can do them in his head quickly and accurately.
Example: A ship is steering 2400 by compass. Deviation for the ship’s
head is 100E. Variation for the place is 200W. Find the true course?
Compass course: 2400
Deviation: 100E
 Magnetic course: 2500
Variation: 200W
True course: 2300
15.2. Vocabulary and phrases
Concentrate. If something is concentrated in an area, it is all there rather than
being spread around.
Retain. To retain something means to continue to have that thing.
Repel: When a magnetic pole repels another magnetic pole, it gives out a
force that pushes the other pole away.
Induced. Induced combines with nouns to form adjectives which indicate that
a state, condition, or illness is caused by a particular thing.
Meridians. Great circles of the earth that pass through the poles. Used for
measuring longitude.
Magnetic North. The direction of the magnetic meridian at any place
Compass North. The direction indicated by the north point of the compass.
Migrate: to move from one place to another.
Stable: If an object is stable, it is firmly fixed in position and is not likely to
move or fall.
15.3. Exercises
a) Find the compass error if Deviation is 150W and Variation is 300E?
b) Find the true course if the compass course is 226 0, deviation is 30W, and
variation is 160W?
c) Find the compass course to steer to make good a true course of 1300 if the
variation is 200W and the deviation is 100E?
d) Find the deviation if the compass error is 30E and the variation is 210W?
e) Find the deviation if the compass bearing is 500, true bearing is 600, and
variation is 120?
 Unit 16
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

16.1. Introduction to the Global Positioning System

16.1. Introduction
The GPS, officially also known as NAVSTAR (Navigation and Satellite
Timing and Ranging), is part of a satellite-based navigation system developed
by the U.S. Department of Defence. GPS belongs to a large class of radio
navigation systems that allow the user to determine his range and/or direction
from a known signal transmitting station by measuring the differential time of
travel of the signal.
Developmental work on the Global Positioning System, or GPS, began
in 1973 by the United States Department of Defence (US DoD). The first
(“Block I”) satellite was launched in 1978, with these ‘experimental’ satellites
launched through until 1985.
The WGS84 Datum (World Geodetic System 1984) designed for this
satellite system, was first introduced in 1987. The WGS-84 coordinate
system is geocentrically positioned with respect to the centre of the Earth.
Block II/IIA/IIR satellites began to be launched from 1989. ‘Selective
availability’ (SA) was introduced on 25 March 1990. ‘Anti-Spoofing’ (AS)
was introduced on 31 January 1994, and ‘Full Operational Capability’ was
declared in 1995.
In 1996 then US President Clinton announced the ‘GPS Policy’ to
promote the international acceptance of GPS, one of the results of which was
that SA was turned down to zero on 1 May 2000.
GPS provides a number of advantages over previous positioning
systems. Positioning accuracy is available from ten metres down to the
millimetre level. It is available to all users anywhere on earth, in all weathers,
24 hours a day, with no charges. It utilises a single global coordinate system,
and provides instantaneous positioning. It is important to remember that the
system is run by the US DoD, who has total control over the signal
transmissions.
The system can be divided into three segments: the Space Segment, the
Control Segment, and the User Segment.
16.1.2. The Space Segment
 The Space Segment consists of the GPS satellites. Currently there are 27
satellites in orbit, three of which are spares.

Figure 16.1 The GPS Nominal Constellation

The configuration is designed so that there is a minimum of four
satellites visible in the sky at any location on earth at all times, and up to 12
may be visible. The satellites’ altitude of 20180 km above the earth means
that each orbit lasts for 11hrs 58 mins, in accordance with Kepler’s third law.
Hence, a satellite will complete two orbits in one sidereal day, 23hrs 56min.
Each satellite has three main roles:
a. Receive and store satellite ephemeris (and other) data regularly
uploaded by the control segment.
b. Maintain accurate time by means of four atomic clocks carried
on board.
c. Transmit information and signals to the user on two L-band
carrier frequencies: L1 1575.42 MHz, and L2 1227.60 MHz.
16.1.3. The Control Segment
The Control Segment consists of 5 ground-based control stations
equipped to monitor the satellites and transmit this information to the Master
Control Station (MCS) in Colorado Springs. The MCS is responsible for
calculating the more accurate satellite ephemerides and clock corrections.
MCS also initiates all Space Segment Operations, like satellite manoeuvring,
signal encryption, and satellite clock keeping
 Figure 16.2 The Control Segment
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein are also upload stations
sending data to the satellites, such as ephemerides and clock correction
information to be transmitted within the Navigation message, as well as
command telemetry from MCS. .
16.1.4. The user segment
The User Segment is the unlimited number of users equipped with GPS
receivers capable of tracking the signals transmitted by the satellites. The
number of fields utilising GPS information is ever growing, from aircraft,
vehicle and marine vessel navigation, to weapon guidance systems, personal
locators, surveying and geodesy, accurate time, and weather prediction.

Figure 16.3. The User Segment

16.1.5. GPS signals
All GPS satellites broadcast on two frequencies, L1 and L2. The L1
carrier frequency is at 1575.42 MHz, so its wavelength is 19cm. The L2
carrier frequency is at 1227.6 MHz with a wavelength of 24cm.
a. C/A Code and P Code
There are two types of code used to calculate range information, Clear
Access or Coarse and Acquisition (C/A Code), and Protected or precise (P
code). The C/A code modulating frequency is 1.023MHz with a bandwidth of
2.046MHz, and is transmitted on L1 only. The P code modulating frequency
is 10.23MHz, width a bandwidth of 20.46MHz and is transmitted on both L1
and L2. Even though both P code and C/A code are broadcast on L1, they are
distinguishable from each other because they are transmitted 900 apart in
phase, that is, in quadrature.

Figure 19.4 C/A Code and P code

Because the P code is modulated over a wider bandwidth, the signal is
‘spread’ and hence is weaker, but it is also more difficult to jam. P code also
has a wavelength of 30m versus the 300m of C/A code, and ranges calculated
using it will be more precise than with C/A code.
During the development stages of GPS, P code was an open code (that
is, everyone had access to it). On 31 January 1994, the US DoD introduced a
classified algorithm, known as W code, to encrypt the P code signal so that it
would only be available to ‘authorised’ users. The encrypted version of the P
code is known as Y code, but for convenience is still referred to as P code.
Access to the C/A code is called the Standard Positioning Service (SPS), and
access to P code is called the Precise Positioning Service (PPS).
b. The GPS Navigation Message
The third type of code transmitted is the Navigation Message. It is
included on both L1 and L2 frequency with a modulating frequency of 50Hz.
Each satellite transmits its own Navigation Message, with its unique
information. Each frame (or page) consists of 5 sub-frames, each of which
contains information. Sub-frames 1 to 3 are unique to each satellite,
containing the clock coefficients and orbital parameters (ephemerides), and
change hourly. Sub-frames 4 and 5 are generic to all satellites, and contain
almanac data, ionospheric parameters, satellite health and other information.
To cover all of this information, the Navigation Message consists of 25 pages
in total, with sub-frames 1, 2, 3 repeated on each page.
Each sub-frame takes 6 seconds to read, and so the whole frame, or page,
takes 30 seconds. Therefore, the whole Navigation Message (25 pages) takes
12 ½ minutes to read. These values define how long it takes for a GPS unit to
obtain a fix when first turned on.
1. COLD START – The GPS receiver has just been turned on, does
not have provisional position entered, and does not have a current
almanac in memory. Therefore the whole message must be read,
and so will take 12 ½ minutes.
2. WARM START – The GPS receiver has a current almanac in
memory, but might be turned on for the first time that day. The
receiver just needs to read sub-frames 1, 2, and three. Therefore 18
seconds to get a fix.
3. HOT START – The GPS receiver has already been on during the
current hour, and so has frames 1, 2, and 3 in memory as well as
the almanac. Therefore 1 –2 seconds to get a fix.
16.1.6. Positioning using satellites
Ideally, in order to find the position vector R for the position P, we
would use vector addition: R = r – ρ
Unfortunately, the position vector ρ from the receiver to the satellite
cannot be observed directly. This is found by measuring the travel time of
radio signals from satellite to receiver, and multiplying by the speed of radio
waves (299 792.458 km/s).
 P ρ

R
r

CENTRE OF EARTH

Figure 16.5 Positioning by Satellites

Each satellite has its own distinctive Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) code,
on both P code and C/A code. The same PRN code is generated by the
receiver and the satellite. Assuming perfect synchronisation between the
satellites clock and the receiver clock, the same code elements will be
generated at each location at the same time. The receiver then compares the
incoming code with its own internal code to determine how long ago the
receiver generated the same code elements. This will be the time taken for the
signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. This time is then used to
determine the range between the satellite and the receiver.
Distance (ρ) = Speed of radio waves time taken
As the distance is not taking into account any of the real world errors,
like atmospheric effects, this distance is called a pseudo range.
With one range measurement, and knowledge of the satellite’s position,
the receiver’s position must be on the surface of a sphere whose centre is at
the location of the satellite, and the radius is the range measurement.
16.1.7. Clock offsets
All range measurements require two very accurate clocks that are
synchronised with each other. In reality this is not possible.
The satellites have on board highly accurate atomic clocks, but these still
develop errors of up to 1 millisecond. The Control Segment monitors the
satellite clocks, and determines corrections. These clock error coefficients are
uploaded to the satellites and included in the Navigation Message so that the
receiver can correct the timing of the satellite signal. The receiver will only
have an inexpensive quartz crystal oscillator that does not keep good time;
hence, there will be an unknown offset, or bias, dT, which is a parameter that
must be solved.
16.1.8. The observation equations
All GPS observations and calculations are in Cartesian coordinates, and
are only converted to other systems once position has been determined.
Firstly, the range between the satellite and the receiver can be found by 3D
Pythagorus theorem:

But as there is the receiver clock bias, dT, the observed range ρ will be
incorrect. So the equation becomes:

where c = speed of radio waves.

This can be rearranged:

(X R , YR , Z R ) S S S
P ρ (X , Y , Z )

CENTRE OF EARTH

Figure 16.6. Observation Equation

This is an equation with four unknowns: . So, in order
to solve for these four unknowns, four equations are required. Hence the
observation equations for the pseudo ranges to four satellites are needed to fix
the receiver’s position.
16.1.9. Real world biases
There are three basic categories of bias, defined by their origin:
a. Satellite dependent biases: satellite orbit bias, satellite clock offset,
and Selective Availability.
b. Receiver dependent biases: receiver clock offset, antenna phase
centre variation.
 c. Observation dependent biases: ionospheric delay, tropospheric delay,
carrier phase ambiguity (for CPH measurement).
16.1.10. Satellite orbit bias
The satellite’s orbit differs from the purely Keplerian model due to the
effects of the real world. The Control Segment stations track the actual orbits
of the satellites over 24 hrs. The next 24hrs is predicted forward, using
models of the accelerations and an adjusted model of the past 24hrs orbit arc.
This predicted 24hr orbit arc is then cut into 1hr slices, and then quasi-
Keplerian elements are fitted to each 1 hr arc. These are transmitted in the
Navigation Message as the satellites ephemerides.
As the transmitted satellite position relies on predicted information, it
will not be exact, ie there will be an error, or bias. The magnitude of this bias
is rarely above 10m. For real time positioning, we tend to assume that the
Navigation Message is accurate enough. For geodetic work, obtaining more
accurate orbit information afterwards for post processing will remove this
error, and make positioning more accurate
16.1.11. Satellite and receiver clock errors
Receiver clock error is estimated as part of the Least Squares solution,
and so any residual in its estimation is unknown. The satellite’s clock bias is
determined from the clock error coefficients transmitted in the Navigation
Message. As with the satellite ephemerides, these will be predicted values,
and so there will still be a residual error.
16.1.12. Selective Availability
Selective Availability (SA) is the policy of intentional degradation of the
C/A code navigational accuracy for civilian users, and was first introduced on
25 March 1990. It worked by doing two things: ‘dithering’ the transmitted
satellite clock bias, and placing intentional errors in the broadcast
ephemerides.
The algorithms used to do this were, of course, classified, and quite
complicated. The effect was to provide a horizontal accuracy of the C/A code
of 100m at 95% confidence, 160m vertical accuracy. The effect was not
transmitted on the P code, which had the true values transmitted.
The effect was overcome with differential GPS techniques, and due to
international pressure the SA was turned down to zero on 1 May 2000, with
an immediate effect on accuracy. It should be noted that the US military
retains the capability of reintroducing SA at any time.
16.1.13. Ionospheric delay
The GPS signal, being a microwave frequency, is affected by the amount
of ions present in the ionosphere. The makeup of the ionosphere (roughly
from 50km to 1000km in altitude) changes depending on location, time of
day, time of year, and the sunspot activity on the Sun. The delay of signals in
the ionosphere can be as much as five times that experienced at night. At a
particular location, the delay will be at a minimum for a satellite directly
above the receiver (the zenith direction), increasing to as much as three times
the zenith amount on the horizon. The value of the delay at the zenith can be
up to 50m, but as we have seen this is very much dependent on location and
time.
The most effective means of accounting for ionospheric delay is to
measure it using dual-frequency observations (L1 and L2), and then correct
the measurements. This is because the amount of delay will be different for
the different frequencies. As normally L1 and L2 are only available on P
code, single frequency users (C/A code) will have lesser accuracy if the
ionospheric conditions are unstable/unpredictable.
16.1.14. Tropospheric delay
Delay in the troposphere (up to about 20km altitude) is caused by a
combination of pressure, humidity and temperature. Like the ionosphere, it
will have its minimum value at the zenith and its maximum on the horizon.
Unlike the ionosphere, the troposphere will affect all GPS observations by the
same amount at a particular location. Typical values are about 2-3m at the
zenith, to about 20m near the horizon.
16.1.15. User equivalent range error
All of these biases, if known, can be combined into one value. This total
value, known as the User Equivalent Range Error (UERE), is the root mean
square of the individual (independent) error sources contributing to the
pseudo range measurement.
As we have seen, the individual values can vary considerably, and so we
can only give example ranges to determine the UERE. Note that a lot of the
effects are removed by using differential techniques.
 Table 2 – Approximate Bias values and UERE

Bias source SA on SA off DGPS

Satellite clock bias 1-3m 1-3m 0

Ephemeris bias 2-7m 2-7m 0

Ionospheric delay 2-15m 2-15m 0

Tropospheric Delays 0.5-2m 0.5-2m 0

Selective Availability 30m 0 0

Receiver noise + mulitpath 1-3m 1-3m 1-4m

UERE (rms) 30-35m 3-17m 1-4m

There are many examples of ranges for these values. The ones provided
here are for guidance only.
16.1.16. Dilution of precision
So far we have considered the environmental factors affecting the range
measurements themselves. But as with any system of position fixing, the
geometry of the stations used in the fix will have an impact on the overall
precision of the final fix. There are several factors that are considered when
determining the effect of geometry on the final solution.
a. The number of satellites used in the solution.
b. The distribution in the sky of the satellites involved.
d. Whether horizontal or vertical components of the final position are
considered.
The strength of the geometry is quantified by the dilution of precision
(DOP) factor. There are five types of DOP used, depending on the
information sought: geometric DOP (GDOP), position DOP (PDOP), time
DOP (TDOP), horizontal DOP (HDOP) and vertical DOP (VDOP). Each of
these DOPs can be calculated from the variances of the parameters, noting
that the positional parameters can be expressed in cartesian coordinates (x, y,
z), or as local coordinates (Easting (E), Northing (N), Height (H)), and that
the unknown time offset, dT, is also a parameter.
Thus we can define:
- which considers all parameters involved in
determining the solution,
 - which only considers the three
dimensions in space,
- which only considers the time offset,
- which only considers the horizontal components, and
- which only considers the vertical components.
The lower the value of DOP, the better the geometry in the fix is, and
hence accuracy of the final solution. Note that this will only be relevant to
single point positioning without differential. DOP values will vary with time
of day and location.
With knowledge of the DOP and the measurement accuracy (UERE), the
positioning accuracy ( at 1σ) can be found.
Positioning Accuracy
Hence if the UERE is accurately known, the horizontal positional
accuracy can be found (at 1σ) by multiplying UERE by HDOP.
16.1.17. Interference and jamming
The received GPS signals are very weak, about 10-16W, and so can be
blocked or interfered quite easily. This is of most concern to the aviation and
military communities. Intentional jamming of the signals may occur. GPS
jammers can be easily made or purchased, and a 10mW jammer can prevent
acquisition of a signal up to 3km away.
16.2. Vocabulary and phrases
Almanac. Information broadcast by all GPS satellites that gives approximate
orbit parameters. Each satellite broadcasts almanacs for all satellites over a
period of about 12.5 minutes. Almanacs are generally good for several
weeks, and are used to predict which satellites will be visible at a specific
time at a given site.
Selective availability. A process by which the C/A Code signal of the GPS
satellites is altered to produce errors in the computed positions of receivers.
The signals are altered by such means as giving inexact ephemerides or clock
correction factors, or manipulating the satellite’s clock
Anti-Spoofing. A process by which the precise positioning signal from a GPS
satellite is encrypted to preclude someone from sending a false signal that
receivers might use in place of the real signal. The encrypted P Code is called
Y Code. Decryption of the Y Code is reserved for users specifically
authorized by the US Department of Defense.
Ephemerides. The set of parameters that together describe a satellite’s orbit,
and where the satellite is in that orbit at a given time. The ephemeris is used
to compute the location of the satellite at a particular time of interest with
respect to the Earth. Note: plural of ephemeris is ephemerides (pronounced
“ef-em-air’-i-deez”).
Clock offsets. The amount of time by which the receiver clock differs from
GPS time.
Ionosphere. That region above the Earth that contains ionized particles that
can affect the propagation of radio signals.
Troposphere. That layer of the Earth’s atmosphere closest to the Earth’s
surface. The troposphere is where the majority of the weather occurs. Its
thickness varies from somewhat less than 9 km at the poles to over 16 km at
the equator.
Dilution of precision. A factor which allows the amount of error in
measurements made from the GPS satellites to be translated into a measure of
the error in the resulting position. There are several specific DOPs including
GDOP, HDOP, PDOP, TDOP and VDOP.
16.3. Exercises
a) Describe three major components of GPS?
b) Describe three main roles of each satellite?
c) What are the differences between C/A code and P code?
d) How long does it take a GPS unit to obtain a fix when it is first turned on?
e) Why do we need at least four satellites visible in order to determine a
position?
 Unit 17
INTRODUCTION TO ECHO SOUNDERS

17.1. Principles of operation

An echo sounder is a downward looking sonar. It does not directly
measure depth. Echo sounders measure the time taken for a pulse of sound to
travel to the seafloor and return. If the velocity of the soundwave is known,
then the distance can be calculated.

where: d = depth (distance to sea bed)

C = velocity of sound in seawater
t = return travel time
A transducer fitted in the hull turns electrical energy into mechanical
energy and delivers a pulse of sound energy into the water. The pulse
produced is a damped oscillation. An identifiable part of the pulse is used to
trigger a timer, which then measures the time for the return signal to be
detected. The depth can be calculated either electronically or
electro-mechanically.

Figure 17.1: Principles of Echo Sounder

The echo sounder system is made up of the pulse generator, the
switching unit (switching between transmit and receive), the transmitting
transducer, the receiving transducer (if separate units used), the amplifier for
the received signal, and the recorder. Once the recorder registers a depth
reading, a new pulse is transmitted.
 PULSE RECORDER
GENERATOR

SWITCHING
UNIT
AMPLIFIER

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER

Figure 17.2: Components of an Echo Sounder

17.2. Velocity of sound in seawater
In order to determine depth, the velocity of sound in the water column
must be accurately known. An average velocity for the world’s oceans is
1500m/s. Sound velocity in seawater is affected by changes in water
temperature, salinity and pressure as follows:
a. Temperature
- Ocean temperatures vary from around 28°C at the surface in
equatorial regions to -2°C in high latitudes and at abyssal depths.
- An increase of 1°C increases the speed of sound in seawater by about
4.5m/s. Hence the temperature has the greatest effect on sound
velocity.
b. Salinity
- Salinity is the proportion by weight of dissolved solids per unit of
seawater. Defined as the total weight of solids in grams, dissolved in
1kg of seawater, The units used are parts per thousand (o/oo).
- The salinity of the oceans is typically around 35 o/oo, but can vary
from 5o/oo near large river entrances and at the ice edge in summer,
to over 40o/oo in places like the Red Sea and the Eastern
Mediterranean. Seasonal variations tend to be small in temperate
regions.
- A 1o/oo increase will increase the speed of sound by 1.3m/s.
c. Pressure
- Pressure is a function of the depth. Seawater is slightly compressible.
- Speed of sound increases 1.7m/s for every 100m increase in depth.
There is no exact formula for predicting the speed of sound through
seawater. Many formulae have been developed to approximate the speed of
sound, based on the values of temperature, pressure and salinity present.
Wilson’s formula is a complex, empirically derived formula used to
determine the speed of sound. It was derived in the 1950s from a large series
of measurements covering the range of temperature from -3 to 30C,
pressure from 1.033 kg/cm2 to 1000 kg/cm2, and salinity from33o/oo to
37o/oo. In its simple form Wilson’s formula can be described as:

where: C = sound velocity in m/s

t = temperature in °C
s = salinity in o/oo (if not known assume 35o/oo)
d = depth in metres
17.3. Measurement errors
The following main errors are associated with echo sounders:
a. Transmission Error. Transmission or index error is caused by signal
leakage in the cable runs, ship’s hull, etc. It is a fixed error associated with the
equipment hardware in an echo sounder outfit.
b. Sound Velocity (SV) Error. Sound velocity error is caused by changes in or
the incorrect determination or assumption of, the velocity of sound used in
measuring the depth. SV for the water column can be determined by
Conductivity, Temperature and Depth (CTD) probe, bathythermograph, or in
shallow water by bar check.
c. Time Error. Due to time measurement, an echo sounder effectively
measures time, converting the measurement to depth. The error in time
measurement relates directly to depth error. In modern echo sounders, time
measurement error is usually small and constant.
d. Separation Error. Separation error is caused when there is a horizontal
separation between transmit and receive transducers. This causes slant ranges
to be measured in shallow depths. Separation error is not present in combined
transmit/receive transducers.
A correction can be applied:
Error =

Figure 17.3. Separation error

Where: r = apparent depth below transducer (not waterline)
s = distance apart of transducers (separation)
17.4. Vocabulary and phrases
Acoustic. Of or relating to sound, the sense of hearing, or the science of sound
Propagation. The process of spreading to a larger area or greater number
Medium. A substance that makes possible the transfer of energy from one
location to another, especially through waves.
Transducer. A device for converting electrical energy to underwater sound
energy or vice versa.
Oscillate: If an object oscillates, it moves repeatedly from one position to
another and back again.
Trigger: If something triggers an event or situation, it causes it to begin to
happen or exist.
Amplifier: An amplifier is an electronic device which causes sounds or signals
to get louder.
Register: When something registers on a scale or measuring instrument, it
shows on the scale or instrument. You can also say that something registers a
certain amount or level on a scale or measuring instrument.
17.5. Exercises
a) Explain the principles of an echo sounder?
b) List three factors that affect sound velocity in the water. Which one has the
greatest effect?
c) Describe the components of an echo sounder.
d) Explain separation error.
 Unit 18
CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN SIGHT OF ONE ANOTHER ACCORDING TO THE
INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTING COLLISION AT
SEA, 1972 (COLREG 72)

18.1. Introduction to COLREG 72

Vessels sailing on the seas have to follow by certain rules, otherwise
there would be many collisions. These rules have been complied by maritime
nations of the world and are called The International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG 72) or “the Rule of the Road”. They
provide almost all occasions of two vessels approaching one another where
risk of collision exists. They tell the seaman which vessel must give way, and
describe the conditions under which he may expect the other vessel to keep
clear of him.
They prescribe the means whereby vessels which are fully maneuverable
may be identified by night or in restricted visibility; also the means whereby
vessel with no power or with limited maneuverability may be distinguished,
by day or by night or in restricted visibility, from those which are fully
maneuverable. By these means the seaman may know instantly whether to
expect another vessel to obey the Steering and Sailing Rules or whether she is
unable to do so.
18.1.1. Technical provisions of COLREG 72
The COLREG includes 38 rules divided into five sections: Part A -
General; Part B - Steering and Sailing; Part C - Lights and Shapes; Part D -
Sound and Light signals; and Part E - Exemptions. There are also four
Annexes containing technical requirements concerning lights and shapes and
their positioning; sound signaling appliances; additional signals for fishing
vessels when operating in close proximity, and international distress signals.
a. Part A - General (Rules 1-3)
b. Part B- Steering and Sailing (Rules 4-19)
- Section 1 - Conduct of vessels in any condition of visibility (Rules 4-
10)
- Section II - Conduct of vessels in sight of one another (Rules 11-18)
- Section III - conduct of vessels in restricted visibility (Rule 19)
c. Part C Lights and Shapes (Rules 20-31)
d. Part D - Sound and Light Signals (Rules 32-37)
e. Part E - Exemptions (Rule 38)
The COLREG includes four annexes:
- Annex I - Positioning and technical details of lights and shapes
- Annex II - Additional signals for fishing vessels fishing in close
proximity
- Annex III - Technical details of sounds signal appliances
- Annex IV - Distress signals, which lists the signals indicating distress
and need of assistance.
18.1.2 Definitions
- Power driven vessel – Any vessel propelled by machinery
- Sailing Vessel – Any vessel under sail, provided that propelling
machinery, if fitted, is not being used.
- Vessel Engaged in Fishing – Any vessel fishing with nets, lines,
trawls or other fishing apparatus that restricts maneuverability, and
excluding vessels fishing with trolling lines or other fishing apparatus
that does not restrict maneuverability
- Vessel Not Under Command – A vessel unable to keep out of the way
of other vessels because an exceptional circumstance is hindering its
maneuverability (steering failure, engine breakdown, etc.)
- Vessel Restricted In Its Ability To Maneuver – A vessel unable to
keep out of the way of other vessels because the nature of its work is
hindering its ability to maneuver (buoy tender picking up a buoy,
vessel transferring persons, provisions or cargo while underway, etc.)
- Vessel constrained by her draught - power-driven vessel which,
because of her draught in relation to the available depth and width of
navigable water, is severely restricted in her ability to deviate from
the course she is following.
- Underway – A vessel not at anchor, aground or made fast to the shore
- Give-Way Vessel – A vessel that must change course or speed to
avoid a collision with a stand-on vessel
- Stand-On Vessel – A vessel that must maintain course and speed
except to avoid collision with another vessel
 - Short blast - A blast of about one second’s duration.
- Prolonged blast - A blast of from four to six seconds’ duration.
18.2. Conduct of vessels in sight of one another
18.2.1. Responsibilities between vessels (From Rules 13, 18)
To determine which vessel must give-way in an approach situation, it is
essential to know the hierarchy established by the Rules as the following:
- Vessel not under command, vessel restricted in its ability to
maneuver or vessel constrained by her draught.
- Any vessel being overtaken
- Vessel engaged in fishing
- Vessel under sail
- Power-driven vessel
18.2.2. Actions taken by vessels in Approaching Situations
Power driven vessels give way to sailing vessels except when a sailing
vessel is overtaking. This obviously does not give the coxswain of a sailing
vessel the right to obstruct a larger power driven vessel in a narrow channel,
because the power driven vessel is restricted in her ability to maneuver.
Similarly, sailing vessels should keep clear of vessels not under command or
engage in fishing.
a. Rules for Sailing Vessels
- When two sailing vessels are approaching one another, so as to
involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out of the way of the
other as follows:
+) when each has the wind on a different side, the vessel which
has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the
other;
+) when both have the wind on the same side, the vessel which is
to windward shall keep out of the way of the vessel which is to
leeward;
+) if a vessel with the wind on the port side sees a vessel to
windward and cannot determine with certainty whether the other
vessel has the wind on the port or on the starboard side, she shall
keep out of the way of the other.
 - For the purposes of this Rule the windward side shall be deemed to
be the side opposite to that on which the mainsail is carried or, in the
case of a square-rigged vessel, the side opposite to that on which the
largest fore-and-aft sail is carried.
In figure 18.1, vessel A gives way to both vessels B and C and Vessel C
must keep out of the way of vessel B

Figure 18.1. Sailing vessel meeting another sailing vessel

b. Rules for power driven vessels
Three, there are only three conditions of vessels meeting on the waters –
head-on, crossing or overtaking situations.
Meeting head on
vessel
you are the Stand On
crossing from port-
Other

Give Way vessel

starboard-you are the
crossing
Other
vessel

vessel
from
is

is

Other vessel is Overtaking- You

are the Stand On vessel

Figure 18.2. Approaching situations and right of way

The navigation lights arcs of visibility correspond to the crossing zones
shown on the previous page.
- The sternlight will only be visible from aft when neither of the
sidelights or the masthead light will be visible. You are overtaking.
- When only the red port sidelight and masthead lights are visible on
the other vessel then you are in a crossing situation. You must give
way to the other vessel.
- When only the GREEN starboard sidelight and masthead lights on the
other vessel are visible you are in a crossing situation and you are the
stand-on vessel (you have right of way).
- If both sidelights (RED and GREEN) and the masthead lights are
visible, then you are in a head on situation.
18.2.3. Overtaking another vessel (From Rules 13 and 17)
In open waters, the overtaken vessel is the stand-on vessel and is
required to maintain course and speed. The over taking vessel is the give way
vessel and is required to keep out of the way until well pass and clear. As she
maneuvers to keep clear of the overtaken vessel, she should sound the
appropriate signals: on short blast if she alters her course to starboard side;
two short blasts if she alters her course to post side. If she does not alter
course during the passing, no signal will be sounded.
In restricted waters, the vessel intending to overtake shall indicate her
intention by sounding the following signals:
- two prolonged blasts followed by one short blast to mean “I intend
to overtake you on your starboard side”;
- two prolonged blasts followed by two short blasts to mean “I
intend to overtake you on your port side”.
The vessel to be overtaken shall, if in agreement, sound the following
signals: one prolonged, one short, one prolonged and one short blast, in that
order. If the overtaken vessel is not in agreement, she may sound the danger
signal of five or more short blasts. The overtaking vessel should not attempt
passing until an agreement is reached.
18.2.4. Meeting another vessel head-on (Rule 14)
When two power-driven vessels meet on reciprocal (head-on) or nearly
reciprocal courses so as to involve the risk of collision, both shall alter course
to starboard so that they pass port-to-port. It means that in a head-on situation,
both vessels are give-way vessels. When a vessel is in any doubt as to
whether such a situation exists she shall assume that it does exist and act
accordingly.

Figure 18.3. Head-on situation

18.2.5. Crossing situation (From Rules 15 and 17)
When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve the risk of
collision, the vessel which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep
out of the way and avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel. The stand-on
vessel in a crossing situation is required to maintain her course and speed.

Figure 18.4. Crossing situation

However, the stand-on vessel may take action to avoid collision by her
maneuver alone, as soon as it becomes apparent to her that the vessel required
to keep out of the way is not taking appropriate action in compliance with
these Rules. When, from any cause, the vessel required to keep her course and
speed finds herself so close that collision cannot be avoided by the action of
the give-way vessel alone, she shall take such action as will best aid to avoid
collision.
When obeying the Steering and Sailing Rules, the following points
should be borne in mind:
- if your is the giving way vessel, always give the other vessel as wide
a berth as circumstances allow. It is bad seamanship and bad manners
to pass close aboard another vessel.
- If your is the giving way vessel, your avoiding action should be made
 in such a manner as to leave no doubt of your intentions in the mind
of the person in charge of the other vessel. You should therefore:
 take avoiding action in plenty of time;
 make a sufficient large initial alteration of course for your
intentions to be made clear both visually and on radar;
 Steady on your new course without undue yawing;
 Make the appropriate sound signal if you are in sight of the
other vessel.
- When another vessel is approaching, steer as steady a course as
possible and make allowances for the other vessel yawing. A vessel
approaching nearly end on, on an opposite course, may appear to be
end on now and again because she is yawing. Under such
circumstances she should be treated as approaching end on, and you
should alter your course to starboard early and give her as wide a
berth as practicable.
18.3. Vocabulary and phrases
Rule. Rules are instructions that tell you what you are allowed to do and what
you are not allowed to do.
Regulation. Regulations are rules made by a government or other authority in
order to control the way something is done or the way people behave.
Regulation is the controlling of an activity or process, usually by means of
rules.
Approach. When you approach something, you get closer to it.
Channel: The deeper or marked portion of a harbor or waterway through
which ship traffic is directed.
Prescribe. If a person or set of laws or rules prescribes an action or duty, they
state that it must be carried out.
Maneuverable. Something that is maneuverable can be easily moved into
different positions.
Restricted. Something that is restricted is quite small or limited.
Distinguish. If you can distinguish one thing from another or distinguish
between two things, you can see or understand how they are different.
Exempt. If someone or something is exempt from a particular rule, duty, or
obligation, they do not have to follow it or do it.
Conduct. When you conduct an activity or task, you organize it and carry it
out. Someone's conduct is the way they behave in particular situations.
Proximity. Proximity to a place or person is nearness to that place or person.
Distress. Distress is the state of being in extreme danger and needing urgent
help.
18.4. Exercises
a) What is deemed as an overtaking vessel?
b) What light will you see at night if you're overtaking?
c) You're overtaking another vessel, now your vessel abeams of her, are you
a crossing or overtaking vessel now?
d) You're in a power-driven vessel in a traffic lane and any vessel is
overtaking you, what are you going to do?
e) What action will you take with 2 power-driven vessels in a head-on
situation?
f) In a head-on situation between 2 power-driven vessels, how do you know
it's a head-on situation at night?
g) How do you know which vessel is the give way vessel in a crossing
situation?
 Unit 19
MARINE SEXTANT AND ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS

19.1. Marine Sextant

The marine sextant measures the angle between two points by bringing
the direct image from one point and a double-reflected image from the other
into coincidence. Its principal use is to measure the altitudes of celestial
bodies above the visible sea horizon. It may also be used to measure vertical
angles to find the range from an object of known height. Sometimes it is
turned on its side and used for measuring the angular distance between two
terrestrial objects. A marine sextant can measure angles up to approximately
120°. Originally, the term “sextant” was applied to the navigator’s double-
reflecting, altitude-measuring instrument only if its arc was 60° in length, or
1/6 of a circle, permitting measurement of angles from 0° to 120°. In modern
usage the term is applied to all modern navigational altitude-measuring
instruments regardless of angular range.
19.1.1. Optical Principles of a Sextant
When a plane surface reflects a light ray, the angle of reflection equals
the angle of incidence. The angle between the first and final directions of a
ray of light that has undergone double reflection in the same plane is twice the
angle the two reflecting surfaces make with each other (Figure 19.1).

Figure 19.1. Optical principle of the marine Sextant

In Figure 19.1, AB is a ray of light from a celestial body. The index
mirror of the sextant is at B, the horizon glass at C, and the eye of the
observer at D. Construction lines EF and CF are perpendicular to the index
mirror and horizon glass, respectively. Lines BG and CG are parallel to these
mirrors. Therefore, angles BFC and BGC are equal because their sides are
mutually perpendicular. Angle BGC is the inclination of the two reflecting
surfaces. The ray of light AB is reflected at mirror B, proceeds to mirror C,
where it is again reflected, and then continues on to the eye of the observer at
D. Since the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence,
ABE = EBC, and ABC = 2EBC.
BCF = FCD, and BCD = 2BCF.
Since an exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of the two non
adjacent interior angles,
ABC = BDC + BCD, and EBC = BFC + BCF.
Transposing,
BDC = ABC - BCD, and BFC = EBC - BCF.
Substituting 2EBC for ABC, and 2BCF for BCD in the first of these
equations,
BDC = 2EBC - 2BCF, or BDC=2 (EBC - BCF).
Since BFC=EBC - BCF, and BFC = BGC, therefore
BDC = 2BFC = 2BGC.
That is, BDC, the angle between the first and last directions of the ray of
light, is equal to 2BGC, twice the angle of inclination of the reflecting
surfaces. Angle BDC is the altitude of the celestial body. If the two mirrors
are parallel, the incident ray from any observed body must be parallel to the
observer’s line of sight through the horizon glass. In that case, the body’s
altitude would be zero. The angle that these two reflecting surfaces make with
each other is one-half the observed angle. The graduations on the arc reflect
this half angle relationship between the angle observed and the mirrors’ angle.
19.1.2. Components of a marine Sextant
A marine sextant consists of a system of two mirrors and a telescope
mounted on a metal frame. The rigid horizon glass is a semi-translucent
mirror attached to the frame. The fully reflecting index mirror is mounted on
the so-called index arm which can rotate on a pivot perpendicular to the
frame.
When measuring an altitude, the instrument frame is held in a vertical
position, and the visible sea horizon is viewed through the scope and horizon
glass. A light ray coming from the observed body is first reflected by the
index mirror and then by the back surface of the horizon glass before
entering the telescope.

Figure 19.2 Components of a marine Sextant

By slowly rotating the index mirror on the pivot the superimposed
image of the body is aligned with the image of the horizon. The
corresponding altitude, which is twice the angle formed by the planes of
horizon glass and index mirror, can be read from the graduated limb, the
lower, arc-shaped part of the sextant frame.

Figure 19.3. Measuring altitude of a celestial body by a marine Sextant

19.2. Altitude corrections
Any altitude measured with a sextant contains errors. Altitude
corrections are necessary to eliminate systematic altitude errors and to
reduce the altitude measured relative to the visible or sensible horizon to the
altitude with respect to the celestial horizon and the center of the earth.
Altitude corrections do not remove random errors.
19.2.1. Index error (IE)
A sextant usually has a constant error (index error, IE) which has to be
subtracted from the readings before they can be used for navigational
calculations. The error is positive if the displayed value is greater than the
actual value and negative if the displayed value is smaller.
The first correction H 1 is calculated as the following:
H1 = H s - IE
The sextant altitude, Hs, is the altitude as indicated by the sextant before
any corrections have been applied.
19.2.2. Dip of horizon (Dip)
If the earth's surface were an infinite plane, visible and sensible horizon
would be identical. In reality, the visible horizon appears several arc minutes
below the sensible horizon which is the result of two contrary effects, the
curvature of the earth's surface and atmospheric refraction. The geometrical
horizon, a flat cone, is formed by an infinite number of straight lines tangent
to the earth and radiating from the observer's eye. Since atmospheric
refraction bends light rays passing along the earth's surface toward the earth,
all points on the geometric horizon appear to be elevated, and thus form the
visible horizon. If the earth had no atmosphere, the visible horizon would
coincide with the geometrical horizon (Figure 19.4).

Figure 19.4 Dip of horizon

The altitude of the sensible horizon relative to the visible horizon is
called dip and is a function of the height of eye (HE).
Dip(’) = 1.76
Where, HE is the height of eye, the vertical distance (in meter) of the
observer's eye from the earth's surface.
The second correction is calculated as the following:
H2 = H1 – Dip
The altitude H2 obtained after applying corrections for index error and
dip is referred to as apparent altitude.
19.2.3. Atmospheric refraction
A light ray coming from a celestial body is slightly deflected toward the
earth when passing through the atmosphere. This phenomenon is called
refraction, and occurs always when light enters matter of different density at
an angle smaller than 90°. Since the eye can not detect the curvature of the
light ray, the body appears to be at the end of a straight line tangent to the
light ray at the observer's eye and thus appears to be higher in the sky. R is the
angular distance between apparent and true position of the body at the
observer's eye (Fig. 19-5).

Figure 19.5. Atmospheric refraction

For navigational purposes, the atmospheric standard refraction can be
calculated as the following:
R0(’) =

Where, the standard refraction R0 is the atmospheric refraction at the

atmospheric pressure of 1010 mbar and the air temperature of 100C.
The standard refraction, R0, has to be multiplied with a correction factor,
f, to obtain the refraction for a given combination of pressure and temperature
if high precision is required as the following:
R(’) = f. R0
 f=
Where, P is the atmospheric pressure and T the air temperature
The third correction is calculated as the following:
H3 = H2 – R
19.2.4. Parallax
Calculations of celestial navigation refer to the altitude with respect to
the earth's center and the celestial horizon. Figure 19.6 illustrates that the
altitude of a near object, e.g., the moon, with respect to the celestial horizon is
noticeably greater than the altitude with respect to the sensible horizon. The
difference is called parallax P. It decreases with growing distance between
object and earth and is too small to be measured when observing stars.
Theoretically, the observed parallax refers to the sensible, not to the geoidal
horizon. Since the height of eye is several magnitudes smaller than the radius
of the earth, the resulting error in parallax is not significant.

Figure 19.6. Parallax of the Moon

The parallax of a body being on the geoidal horizon is called horizontal
parallax, HP. The HP of the sun is approx. 0.15'. Current HP's of the moon
and the navigational planets are given in the Nautical Almanac. P is a
function of altitude and HP of a body:
P = HP.cosH3
The fourth correction is calculated as the following:
 H4 = H3 + P
19.2.5. Semi-diameter
When observing sun or moon with a marine sextant, it is not possible to
locate the center of the body with sufficient accuracy. It is therefore common
practice to measure the altitude of the upper or lower limb of the body and
add or subtract the apparent semi-diameter, SD, the angular distance of the
respective limb from the center (Figure 19.7). Since H4 refers to the celestial
horizon and the center of the earth. The geocentric semi-diameters of sun and
moon are given on the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.

Figure 19.7. Semi-diameter

The fifth correction is calculated as the following:
H5 = H4 ± SD
Semi-diameters of stars are too small to be measured (SD=0).
The altitude obtained after applying the above corrections is called true
altitude, H0.
H0 = H5
H0 is the geocentric altitude of the body, the altitude with respect to the
celestial horizon and the center of the earth.
The Nautical Almanac provides sextant altitude correction tables for sun,
planets, stars (pages A2 – A4), and the moon (pages xxxiv – xxxv), which can
be used instead of the above formulas if very high precision is not required.
The following examples illustrate the use of altitude correction tables;
the sextant altitudes given are assumed to be taken on 2012 February 7 with a
marine sextant at height 5.4 metres, temperature -3 0C and pressure 982 mb.
 Sun (lower limb) Star
Sextant altitude 21019.7’ 49036.5’
Dip -4.1’ -4.1’
Main correction 13.8’ -0.8’
Refraction correction -0.1’ 0.0
True Altitude 21029.3’ 49031.6’
19.3. Vocabulary and phrases
Celestial. Celestial is used to describe things relating to heaven or to the sky.
Altitude. If something is at a particular altitude, it is at that height above sea
level.
Terrestrial. Terrestrial means relating to the Earth rather than to some other
part of the universe.
Reflection. Reflection is the process by which light and heat are sent back
from a surface and do not pass through it.
Translucent. If a material is translucent, some light can pass through it. You
use translucent to describe something that has a glowing appearance, as if
light is passing through it.
Telescope. A telescope is a long instrument shaped like a tube. It has lenses
inside it that make distant things seem larger and nearer when you look
through it.
Curvature. The curvature of something is its curved shape, especially when
this shape is part of the circumference of a circle.
19.4. Exercises
a) Define: Visible horizon, sensible horizon, and geometrical horizon?
b) Define: True altitude, apparent altitude, and sextant altitude?
c) Describe the optical principle of a marine sextant?
d) Describe the components of a marine sextant?
e) The sextant altitude of the Sun (lower limb) taken on 2012 Dec 9 is
30021.5’, the height of eye is 7.0 metres, temperature 25 0C and pressure
980 mb. Find the true altitude of the Sun?
 Unit 20
THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

20.1. Introduction to the Nautical Almanac

The Nautical Almanac is published by Her Majesty’s Stationary Office
and provides all astronomical data necessary for use in marine astronomical
navigation. The arrangement of the information in the almanac may be
divided in to sections as follows:
- Altitude correction tables.
- The daily pages
- The list of selected navigational stars
- The Pole Star tables
- The increment tables
The daily pages are the most important pages of the almanac and allow
the navigator to pick out the Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and declination
of the Sun, Moon, four navigational planets, and each of the selected stars for
any second of Greenwich Mean Time throughout the year.

Figure 20.1. The right-hand page of the daily pages

 On each set of facing pages, information is listed for three consecutive
days. On the left-hand page, successive columns list GHA of Aries (γ), and
both GHA and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, followed by
the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) and declination of 57 navigation stars. The
GHA and declination of the Sun and the Moon, and the horizontal parallax of
the Moon, are listed on the right-hand page.
Where applicable, the quantities v and d are given to assist in
interpolation. The quantity v is the difference between the actual change of
GHA in 1 hour and a constant value used in the interpolation tables, while d is
the change in declination in 1 hour. Both v and d are listed to the nearest 0.1'.
To the right of the Moon data is listed the Local Mean Time (LMT) of
sunrise, sunset, and beginning and ending of nautical and civil twilight for
latitudes from 72°N to 60°S. The LMT of moonrise and moonset at the same
latitudes is listed for each of the three days for which other information is
given, and for the following day. The UT of transit across the celestial
meridian of Greenwich is listed as “Mer. Pass.” For the Sun and Moon, the
time of transit to the nearest whole minute is given for each day. For the
Moon, both upper and lower transits are given. This information is tabulated
below the rising, setting, and twilight information.

Figure 20.2. Meridian passes of the Sun and the Moon

Also listed, are the equation of time for 0h and 12h, and the age and
phase of the Moon. Equation of time is listed, without sign, to the nearest
whole second. Age is given to the nearest whole day. Phase is given by
symbol.
The main tabulation is followed by explanations and examples. Next
are four pages of standard times (zone descriptions), the Star charts and the
list of 173 stars in order of increasing SHA. This list includes the stars given
on the daily pages. It gives the SHA and declination each month, and the
magnitude. Following the star list are the Polaris tables. These tables give the
azimuth and the corrections to be applied to the observed altitude to find the
latitude. Following the Polaris table is a section that gives formulas and
examples for the entry of almanac data, the calculations that reduce a sight,
and a method of solution for position, all for use with a calculator or
microcomputer. This is followed by concise sight reduction tables, with
instructions and examples, for use when a calculator or traditional sight
reduction tables are not available. Tabular precision of the concise tables is
one minute of arc. Next is a table for converting arc to time units. This is
followed by a 30-page table called “Increments and Corrections,” used for
interpolation of GHA and declination. This table is printed on tinted paper for
quick location. Then come tables for interpolating for times of rise, set, and
twilight; followed by two indices of the 57 stars listed on the daily pages, one
index in alphabetical order, and the other in order of decreasing SHA.

Figure 20.3. Altitude correction tables-Additional corrections

 Sextant altitude corrections are given at the front and back of the
almanac. Tables for the Sun, stars, and planets, and a dip table, are given on
the inside front cover and facing page, with an additional correction for
nonstandard temperature and atmospheric pressure on the following page.
Tables for the Moon, and an abbreviated dip table, are given on the
inside back cover and facing page. Corrections for the Sun, stars, and planets
for altitudes greater than 10°, and the dip table, are repeated on one side of a
loose bookmark. The star indices are repeated on the other side.
20.2. Using the nautical Almanac
20.2.1. Finding GHA and Declination of a Star
If the GHA and declination of each navigational star were tabulated
separately, the almanacs would be several times their present size. But since
the sidereal hour angle and the declination are nearly constant over several
days (to the nearest 0.1') or months (to the nearest 1'), separate tabulations are
not needed. Instead, the GHA of the first point of Aries, from which SHA is
measured, is tabulated on the daily pages, and a single listing of SHA and
declination is given for each double page of the Nautical Almanac.
Enter the daily page table with the whole hour before the given GMT,
unless this time is a whole hour, and extract the tabulated GHA of Aries. Also
record the tabulated SHA and declination of the star from the listing on the
left-hand daily page. Next, enter the increments and corrections table for the
minutes of GMT, and, on the line for the seconds of GMT, extract the GHA
correction from the Aries column. Add this correction and the SHA of the star
to the GHA on the daily page to find the GHA of the star at the given time.
No adjustment of declination is needed.
The SHA and declination of 173 stars, including Polaris and the 57
listed on the daily pages, are given for the middle of each month. For a star
not listed on the daily pages, this is the only almanac source of this
information. Interpolation in this table is not necessary.
20.2.2. Finding GHA and Declination of the Sun
Enter the daily page table with the whole hour before the given GMT,
unless the exact time is a whole hour, and take out the tabulated GHA and
declination. Also record the d value given at the bottom of the declination
column. Next, enter the increments and corrections table for the number of
minutes of GMT. If there are seconds, use the next earlier whole minute. On
the line corresponding to the seconds of GMT, extract the value from the Sun-
Planets column. Add this to the value of GHA from the daily page. This is
GHA of the Sun. Next, enter the correction table for the same minute with the
d value and take out the correction. Give this the sign of the d value and apply
it to the declination from the daily page. This is the declination.
The correction table for GHA of the Sun is based upon a rate of change
of 15° per hour, the average rate during a year. At most times the rate differs
slightly. The slight error is minimized by adjustment of the tabular values.
The d value is the amount that the declination changes between 1200 and
1300 on the middle day of the three shown.
20.3. Examples
20.3.1. Example 1
Required the GHA and Dec of the star Arcturus at 10h50m30s GMT,
12 Feb, 2002?
th

From the Almanac .

tγB = 37034,0’
t = 12039,6’
tγG = 50013,6’
τ = 146003,7’
t*G = 196007,3’
 = 19010,2’ N
20.3.2. Example 2
Required GHA and Declination of the Sun at 4h20m30s GMT, 15 th
Dec, 2002?
From the Almanac
tB = 346014,0’
t = 5007,5’
tG = 351021,5’
 B = 23016,2’ S
 = 0
 = 23016,2’ S
20.4. Vocabulary and phrases
Altitude: If something is at a particular altitude, it is at that height above sea
level.
Increment: An increment in something or in the value of something is an
amount by which it increases.
Declination: A heavenly body’s angular distance north or south of the
celestial equator. Used as a coordinate with Greenwich hour angle to identity
positions of celestial bodies.
Twilight: A period before sunrise and after sunset during which light is
reflected from the Sun. The four kinds, depending on angular distance of the
Sun below the horizon, are civil at 6 degrees, observational at 10 degrees,
nautical at 12 degrees and astronomical at 18 degrees.
Tinted: If something is tinted, it has a small amount of a particular color or
dye in it.
20.5. Exercises
a. What are the five main parts of the nautical almanac?
b. What is the most important part of the nautical almanac?
c. What is the main purpose of the Increment and Correction tables?
d. Required GHA and Dec of the star Sirius at 0h20m30s GMT, 12 th Dec,
2002?
e. Required GHA and Dec of the Sun at 3h20m30s GMT, 14th Feb, 2002?
 Unit 21
ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM (ECDIS)

21.1. Introduction to Electronic Chart Display and Information System

Since the beginning of maritime navigation, the desire of the navigator
has always been to answer a fundamental question: “Where, exactly, is my
vessel?” To answer that question, the navigator was forced to continually take
fixes on celestial bodies, on fixed objects ashore, or using radio signals, and
plot the resulting lines of position as a fix on a paper chart. Only then could
he begin to assess the safety of the ship and its progress toward its destination.
He spent far more time taking fixes, working out solutions, and plotting the
results than on making assessments, and the fix only told him where the ship
was at the time that fix was taken, not where the vessel was some time later
when the assessment was made. He was always “behind the vessel.” On the
high seas this is of little import. Near shore, it becomes vitally important.
The Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) is a
ship-borne real-time electronic navigational system that is capable of
integrating navigational positioning system and ship sensors with the
electronic navigational charts (ENCs). The International Maritime
Organization (IMO) had adopted it as a paper chart equivalent in November
1995. At its simplest, an ECDIS consists of a database of electronic charts,
together with the hardware and software needed to display simultaneously the
charts and the ship’s own position (obtained from a GPS or another
positioning sensor), and to perform navigational tasks such as route planning,
route monitoring, measurement of distances on the chart, etc. Electronic
charts also allow the integration of other operational data, such as ship’s
course and speed, depth soundings, and radar data into the display. Further,
they allow automation of alarm systems to alert the navigator to potentially
dangerous situations well in advance of a disaster.
Electronic charts automate the process of integrating real-time positions
with the chart display and allow the navigator to continuously assess the
position and safety of the vessel. Further, the GPS/DGPS fixes are far more
accurate and taken far more often than any navigator ever could. A good
piloting team is expected to take and plot a fix every three minutes. An
electronic chart system can do it once per second to a standard of accuracy.
Finally, the navigator has a complete picture of the instantaneous
situation of the vessel, and all charted dangers in the area. With a radar
overlay, the tactical situation with respect to other vessels is clear as well.
21.2. Terminology
Before understanding ECDIS, what an electronic chart is, and what it
does, one must learn a number of terms and definitions. We must first make a
distinction between official and unofficial charts. Official charts are those,
and only those, produced by a government hydrographic office (HO).
Unofficial charts are produced by a variety of private companies and may or
may not meet the same standards used by HO’s for data accuracy, currency,
and completeness.
An electronic chart system (ECS) is a commercial electronic chart
system not designed to satisfy the regulatory requirements of the IMO Safety
of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention. ECS is an aid to navigation and when
used on SOLAS regulated vessels, is to be used in conjunctions with
corrected paper charts.
An electronic navigational chart (ENC) is an electronic chart issued by
a national hydrographic authority designed to satisfy the regulatory
requirements for chart carriage.
An electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) is an
electronic chart system which satisfies the SOLAS convention carriage
requirements for corrected paper charts when used with an ENC.
A raster navigation chart (RNC) is a raster formatted chart produced by
a national hydrographic office.
A raster chart display system (RCDS) is a system which displays
official raster formatted charts on an ECDIS system. Raster charts cannot take
the place of paper charts because they lack key features required by the IMO,
so that when an ECDIS uses raster charts it operates in the ECS mode.
Raster chart data is a digitized “picture” of a chart comprised of
millions of “picture elements” or “pixels.” All data is in one layer and one
format. The video display simply reproduces the picture from its digitized
data file. With raster data, it is difficult to change individual elements of the
chart since they are not separated in the data file. Raster data files tend to be
large, since a data point with associated color and intensity values must be
entered for every pixel on the chart.
ENC data or Vector chart data is data that is organized into many
separate files or layers. It contains graphics files and programs to produce
certain symbols, points, lines, and areas with associated colors, text, and other
chart elements. The programmer can change individual elements in the file
and link elements to additional data. Vector files of a given area are a fraction
the size of raster files, and at the same time much more versatile. The
navigator can selectively display vector data, adjusting the display according
to his needs. Vector data supports the computation of precise distances
between features and can provide warnings when hazardous situations arise.
21.3. Legal Aspects of Using Electronic Charts
An extensive body of rules and regulations controls the production of
ECDIS equipment, which must meet certain high standards of reliability and
performance. By definition, only an ECDIS can replace a paper chart. No
system which is not an ECDIS relieves the navigator of the responsibility of
maintaining a plot on a corrected paper chart. Neither can the presence of an
electronic chart system substitute for good judgment, sea sense, and taking all
reasonable precautions to ensure the safety of the vessel and crew.
21.4. Components of ECDIS
ECDIS encompasses many possible combinations of equipment and
software designed for a variety of navigational purposes. In general, the
following components comprise an ECDIS.
- Computer processor, software, and network: These subsystems
control the processing of information from the vessel’s navigation
sensors and the flow of information between various system
components. Electronic positioning information from GPS, contact
information from radar, and digital compass data, for example, can
be integrated with the electronic chart data.
- Chart database: At the heart of ECDIS lies a database of digital
charts, which is Electronic Nautical Chart. It is this dataset, or a
portion of it, that produces the chart seen on the display screen.
- System display: This unit displays the electronic chart and indicates
the vessel’s position on it, and provides other information such as
heading, speed, distance to the next waypoint or destination,
soundings, etc.
- User interface: This is the user’s link to the system. It allows the
navigator to change system parameters, enter data, control the
display, and operate the various functions of the system. Radar may
 be integrated with the ECDIS or ECS for navigation or collision
avoidance, but is not required by SOLAS regulations.

GNSS/GPS Computer Gyrocompass

AIS ENC Radar/ARPA

Water level Updates

Current Echo Sounder
Ice information

Figure 21.1. Components of ECDIS

21.5. Characteristic of ECDIS
The ENC data is the only data of IHO S-57 standards transformed into
the ECDIS for display and use. The standardized color and symbol is
required in accordance with IHO S-52 standards. The scale in display the
ENC can be changed by the user freely by means of the display scale.
Additional navigational-related information depends on the layer of display
can be manipulated by the user. The ECDIS is a sophisticated navigational
system that provides alarms or indications with regard to preset safety
parameters, e.g. safe depth, safe contour etc. Other navigational sources such
as Satellite Positioning System (GPS), Automatic Identification System (AIS)
and Radar and ARPA picture, etc. can be overlaid on the ECDIS screen for
navigation purpose.
21.6. ECDIS Performance Standards
The specifications for ECDIS consist of a set of interrelated standards
from three organizations, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), and the International Electro-
technical Commission (IEC). The IMO published a resolution in November
1995 to establish performance standards for the general functionality of
ECDIS, and to define the conditions for its replacement of paper charts.
The IMO performance standards specify the following general
requirements: Display of government-authorized vector chart data including
an updating capability; enable route planning, route monitoring, manual
positioning, and continuous plotting of the ship’s position; have a presentation
as reliable and available as an official paper chart; provide appropriate alarms
or indications regarding displayed information or malfunctions; and permit a
mode of operation with raster charts similar to the above standards.
Initially, IMO regulations require the use of vector data in an ECDIS;
raster data does not have the flexibility needed to do what the ECDIS must
do. But it soon became clear that the hydrographic offices of the world would
not be able to produce vector data for any significant part of the world for
some years. Meanwhile, commercial interests were rasterizing charts as fast
as they could for the emerging electronic chart market, and national hydro-
graphic offices began rasterizing their own inventories to meet public
demand. The result was a rather complete set of raster data for the most
heavily traveled waters of the world, while production of man-power
intensive vector data lagged far behind. IMO regulations were then amended
to allow ECDIS to function in an RCDS mode using official raster data in
conjunction with an appropriate portfolio of corrected paper charts. Nations
may issue regulations authorizing the use of RCDS and define what
constitutes an appropriate folio of paper charts for use in their waters.
When ECDIS is using non-official ENC data, or ENC data without
updates, it can be said to be operating in an ECS mode, and as such cannot be
used as a substitute for official, corrected paper charts.
21.7. Display Characteristics
While manufacturers of electronic chart systems have designed their
own proprietary colors and symbols, the IMO Performance Standard requires
that all IMO approved ECDIS follow the International Hydrographic
Organization (IHO) Color & Symbol Specifications. In order for ECDIS to
enhance the safety of navigation, every detail of the display should be clearly
visible and unambiguous in its meaning. The symbols for ECDIS are based on
the familiar paper chart symbols, with some optional extras such as simplified
buoy symbols that show up better at night.
21.8. Units, Data Layers and Calculations
ECDIS uses the following units of measure:
- Position: Latitude and longitude will be shown in degrees, minutes,
and decimal minutes, normally based on WGS-84 datum.
 - Depth: Depths will be indicated in meters and decimeters.
- Height: Meters
- Distance: Nautical miles
- Speed: Knots
21.9. Vocabulary and phrases
Integrate. If you integrate one thing with another, or one thing integrates with
another, the two things become closely linked or form part of a whole idea or
system. You can also say that two things integrate.
Potential. Potential is used to describe someone or something which is
capable of developing into the particular kind of person or thing mentioned.
Component. The components of something are the parts that it is made of.
Collision. A collision occurs when a moving object crashes into something.
SOLAS. The International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea
WGS-84. The World Geodetic System 1984 designed for satellite system.
The WGS-84 coordinate system is geocentrically positioned with respect to
the centre of the Earth.
Hydrography. Is art of surveying and recording of measurements obtained in
sea and connected navigable waters, including adjacent lands and additional
data required for safe navigation.
Buoy. Floating, moored artificial mark erected for different purposes such as
marking channel, danger, etc. It is identified by characteristic colour, light,
shape, and topmark.
21.10. Exercises
a) What is the difference between an official and unofficial chart?
b) What are the differences between an electronic navigational chart (ENC)
and a raster navigational chart (RNC)?
c) Describe the components of ECDIS?
d) What is the legal status of ECDIS? What are the basis requirements that an
ECDIS must fulfill to be equivalent to paper chart?
Unit 22