Maney Publishing

Architecture and Chronology at the Site of Sechín Alto, Casma Valley, Peru
Author(s): Thomas Pozorski and Shelia Pozorski
Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Summer, 2005), pp. 143-161
Published by: Maney Publishing
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 143

Architecture and Chronology at the Site

of Sechin Alto, Casma Valley, Peru

Thomas Pozorski
Shelia Pozorski
University of Texas-PanAmerican
Edinburg, Texas

TheInitial Period,between2150 and 1000 cal B.C.,was a eriticaltime in the development

of civilizationwithin theAndean area of SouthAmerica.About 2100 cal B.C.,within sev-
eral rivervalleysalong the north-centralcoastof Peru, suddenchangesoccurredin subsis-
tence,settlementpattern, and levelof culturalcomplexity.Thesechangeswereespecially
notablewithin the Casma Valleywherelaborwas mobilizedto build largeflat-toppedpyra-
midsand plaza systemsthat occupiedthe centersof large cities.Thesite of SechinAlto, with
an estimatedpopulationof 18,000, is the largestInitial Periodsite in the Casma Valleyon
the north-centralcoastof Peru. Our researchhas shownthat successive changesin the con-
structionand use of the main Sechin Alto mound can be used to document the riseandfall
of a state-levelInitial Periodpolity. We illustratethis developmentby describingthe chrono-
logicalsequence for the main mound of Sechin Alto, the site'srelationshipwith othersites
within the Casma Valleyarea, and the reuse and abandonment of the site during the
EarlyHorizon (1000-200 cal B.C.).These featuresof what may the earliestAndean
be
stateprovidecriticalcomparative fordata scholarsof societaldevelopmentworldwide.

Introduction a cohesive whole. A sizeable labor force was mobilized

The Initial Period (2150-1000 cal B.C.) in ancient Peru
witnessed rapid and fundamentalchanges in the lifestyle of
the inhabitants of the north and central coasts. Our field-
work at earlier Cotton Preceramic (3000-2150 cal B.C.)
sites in the Casma Valley area, as well as published results
of recent fieldwork in the Supe-Pativilca-Fortalezaarea
south of Casma (Haas, Creamer, and Ruiz 2004, 2005;
Shady 1997; Shady, Haas, and Creamer2001), have doc-
umented preceramicprecedents for the monumental archi-
tecture that arose further inland within the Casma Valley.
Essential architecturalelements such as bilateralsymmetry
and balance, mound building, and specific mound and
plaza structuretypes at some prepottery sites presage later
Initial Period developments. Nevertheless, these preceram-
ic antecedents are dwarfed by their early ceramic succes-
sors, especially the Sechin Alto polity within the Casma
Valley.
The successiveconstruction and use phases of the largest
mound within the Sechin Alto polity revealkey elements of
the rise and fall of an Initial Period state. When these de-
velopments areput in a largercontext, the polity is revealed
as a collection of sites with complementary roles that form
from a large population to create and maintain sites that
adhered to strict architecturalcanons. Among these sites, a
five-tier hierarchycan be distinguished, ranging from small
coastal fishing satellites to Sechin Alto site, the polity cap-
ital. Persistence of architecturalelements and site layout
through time and space argue for hegemony across many
generations. Specific architecturalcontexts and associated
artifacts argue that a distinctive architectural form, the
square-roomunit, functioned simultaneously as a structure
type and an emblem of authority.In the absence of metal-
lurgy and well-developed ceramic and textile technologies,
Sechin Alto polity leaders manifested conspicuous con-
sumption, ideology, and artistic achievement through
monumental construction that featured modular units,
precision in layout, and polychrome friezes. This powerful
polity, possibly the earliest Andean state, declined about
1400 cal B.C. because of the combined effects of internal
conflict and a severe El Nino event.
At the beginning of the Initial Period, the full potential
of irrigation agriculturewas realized; and this innovation,
along with the concepts of pottery-making and true weav-
ing, spread along much of the Peruviancoast. The majori-
ty of the existing coastal populations relocated severalkilo-

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 144 Architectureand Chronology
at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
Figure 1. Map of the CasmaValley area showing the location of
early sites.
meters inland to optimal places to practice irrigation agri-
culture that supplied a reliable and expandable food base
(Burger 1992; Morris and von Hagen 1993; Moseley
1992; Richardson 1994). Within a few generations, large
settlements served as centers of substantial polities with
growing populations that were socially, economically, and
politicallycomplex. The largest settlements within the Cas-
ma Valley are the Sechin Alto Complex, a group of four re-
lated sites that dominated the Sechin River, and Pampa de
las Llamas-Moxeke, the largest site on the Casma River
(figs. 1-3). These sites were furtherlinked with a group of
coastal sites that supplied vital marine protein (Pozorski
and Pozorski 1987, 1991).
The Initial Period within the Casma Valley area is char-
acterized by two developments which we designate as the
Moxeke and Las Haldas cultures. The Moxeke Culture is
most relevantbecauseit culminated in the Sechin Alto poli-
ty and construction of Sechin Alto site; it was defined at
Pampa de las Llamas-Moxekeand it is characterizedby ce-
ramic forms of neckless jars decorated predominantly by
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deep gouges on the vessel shoulder (fig. 4) as well as ce-
ramic figurines, stone bowls or mortars, and a distinct
modular architecturalform known as the square-roomunit
which had an administrative function (Pozorski and Po-
zorski 1986, 1994). The Moxeke Culture is also known
from the inland Sechin Alto Complex sites of Sechin Alto,
Sechin Bajo, Cerro Sechin, and Taukachi-Konkanas well as
the coastal sites of Bahia Seca, Tortugas, and Huaynuna
(Pozorski and Pozorski 1992, 2002).
The decline of the Sechin Alto polity near the end of the
Initial Period allowed the people of the Las Haldas Culture
to intrude into Sechin Alto territory and construct an ad-
ministrative outpost at Sechin Alto. This culture was ini-
tially defined at Las Haldas on the basis of ceramics.Small
punctations, often in zoned patterns, on bottles predomi-
nate (fig. 5), and there is a greater proportion of decorat-
ed ceramicswithin the Las Haldas Culture compared to the
Moxeke Culture (Pozorski and Pozorski 1987). Addition-
al architecturaltraits such as shared-wallconstruction, less
use of rounded corners, and rear-oriented access further
distinguish the Las Haldas Culture from the Moxeke Cul-
ture. Las Haldas culturalmaterialhas been found at Bahia
Seca on the coast and at the Sechin Alto Complex sites of
Sechin Alto and Taukachi-Konkan.
Sechin Alto site was heavily occupied during the subse-
quent Early Horizon, a time of marked change in subsis-
tence, artifacts, and settlement pattern with a stronger in-
land orientation. The Initial Period emphasis on immense
platform mounds, rigid site planning, and bilateral site
symmetry gave way to villages where room and courtyard
complexes have varied orientations. Early Horizon squat-
ters treated the main mound as if it were a hill and con-
structed a village on its summit. Maize, camelids, and
guinea pigs were added to the subsistence inventory, and
new artifactsappeared,including panpipes and slate points
(fig. 6). The new ceramics are also distinctive because of
their exterior decoration including textile impressions,
zoned gray or white paint, and stamped circles and dots
(fig. 7). Later cultural developments within the Casma
Valley had little impact on Sechin Alto site. Brief reoccu-
pations were represented only by intrusive burials and oc-
casional dry-laidstone rooms.
SechinAlto Site
The Initial Period site of Sechin Alto, located on the
Sechin River branch of the Casma Valley, is part of a 10.5
sq km group of sites known as the Sechin Alto Complex
(figs. 1-3). Of the four sites that make up the complex-
Sechin Alto, Sechin Bajo, Cerro Sechin, and Taukachi-
Konkan- Sechin Alto is by far the largest (Pozorski and
Pozorski 1987: 82, 2002: 21). The main mound of Sechin

Figure 2. View of the main mound of Sechin Alto from the east.
Alto is300x250m and 35 m in height and is the largest
mound construction for its time period in the New World.
Four large rectangularplazas demarcatedby massive stone
walls and smallerstone mounds extend almost 1200 m east
from the main mound. There are also two sunken circular
plazas, one in the second rectangularplaza and one in the
fourth rectangularplaza.
The general configuration of the mound includes a cen-
tral staircasethat leads from a lower atrium flanked by 10
m high wings to an upper atrium, which is also bordered
by wings on the north and south and by the mound sum-
mit to the west (fig. 8). Between the lower and upper atria
there is an increasein elevation of about 11.5 m. A second
long staircaseleads to the mound summit at an elevation
some 12.75 m above the upper atrium floor. Most con-
struction is of stones quarriedfrom nearbyhillsides and set
in silty clay mortar. A solid rectangular "core" made of
cone-shaped adobe bricksheld in place by silty clay mortar
and measuring some 90 m n-s by 30 m e-w and 9 m in
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Journal ofField ArchaeologyfVol 30, 2005 145
height occupies the center of the mound summit. Conical
adobe brickswere also occasionallyused to construct stair-
cases and the upper portions of stone walls.
PreviousInvestigations
Surface survey of Sechin Alto site was undertakenover
the past 65 years (Fung and Williams 1977: 116-120;
Kosok 1965: 214-215; Tello 1956: 79-82; Thompson
1962: 294) and Collier excavated two test pits there in
1956 (Collier 1962: 411). Most investigators agreed on an
"early"date for the site based on the form and layout of its
surface architectureand the small amount of cultural ma-
terial excavatedby Collier.
Current Investigations
Eight field seasons (1995-2002) of excavationsupport-
ed the early dating, and led us to assign the bulk of Sechin
Alto mound construction to the Initial Period (table i).
The general form of the main mound clearly indicates an
 146 Architectureand Chronology
at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski

Figure 3. Plan of the Sechin Alto Complex showing the location of its four component sites, Cerro Sechin, Taukachi-Konkan,Sechin Bajo,
and Sechin Alto as well as A) the south wing of the first plaza east of the main mound, and B) the domestic area of Sechin Alto.

Initial Period construction, but most architecturaldetail re-
lated to that construction is unclear. The main difficulty
stems from a major Early Horizon (1000-200 cal B.C.)re-
occupation of the mound summit after a hiatus in occupa-
tion of about 500 years. These new occupants left volumi-
nous midden deposits as well as structures built with ma-
terial taken from the earlierInitial Period constructions.
Our excavations at Sechin Alto focused on the delin-
eation of access patterns (staircasesand entrances) of the
Initial Period architecture,stratigraphicexcavation of por-
tions of the mound to establish chronological controls, de-
tailed examination of specific areasto obtain functional in-
formation pertaining to the Initial Period occupation, and
horizontal clearing of some Early Horizon architectureto
better understand that reoccupation. These excavations
were accomplished in eight 10-week field seasons with the
aid of a Peruvian codirector, 2 to 4 students, and 7 to 20
Peruvianworkmen each season. Excavationunits were 2 m
squares, and earth moving was accomplished using picks,
shovels, and trowels. Excavated material within 10 cm of
floors and within features was screened through 1/4 inch
screen, representativesamples were screened through #10
and #25 geological soil screens, and pollen and radiocar-
bon samples were collected from appropriate contexts.
Workmen readily carried stones weighing up to 130 kg;
larger stones were moved using ropes and/or solid poles as
rollers or skids. Moving the largest stone required 16
workmen.
Chronological Sequence at Sechin Alto
Six phases of construction and occupation were docu-
mented. Construction of the mound took place during the

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 Journal of'FieldArchaeology/Vol. 30, 2005 147

Figure 4. Decorated pottery from the Moxeke Phase of Sechin Alto also found at Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke. Scale is cm.

Figure 5. Decorated pottery from the Haldas Phase of Sechin Alto. It is also found at Las Haldas. Scale is cm.

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 at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
148 Architectureand Chronology

Figure 6. Polished slate points from the Early Horizon reoccupation of Figure 7. Pottery from the Early Horizon reoccupation of Sechin Alto,
Sechin Alto, also found at San Diego and Pampa Rosario. also found at San Diego and Pampa Rosario.

Moxeke Phase which spanned most of the Initial Period
and can be subdivided into Moxeke Phases A and B be-
cause two major construction episodes are clearly evident
(there is no discernible change in associated artifacts).Ra-
diocarbon dates suggest approximatetime spans of 2150-
1500 cal B.C.and 1500-1400 cal B.C.respectivelyfor these
subphases.The remainderof the Initial Period, from about
1400 to 1000 cal B.C., has been designated the Haldas
Phase to distinguish a new cultural presence. These Initial
Period construction phases are followed by the EarlyHori-
zon reoccupation as well as later Middle Horizon and
"Transitional"Period ephemeraluses of the mound.
MoxekePhase
The Moxeke Phase as a whole can be dated to between
2150 and 1400 cal B.C. based on radiocarbon dates from
Pampade las Llamas-Moxeke,Taukachi-Konkan,Bahia Se-
ca, and Cerro Sechin. Sechin Alto site dates fall near the
end of this phase, between 1600 and 1400 cal B.C. (table
i), reflecting the fact that our excavationswere confined to
the upper half of the mound. Moxeke Phase ceramicswere
found in association with Moxeke Phase A architecture,in
the overlying construction and fill pertaining to Moxeke
Phase B, and within a domestic areain the se corner of the
Sechin Alto Complex (fig. 3B). Architecture dating to
Moxeke Phase A was exposed in four areas of the main
mound: the conical core, the depression east of the adobe
core, the north wing of the upper atrium, and the lowest
segment of the central staircase.Moxeke Phase B architec-
ture was exposed on the mound summit, both wings of the
upper atrium, and on an intermediate-sized mound bor-
dering the first plaza.
MOXEKE PHASE A
Moxeke Phase A, the earliest period of occupation yet
identified at Sechin Alto, saw the building of a significant
portion of the main mound, possibly as much as two-thirds
of its 2,000,000 cu m final volume. The adobe core was
likely the tallest part of the mound summit at this time
(fig. 8a-c). It was originally a solid construction standing
at least 9 m above the adjacentmound surface.Excavation
of an intact portion of the west side (fig. 8c) revealedthat

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 Journal of Field Archaeolqgy/Vol.30, 2005 149

Figure 8. Plan of the main mound of the Sechin Alto site showing: A) North end of the adobe core; B) East
exterior face of the adobe core; C) West exterior face of the adobe core; D) Deep depression east of the
adobe core; E) North wing of the upper atrium; F) Staircasesystem between the lower atrium and the upper
atrium; G) Corridor leading to the summit of the adobe core; H) Summit room; I) Staircasesystem between
the upper atrium and the summit room; J) South wing of the upper atrium; K) Early Horizon architecture
on the mound summit.

the 9 m height included both a bench which is 3.5 m tall
and 4.7 m wide and the 5.5 m tall wall segment above the
bench. Tracesof square columns were found at the adobe
core's nw and ne corners. Polychrome friezes decorate
remnantsof three columns in the nw corner. Each frieze is
distinct, but not enough remains to determine precise mo-
tifs. Two samples of wood from postholes within the
columns yielded dates of 1540 ± 60 and 1410 ± 55 cal
B.C. (table i). We believe these square column remnants
were part of two long colonnades, perhaps containing as
many as 45 columns each, which lined the east and west
sides of the adobe core surface (fig. 8).
East of the adobe core a 15 m deep depression facilitat-
ed excavation of a pair of partiallypreservedrooms associ-
ated with Pampade las Llamas-Moxeke type pottery (figs.
8b, 8d, 9). One of these is a square-room unit, a modular
building form composed of a square room with round ex-
terior corners that denotes administrative architecture at
Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke and Taukachi-Konkan(Po-
zorski and Pozorski 1994: 53). The square-room unit at
Sechin Alto rests on a platform made of conical adobe
bricksthat stands at least 5 m above a floor that appearsto
be part of a small courtyard or open area. Charcoal from
this floor yielded a date of 1510 ± 60 cal B.C. (table i).
Moxeke Phase A architecturewas also discovered with-
in the wing north of the upper atrium (fig. 8e). A 3 m

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150 Architecture and Chronologyat Sechin Alto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorski and Pozorski

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates from the site of Sechin Alto.

Sampleno. Radiocarbon Uncalibrated Calibrated* Material Archaeologicalcontext
yearsb.p date b.c. date B.C. dated
Beta-172352 3320 ± 60 1370 ± 60 1610 ± 80 totornreed Roofing material found on floor of a narrow corridor east of the adobe core,
matting Moxeke Phase B
Beta-110593 3300 ± 50 1350 ± 50 1540 ± 60 wood Within a posthole in a column in the ne corner of the adobe core, Moxeke
Phase A
Beta-110592 3240 ± 60 1290 ± 60 1510 ± 60 charcoal Within 10 cm of floor of deep room east of adobe core, Moxeke Phase A

Beta-138056 3240 ± 50 1290 ± 50 1510 ± 55 wood Within a pilaster of an entrance in the wing structurenorth of the upper-
atrium, Haldas Phase
Beta-124948 3240 ± 60 1290 ± 60 1510 ± 60 charcoal Within Sq. 2, level 15, domestic area in se corner of Sechin Alto Complex,
Moxeke Phase B
Beta-150768 3220 ± 60 1270 ± 60 1500 ± 55 charcoal Within fill 85-145 cm below surface of Initial Period gray plaster floor in
and wood wing structurenorth of the upper atrium, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-150766 3170 ± 60 1220 ± 60 1430 ± 50 wood Within a pilaster of an entrance in the wing structurenorth of the upper
atrium, Haldas Phase
Beta-138058 3160 ± 60 1210 ± 60 1425 ± 50 charcoal Within a hearth near floor of Haldas Phase rooms in wing structurenorth of
the upper atrium
Beta-124947 3150 ± 60 1200 ± 60 1420 ± 35 charcoal Fill materialwithin 10 cm of floor of square-room unit on adobe platform
within deep room, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-124945 3140 ± 60 1190 ± 60 1410 ± 55 wood Within a posthole in column in the nw corner of adobe core, Moxeke Phase A

Beta-150767 3110 ± 70 1160 ± 70 1400 ± 70 wood Within 7 postholes in Initial Period gray floor in the wing structurenorth of
the upper atrium, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-164488 3090 ± 70 1140 ± 70 1390 ± 70 charcoal Fill material 0-40 cm below room floor within south wing of first main plaza
east of main mound of Sechin Alto, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-172353 3090 ± 60 1140 ± 60 1390 ± 65 charcoal Fill material 50-60 cm below corridor floor, in domestic area in se corner of
Sechin Alto Complex, Haldas Phase
Beta-110594 3080 ± 60 1130 ± 60 1380 ± 60 charcoal Within Square 1, level 18/19, domestic area in se corner of Sechin Alto
Complex, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-138057 3050 ± 70 1100 ± 70 1305 ± 95 wood Post within corridor in wing structurenorth of the upper atrium, Haldas
Phase
Beta-124946 3040 ± 60 1090 ± 60 1295 ± 95 charcoal Fill material 1.5 m above the floor of the square-room unit on adobe platform
within deep room, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-172354 3010 ± 70 1060 ± 70 1270 ± 125 charcoal Fill material 0-30 cm below floor #4 of room in south wing of first main
plaza east of main mound, Sechin Alto, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-172351 3000 ± 60 1050 ± 60 1260 ± 115 junco plantWithin a column hole of a room within the wing south of the upper
fiber rope atrium, Moxeke Phase B
Beta-138059 2930 ± 60 980 ± 60 1120 ± 110 charcoal Within an intrusive hearth located above Haldas Phase architecturein wing
structurenorth of the upper atrium
Beta-150765 2860 ± 60 910 ± 60 1010 ± 90 wood East post of main south entrance in the wing structurenorth of the upper
atrium, late Haldas Phase
Beta-16448 7 2760 ± 60 810 ± 60 900 ± 70 charcoal Within an intrusive hearth on low platform in south wing of first main plaza
east of main mound, Sechin Alto, late Haldas Phase
Beta-110591 2210 ± 60 260 ± 60 290 ± 70 charcoal Within an intrusive hearth in Early Horizon midden layer overlying Moxeke
Phase B architectureeast of the east end of the upper atrium
Beta-150769 2110 ± 60 160 ± 60 160 ± 75 charcoal Within intrusive hearth overlying Haldas Phase architecturein wing structure
north of upper atrium
* Periods in this
paper are based on calibratedradiocarbondates (Stuiver et al. 1998).

wide staircasesystem made largely of conical adobe bricks
partiallyunderlies a large room block associated with Las
Haldas type pottery (fig. io). The south portion of the
staircaseleads north from the upper atrium up to a land-
ing. At the north end of the landing the staircasedescends
to a well-preserved plaster floor that forms part of a large
room or courtyard.The northern end of this staircaseand
associated room are covered by 3.75 m of rocky construc-
tion fill dating to Moxeke Phase B, upon which rests the
later Haldas Phase construction.

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 Journal of Field Archaeology'/Vol.30, 2005 151

Figure 9. View from the sw of the buried Moxeke Phase A adobe platform supporting remains of a
square-roomunit and a rectangularroom.

Two staircasesystems currently ascend the east face of
the main mound along its centralaxis. Only the lower stair-
case system, rising from the lower to the upper atrium
(fig. 8f), was in use during Moxeke Phase A. Two con-
struction phases are evident in this staircaseand they likely
pertain to Moxeke Phases A and B. A short segment of the
earlier staircase was exposed at the bottom of the lower
staircasesystem where four of its steps extend east beyond
the west wall of the lower atrium. Higher up, this staircase
was inset, and its size and configuration were very proba-
bly like the Moxeke Phase B staircasethat currently over-
lies it.
MOXEKE PHASE B
The main mound and its associated four rectangular
plazasand two sunken circularplazas attained their present
configuration during Moxeke Phase B. Evidence of Mox-
eke Phase B construction was exposed in the adobe core
area,the summit room, the centralstaircase,and the north
and south wings of the upper atrium. Moxeke Phase B ar-
chitecture was also encountered during excavation of a
small mound bordering the first plaza (fig. 3A), and the
midden and residentialarchitectureto the se also probably
date to this phase (fig. 3B).
The adobe core continued to be used during Moxeke
Phase B when all four sides were surrounded and covered
by stone and mud fill which raised the height of much of
the mound some 9 m, up to the height of the adobe core
surface.The few diagnostic ceramicsfound in this fill were
all Moxeke Phase, and two dates for the construction fill of
1420 ± 35 and 1295 ± 95 cal B.C.were crucial in dating
the upper construction fill of the mound to Moxeke Phase
B (table 1). These dates establish a lower bracketingdate
for the Initial Period architecturebuilt on the fill.

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 152 Architectureand Chronology
at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
Figure 10. Plan of the Haldas Phase Initial Period architectureon the
wing structureof the upper atrium.
Recent excavations revealed a relatively intact stone-
lined corridor (fig. 8g) that connects the top of the adobe
core with the summit room (fig. 8h). The corridor, mea-
suring 1.25 m wide with side walls standing 2.5 m, re-
stricted access to the top of the adobe core during this
phase. Roofing material recovered from the floor of the
corridoryielded a date of 1610 ± 80 cal B.C.(table i). We
believe the adobe core was originally a solid construction
that supported a long rectangular surface bordered by
friezed colonnades. This layout and iconography, coupled
with the restrictedaccess to the area,suggests strongly that
this zone served as a ritualprecinct at the center of the main
mound during both Moxeke phases.
The summit room was constructed during Moxeke
Phase B upon fill that also dates to this phase. It is 50 m
n-s by 25 m e-w (fig. 8h), and its walls are made of un-
usually large (up to 1.6 x by 0.9 m) quarriedstones set in
silty clay mortar.The walls are almost 5 m thick and stood
at least 10 m high. The summit room has a 5 m wide en-
trance in its east wall that aligns with the central staircase
system of the mound. Numerous painted frieze fragments
(red, yellow, black, blue, gray, green, and white) were
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found in the wall fall east of the summit room, revealing
that the east face of the summit room was once decorated
with polychrome friezes.
The central staircase system consists of two separate
staircasesthat ascend the east face of the main mound. One
rises from the lower atrium to the upper atrium (fig. 8f)
and the second rises from the upper atrium to the entrance
of the summit room. Initial construction of the lower stair-
case was completed during Moxeke Phase A, and during
Moxeke Phase B the lower atrium floor was raised 2.2 m,
covering part of the first staircaseand providing the start-
ing level for the overlying staircase.Excavationsof the low-
er staircase(figs. 8f, iia) revealed 39 steps, including one
landing area and one bench, totaling 11.5 m in elevation.
The first 26 steps of the staircaseare 10.5 m wide and in-
set. The next three steps are 5 m wide and lead from a land-
ing up to a bench. The final 10 steps are 6.75 m wide and
inset into the east edge of the upper atrium.
The upper staircase has approximately 46 steps and
rises almost 13 m (fig. 8i, iib). This staircaseconsists of
four segments that varyin width. All but the lowest was ex-
posed by excavation, however this first staircasesegment
was probably about 5 m wide, inset, and contained ap-
proximately 16 steps. The second inset staircasesegment
that leads up to a wide landing is 5 m wide and contains
four steps (fig. iib). The third inset segment of this stair-
case narrows as it ascends to the upper landing. The first 13
steps measure 17 m wide, then the staircasenarrows to 9
m in width for the last five steps (fig. iib). The fourth and
final segment consists of a 5 m wide free-standingstaircase
of eight steps leading from the upper landing to a bench
along the east wall of the summit room. The sides of this
staircasealign with the side walls of the east entranceto the
summit room (fig. iib). Moxeke Phase ceramicswere re-
covered during excavation of this upper staircaseand the
stratigraphic position of the staircase demonstrates its
Moxeke Phase B date.
Architecture exposed in the south wing of the upper
atrium was assigned to Moxeke Phase B because of its ar-
chitectural connection to the upper staircasesystem (fig.
8j). Looting in this area resulted in heavy damage, leaving
only scant remains of two rooms. The north room is
reached from the upper atrium by way of a 1.65 m wide
doorway. Within this room a square bench contains four
column holes, each measuring about 35 cm in diameter
and containing the remains of column cores of cane
wrapped in a plant-fiber rope of junco (Scirpussp.) These
columns may have supported a roof, creating a veranda
that served as a reception area for visitors to the south
wing. Junco fiber rope remainsfrom one column hole were
dated to 1260 ± 115 cal B.C. (table i).
 Journal of Held Archaeology[Vol. 30, 2005 153

Figure 11. Plan of the main staircasesystem. A) Staircasefrom the lower atrium to the upper atrium; B)
Staircasefrom the upper atrium to the summit of the main mound.

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 at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
154 Architectureand Chronology
The second room is entered from the east side of the ve-
randa.Here all that remainsof a much largerroom is a par-
tially preserved bench supporting a low, square platform
abutting the main mound. South of this platform is a col-
umn hole and a remnant of protruding plaster that may be
the remains of a frieze.
On the north wing, a rough floor of gray silty plasterup
to 12 cm thick covers the surfaceof the 3.75 m deep Mox-
eke Phase B fill of the Moxeke Phase A room. Charcoaland
wood in this fill dated to 1500 ± 55 cal B.C.(table i). The
fill yielded a stylized bird-head pendant of unidentified
green stone, but no diagnostic pottery. Imbedded in the
gray silt floor is an alignment of seven small postholes,
10-12 cm in diameter, that were covered by later Haldas
Phase architecture.Wood fragments from these postholes
were dated to 1400 ± 70 cal B.C. (table i). Moxeke Phase
B ended before any structures were built on the north
wing.
Portions of two rooms forming the south border of the
first plaza have interior round corners like most square-
room units of the Moxeke Phase (fig. 3A).There is also
ample gray silt floor and wall plasterthat matches the Mox-
eke Phase B gray silt floor of the upper atrium north wing,
and Moxeke Phase sherds were recovered in the excava-
tions. Dates of 1390 ± 70 and 1270 ± 125 cal B.C.(table
i) from charcoalrecovered from fill below the floor of one
of the rooms also suggest that these structures date to
Moxeke Phase B.
Excavationsduring 1995 and 2002 within a residential
area southeast of the main mound uncovered ample evi-
dence of midden and some structures dating to the Mox-
eke Phase (fig. 3B). Only Moxeke Phase pottery was re-
covered from these excavations, along with numerous fig-
urine fragments, stone bowl or mortar fragments, twined
and woven textiles, and abundant subsistence remains.
Two radiocarbondates of 1510 ± 60 cal B.C.and 1380 ±
60 cal B.C. (table i) from charcoal recovered during mid-
den excavations place this occupation within Moxeke
Phase B.
Haldas Phase
Both the Moxeke and Las Haldas culturaldevelopments
have long histories within the Casma Valley area.The ear-
liest dates for the Moxeke occupation come from the site
of Pampade las Llamas-Moxeke,which was inhabited from
2080 to 1340 cal B.C.The Las Haldas occupation of the
Casma Valley area is dated to between 1925 and 1410 cal
B.C.at the coastal site of Las Haldas (Pozorski and Pozors-
ki 1992: table 2). Thus, the Moxeke and Las Haldas Cul-
tures appeared at about the same time and coexisted for
several hundred years. There is no evidence of significant
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interaction between the two cultures, however, until about
1400 cal B.C.when Las Haldas ceramics and cultural ma-
terial appearedwell north of Las Haldas.
The Las Haldas Culture expanded northward along the
coast and inland into the Casma Valley during the Haldas
phase. Haldas Phase building activity on the main Sechin
Alto mound occurs mainly on the north wing above the
Moxeke Phase B gray silt floor where a large room and
smaller room block were constructed (fig. 8e). The large
room is formed by a wall of large stones that borders the
north wing on the north, east, and south. Excavations
within this room revealed a 3.4 m wide south doorway in-
to a corridor bordering a block of contiguous stone-walled
rooms around a small courtyard (fig. 8e, io). Entry into
the courtyardcomplex is by way of two narrow doorways
in the rearof the structureand through a small room (fig.
io). Within the courtyarda central,rectangular,stone-lined
depression (1.5 x 1.6 m) contains an offset circularhearth
some 50 cm in diameter.Given its large size and prominent
position within the complex, this hearth could reflect a lo-
calized ritualsomewhat like the ventilated hearth structures
of the Moxeke Phase (Pozorski and Pozorski 1996).
The courtyard and room complex superficially resem-
bles the layout of intermediate-sizedmounds at Pampa de
las Llamas-Moxeke (Pozorski and Pozorski 1992: fig. 8,
1994: fig. 3); however, close inspection reveals significant
differences. There are no modular square-room units; in-
stead, the Haldas Phase rooms are rectilinearwith shared
walls and the main entrance is in the rear. Some continu-
ities with earlier architecture can be seen in the use of
round corners, raisedthresholds, and paired pilasterswith-
in doorways. Las Haldas type ceramics were recovered
from these rooms, the surrounding corridor,and the south
entrance. A solid ceramic cylinder seal from one room is
similar in form to examples associated with intermediate-
sized mounds at Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke (Pozorski
and Pozorski 1991: fig. 8). The seal and the general con-
figuration of the room complex suggest its primaryfunc-
tion was administrative.Haldas Phase people may have at-
tempted to simulate the square-room unit, which symbol-
ized administrativefunction during the Moxeke Phase, as
a means of signaling their administrativepresence.
Four radiocarbon dates come from the Haldas Phase
construction on the north wing (table i). Two dates of
1510 ± 55 and 1430 ± 50 cal B.C.are from wooden posts
within entrance pilasters of the courtyard/room complex.
A third date of 1305 ± 95 cal B.C.is from a wooden post
embedded in the floor of the corridor south of the court-
yard/room complex. With two-sigma standard deviation,
these three dates suggest a date of ca. 1400 cal B.C. as the
dividing line between Moxeke Phase B construction and

later Haldas Phase construction. A fourth date of 1010 ±
90 cal B.C.from a post in the south entrance of the stone
surroundingwall probably dates a late Haldas Phase mod-
ification of the north wing. An additional date of 1 120 ±
110 cal B.C. (table i) is from an intrusive hearth well
above the floor level of the courtyard/room complex and
probably represents a squatter presence on the mound
shortly after the Haldas Phase ended.
Early Horizon
The Early Horizon occupation is ubiquitous at Sechin
Alto site and largely obscured the primary construction
phases on the main mound. This led one investigator to
misdate the main construction and occupation of the site
(e.g. Wilson 1995: 193, 1999: 369) and impeded reliable
architecturalmapping of the site's Initial Period compo-
nents. The map by Donald Collier (Tello 1956: fig. 41),
showing a regularlylaid out, symmetricalmound, is based
more on knowledge of typical "early55 mound layout than
actual evidence. Our first map (Pozorski and Pozorski
1987: fig. 46) takes into account the magnitude of Initial
Period construction evident in major level changes and
general site configuration but does not clearlydifferentiate
between Initial Period construction and later Early Hori-
zon alterations.
About 500 cal B.C., people moved back onto the
mound, leveled much of the Initial Period architecture,
knocked down substantial walls, and converted much of
the summit into a level surfaceupon which to build mod-
est rooms, plazas, courtyards, and small, free-standing
mounds. These new settlers collected stones from wall de-
bris or stripped Initial Period wall faces to obtain con-
struction material for use in their buildings. Several deep
Initial Period rooms on the mound summit were initially
mistaken for looters' holes (Pozorski and Pozorski 1987:
73) because facing stones for the walls and fill had been re-
moved. Early Horizon mining of the adobe core for silty
clay to recycle into mortar and plaster has left a large cen-
tral depression. As part of this process, most of the poly-
chrome friezes of the adobe core and the main summit
room were destroyed. A cap of 30 to 100 cm of brownish
midden that covers much of the mound summit is also at-
tributableto this Early Horizon occupation.
The following examples revealthe extent of Early Hori-
zon alterations of the surface of the main mound. In one
35 x 20 m areaon the summit (figs. 8k, 12) there are two
courtyards,three raisedplatforms (1 to 2 m high), and sev-
eralrooms, wall segments, and benches. Near the main en-
tranceto the summit room (fig. 8h), remains of cane and
mud houses as well as stone houses were found within the
upper strataof the Early Horizon midden.
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Journal of Field Archaeolqgy/Vol.30, 2005 155
Early Horizon people razed the taller Initial Period
walls, including most of the large summit room walls, and
used the resultant loose materialto create a level surfaceas
well as to build their own structures.Much of this materi-
al was moved to the east, initially via the main entrance of
the summit room. Then, as material accumulated, addi-
tional construction debris was pushed into the inset central
staircaseand over associated landings (fig. 13). In the up-
per atrium, the inset staircasesystem was sealed by a 1.5 m
high stone wall of reused stones. Rubble behind this wall
leveled the upper atrium by filling the staircase.One date
of 290 ± 70 cal B.C. (table i) came from an Early Hori-
zon hearth in the midden overlying this fill and a date of
160 ± 75 cal B.C. (table i) came from a second intrusive
hearth overlying Haldas Phase architecture in the north
wing of the upper atrium.
Middle Horizon and "Transitional"Period
Post-EarlyHorizon occupations of the main mound are
ephemeral. Surprisingly,almost no Casma Incised ceram-
ics have been found at the site. The Middle Horizon (a.d.
600-1000) and the "Transitional"Period, the poorly-
known transition between the Middle Horizon and the
Late Intermediate Period (ca. a.d. 1000-1470) on the
north coast of Peru, are representedprimarilyby intrusive
burials.
All but one of the Middle Horizon burials were found
within depressions in the adobe core from which con-
struction materialhad been mined (fig. 8a). These burials
had all been disturbed, some more heavily than others. The
burialswere in extended positions, either on their sides or
face down, and some disturbed llama burials were also
found alongside the human remains.A few vessels painted
red-white-blackprovide the primaryevidence for assigning
these burials to the Middle Horizon. One other intrusive
burial, found within wall debris at the bottom of the deep
depression just east of the adobe core, contained a seated
individual associated with a corroded copper trumpet.
Three intrusive bundle burialswere cut into the landing
of the Moxeke Phase A staircaseon the north wing. Two
contained seated, flexed infants and one was of an adult fe-
male. These burials are tentatively dated to the Transition-
al Period based on associated blackware vessels (Carol
Mackey, personal communication 2002). Other flexed and
extended burials without associated diagnostic grave
goods encountered on the north wing and in the summit
room are also tentatively assigned to the TransitionalPeri-
od based on their stratigraphicpositions, body treatment,
and proximity (in the case of the north wing examples) to
the bundle burials.A few isolated dog burialsencountered
in the north wing area may also date to this time period.
 at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
156 Architectureand Chronology
locatedon the summitof
Figure12. Planof EarlyHorizonarchitecture
the mainSechinAlto mound.
One other ceramic type, possibly dating to the Transi-
tional Period or the Late Intermediate Period, was associ-
ated with a very late enclosure of dry-laid stones that par-
tially covered the summit room. Diagnostic ceramics in-
clude redwaredecorated with lizard appliques.
Chronological Summary
Chronological information from Sechin Alto indicates
that the lower two-thirds of the main mound dates to
Moxeke Phase A. How much additional time is represent-
ed by the more than 20 m of unexplored construction in
the lower part of the mound is a matter of speculation. We
believe one or two massive earlierconstruction phases date
to the beginning of the Initial Period (ca. 2150 cal B.C.)
and arecontemporarywith the earliestoccupations at Pam-
pa de las Llamas-Moxekeand Cerro Sechin (Fuchs 1997:
158; Pozorski and Pozorski 1992: 852) as well as Las Hal-
das (Pozorski and Pozorski 1987: 10-11, 21-23).
The exact configuration of the mound during Moxeke
Phase A is unknown because it is obscured by Moxeke
Phase B construction. Based on availableevidence, howev-
er, the adobe core would have been the tallest part of the
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mound, standing some 9 m above the surrounding archi-
tecture. East of this core, a courtyardbordered by square-
room units was probably present. Access to this courtyard
areawas via the lower inset central staircase.
The upper one-third of the main mound was added dur-
ing Moxeke Phase B. It revealsthe general tendency of Ini-
tial Period people to adhere to specific architecturaltenets
over long periods of time. Much of the general mound
configuration visible today followed earlierMoxeke Phase
A architecturalpatterns seen at Pampa de las Llamas-Mox-
eke and Taukachi-Konkan.The main mound reached its
present height and clearly attained a U-shaped configura-
tion during Moxeke Phase B; the summit room, the wing
structures,four rectangularplazas, and two sunken circular
plazas were also probably constructed during this period.
All these changes happened quickly ca. 1500 to 1400 cal
B.C.
The Haldas Phase, dated to ca. 1400-1000 cal B.C.near
the end of the Initial Period, saw relativelylittle construc-
tion on the main mound. Only the intrusive courtyardand
room complex on the north wing of the upper atrium can
be securely attributed to this phase. Additional Las Haldas
type ceramics occur sporadically on the remainder of the
mound, perhaps representing a brief reuse of Moxeke
Phase architecture. Significant differences in architecture
and ceramics separatethe Haldas Phase from the Moxeke
Phase. The modular square-room unit was replaced by
shared-wallroom blocks with fewer rounded corners and
rearentrances. Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeketype ceramics
were abruptly replaced by Las Haldas type ceramics.
The Early Horizon occupation of the main mound
caused heavy damage to Sechin Alto as portions of the
mound summit were leveled and construction materialwas
taken to build numerous small platforms, rooms, and
courts on the newly leveled surface.This occupation start-
ed ca. 500 cal B.C.and lasted a few hundred years, produc-
ing substantial midden material that covers much of the
surface today. Many more people probably lived on the
mound during the Early Horizon than at any previous or
subsequent time period.
Use of the mound during the Middle Horizon, the
"Transitional"Period, and the Late Intermediate Period
was sparse, confined to occasional use of the mound sur-
face as a burial area and for the construction of a few rus-
tic rooms. Such reuse of early mounds was common
among late Prehispanicpeoples who evidently still regard-
ed earliermounds worthy of use as burial areas.
Conclusions
The following is an examination of how Sechin Alto site
and the main mound fit into the Sechin Alto polity as a
 Journal of Field Archneology/Vol. 30, 2005 157

Figure13. Profilelookingnorthof wallfallanddumpeddebrisdepositedduringthe EarlyHorizonand

overlyingthe conicaladobebrickstaircaselocatedjusteastof the mainentranceto the summitroom.

whole. We examinethe polity'seconomicand population zorski and Pozorski1979: 426). Preceramicantecedents

base,evidenceof a preconceivedplanmaintainedthrough on the centralcoastinspiredsimilarInitialPerioddevelop-
severalgenerations,evidenceof strong bureaucraticcon- ments in river valleysto the north and south, and the
trol througharchitectural units emblematicof administra- grandest,the SechinAlto polity,occurredin Casma.Most
tive activity,and detailsreflectinginterdependenceamong largeinlandmoundsfaceuprivertowardthe sourceof the
siteswithin the polity. waterthatwas essentialto this new way of life, andtheylie
The recentrecognitionof the Supe-Pativilca-Fortaleza outsidethe limitsof cultivationto maximizearableland.In
Valleyzone south of Casmaas the likelyprepotterycenter contrast,SechinAlto site, the polity capital,signalsits im-
of originforAndeancivilizationfocusedthe world'satten- portanceby occupyingfertilelandin the valleycenter.Al-
tion on the archaeologyof Peru(Haas,Creamer,andRuiz though large-scaleirrigation agriculturewas the norm
2004, 2005; Shady 1997; Shady, Hass, and Creamer along much of the Peruviancoast by InitialPeriodtimes,
2001). Sizeablepreceramicsites there arelocatedwell in- the CasmaValleystandsout among these coastalvalleys.
landin optimumareasfor canalsand generallyadjacentto We attributethis to the unusuallyefficientcontroland ef-
largeareasof arableland.Successivecenturiesof irrigation fectivemanagementof the irrigationsystemthatprovided
agriculturehave obscuredthese early canalsystems, but the impetus for the population and constructionboom
settlementpattern data and significantincreasesin the that culminatedin the SechinAlto polity and its accom-
amountandvarietyof cultivatedspeciesarguefor the exis- plishments(Pozorskiand Pozorski1987, 1992, 2002).
tence of earlyirrigationsystems(Moseley1992: 126; Po- The SechinAlto polityfunctionedas a unifiedwhole for

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 at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
158 Architectureand Chronology
some 500 years, managing the irrigation system and its
products, constructing monumental architecture of un-
precedented magnitude, and functionally integrating a
suite of distinct communities. This unity is reflected in ar-
tifact types, architecturalelements, architecturaltenets, and
foodstuffs that are shared among the communities. At a
very basic level is the square-room unit, a modular archi-
tectural element that signals administrativepresence. First
recognized at Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke, the square-
room unit is characterizedby rounded exterior corners,
8-12 wall niches well above the floor, a carpetof reed mat-
ting, raised thresholds, and bar closure mechanisms to re-
strict access. It is used repeatedly at Pampa de las Llamas-
Moxeke in modules. Thirty-eight square-room units form
the storage modules that create a huge warehouse on Hua-
ca A, one of the two main mounds at the site. A cluster of
compounds, formed of single square-room unit modules,
lie on either side of Huaca A where they probably served
to monitor or regulate access to and from the mound.
Square-roomunit modules form the centralrooms of over
100 structures,aligned with the site axis and facing the site
center, that comprise the east and west sides of the site.
These intermediate-sized mounds are interpreted as ad-
ministrative structures because their architecture is well-
built, clean, and similar in layout to Huaca A and because
of the presence of occasional stamp and cylinder seals of
fired clay.The few intermediate-sizedmounds that deviate
from the prevailing alignment face roads that enter the site
from the east and west and probably monitored intersite
movement of goods and people. In this context the inter-
mediate-sized mounds may have provided a third adminis-
trative tier to regulate the movement of products among
Huaca A, the support communities, and other contempo-
rary Casma Valley centers (Pozorski and Pozorki 1991,
1994). At Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke, small square-
room unit modules were also discovered within areas of
residentialarchitecturethat yielded ample evidence of cot-
tage industries such as textile production. In this context,
these administrative modules may have controlled this
facet of the local economic system. At Taukachi-Konkan
and Sechin Alto, square-room units were also found in
probable administrative contexts within monumental ar-
chitecture, and Cerro Sechin consists of at least three con-
centric modules.
The pervasivenessof the square-room unit at Sechin Al-
to polity sites reveals that the component communities
shared a common administrative"language,"expressed ar-
chitecturally.Varied functions for major mounds at other
sites provide additional evidence of interdependence
among the sites. At Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke, one of
the two main mounds functioned as a temple, based on its
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highly-visible friezes and large, publicly-accessible plazas,
whereas the second functioned as a large warehouse for
storing comestibles and other valuables (Pozorski and Po-
zorski 1991, 1994, 1998). The largest mound at Taukachi-
Konkan is interpreted as a palace because it contains both
public space for receiving elite guests and private residen-
tial quarters.We propose that the immense Sechin Alto site
main mound was the overarching administrative center
bringing "churchand state"together by combining the re-
ligious precinct of the adobe core with adjacent square-
room unit administrativeelements. The net result is a col-
lection of major inland sites with complementary roles,
that, taken together, comprise a cohesive whole.
Contemporary coastal sites were integrated into the
Sechin Alto polity through a subsistence exchange system.
Bahia Seca, Tortugas, and Huaynuna were semi-au-
tonomous fishing villages during the Late PreceramicPeri-
od (Pozorski and Pozorski 1987: 12-16, 1992: 848-850).
With the introduction of irrigation and ceramics and the
rise of large inland centers during the subsequent Initial
Period, these sites became satellites providing much-need-
ed animal protein in the form of fish and shellfish. These
were exchanged for cultigens such as beans, lima beans,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, cotton, gourds, and
squash grown near the inland centers. Evidence of control
of these sites by the inland centers is seen at Bahia Seca
which has an intermediate-sized mound with a square-
room unit module at its center, just like the mid-level ad-
ministrative mounds at Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke,
Taukachi-Konkan,and Sechin Alto (Pozorski and Pozorski
1992: fig. 2).
We estimate that approximately 18,000 people inhabit-
ed the Sechin Alto Complex at its apogee and that outly-
ing sites integrated into the polity had an additional popu-
lation of almost 5000 people. These estimates are based on
data from Pampade las Llamas-Moxeke,the best-preserved
Casma Valley Initial Period site. Two-thirds of the site lies
outside areasof modern cultivation, and it is relativelyun-
affected by later occupation and natural forces. We deter-
mined that approximately7% of the total site areawas oc-
cupied by residential architecture comprising some 500
structures. Using a conservative estimate of five persons
per structure ( = 2500 persons) and correctingfor the one-
third of the site under modern cultivation (= 1250 per-
sons), we calculated the residential population of Pampa
del las Llamas-Moxeke to be approximately 3750 people.
Extrapolating to the Sechin Alto Complex, which is 4.77
times larger than Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke,we get a
figure approaching 18,000. The remaining estimated pop-
ulation of 1200 persons, is based on the combined areasof
the coastal sites which were almost totally residential.

The Sechin Alto political and economic system, with ar-
chitectural accomplishments that make the Casma Valley
unrivaledin the entire New World for its time period, be-
gan to weaken near the end of the Moxeke Phase. Two sig-
nificant events evident in the archaeological record may
help explainthis decline. One is the great battle or massacre
depicted in the Cerro Sechin carved-stone facade, where
the warriorsand the victims can be clearlydistinguished by
their dress. Significantly, the victims in the Cerro Sechin
carvingswear the same pleated skirts and scalloped tunics
as the immense god-like or priest-like figures that adorn
the facade of the temple mound at Pampa de las Llamas-
Moxeke (Kauffmann 1983: 179; Pozorski 1987: 27; Tello
1956: 154, 159). In the absence of evidence of attack by
external enemies at this time, the Cerro Sechin iconogra-
phy suggests internal strife. More specifically,it shows that
insurgence by a faction from the southern Pampa de las
Llamas-Moxekebranchhad been quelled and its leadersex-
ecuted. Second, about 1400 cal B.C., a large-scaleEl Nino
event struck the Casma Valley area. This is clearly docu-
mented at Cerro Sechin and was observed on Huaca A at
Pampade las Llamas-Moxeke.El Nino damage on one ma-
jor mound was partially repaired, but the site was aban-
doned soon after this event.
The Sechin Alto polity responded during Moxeke Phase
B by consolidating its leadership at Sechin Alto site and by
altering the main mound to tangibly represent this politi-
cal restructuring.The main mound was expanded by rais-
ing its summit elevation some 9 m to the height of the sur-
face of the adobe core. A huge square-room unit was built
east of the core, and the four rectangularplazas and two cir-
cular plazas and their bordering mounds were also con-
structedat this time. The east face of the summit room was
covered with an immense polychrome frieze readilyvisible
from the plazas below. The two circular sunken plazas
within the row of plazas, like amphitheaters,may have held
localized rituals or spectacles as a means of bringing cere-
monies closer to the people. This would seem to give the
main mound a more public orientation, perhaps to reas-
sure uneasy citizens.
A number of characteristicsof Sechin Alto site and the
polity it headed argue convincingly for the emergence of
state-level political organization in the Casma Valley by
Initial Period times. The sheer magnitude of construction
involving building phases represented by hundreds of
thousands of cubic meters of stones and earth documents
the leaders'capacityto mobilize and support a huge labor
force drawn from a sizable population. Careful planning,
typified by Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke, Taukachi-
Konkan, and Sechin Alto where huge central mounds es-
tablish the sites' axes and rows of aligned, subsidiary
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Journal of Field Archaeology[Vol. 30, 2005 159
mounds face inwards, was seen at spatially-distinct loci and
maintained through severalcenturies.Variedmounds with
distinct functions at distinct sites document interdepen-
dence among the major sites. Within these sites, the
square-room unit architecturalform persists as an emblem
of political power and bureaucraticcontrol. Such demon-
stratedlongevity of a preconceived plan arguesfor a lineage
of rulerswho maintainedtheir hegemony acrossmany gen-
erations. The "masterplan" conceived by these rulers was
executed with precision. At Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke
where preservation is optimal, for example, the mound
fronts that define the longest alignment are still within 15
cm of a perfectlystraightline across a distance of more than
700 m, even after over 3500 years of exposure to the ele-
ments (Pozorski and Pozorski 1989, 1994). A clear five-
level hierarchyin the settlement pattern is reflected in de-
creasing site magnitude, ranging from the largest capital
site of Sechin Alto, through the secondary centers of Pam-
pa de las Llamas-Moxeke and Taukachi-Konkan,tertiary
centers of Sechin Bajo and Cerro Sechin, to the lesser
coastal sites- including the administrativecenter of Bahia
Seca with its subsidiaries at Tortugas and Huaynuna. No-
ticeably lacking, however, are burials rich in grave goods
indicative of ascribed status. It seems, rather,that conspic-
uous consumption, ideology, and artistic achievement
were manifested through monumental architectureand its
accouterments because metallurgy was not yet known and
ceramic, stone, and textile technologies were still develop-
ing.
This detailed reconstruction of early political and eco-
nomic development within the Casma Valley is based on
our excavationsat nine Preceramic,Initial Period, and Ear-
ly Horizon sites plus data compiled by other investigators.
The result provides an in-depth look at the Sechin Alto
polity, the grandest development in the New World from
ca. 2150 to 1400 cal B.C.We have documented featuresof
one of the earliest Andean states, including the essential
characteristicsof its sites, the economic and population
base, and the internaland externalvariablescontributing to
its demise. These data allow comparison between the Cas-
ma Valley and other world areas where complex society
evolved.
Acknowledgments
Funding for the investigations of the Sechin Alto site
was provided by National Science Foundation grant SBR-
9806833, the H. John Heinz III Fund of the Heinz Fam-
ily Foundation, the Curtiss T. Brennan and Mary G. Bren-
nan Foundation, the American Philosophical Society, and
the Faculty Research Council of the University of Texas-
Pan American. Permission to excavatewas granted by the
 at SechinAlto, Casma Valley,Peru/Pozorskiand Pozorski
160 Architectureand Chronology
Institute)Nacional de Cultura. The authors wish to thank
Bobbie Lovett who has worked with us as a colleague and
field supervisorfor many seasons as well as GermanYenque
(2000-2001) and Rosa Marin (2002) who served as co-di-
rectors of the project during the final three field seasons.
The authors also gratefully acknowledge the participation
of the following students and colleagues in the excavations
of the site: CherylDaggett, RichardDaggett, Georgina Di-
az, Omar Fonseca, Juan Garcia, Rosaura Garcia, Lydia
Garry,Marina Garza, Brooke Guelker,Angelica Guzman,
Tania Lopez, Okie Reyes, Abigail Segovia, and Jessica
Villescaz. Artifact drawings are by Felix Farro. We would
also like to thank one reviewer who encouraged us to "of-
fer some conjectures"in our conclusions.
ThomasPozorski(Ph.D. Universityof Texasat Austin, 1976)
and SheliaPozorski(Ph.D. Universityof Texasat Austin,
1976) areprofessors ofAnthropologyat the Universityof
Texas-PanAmericanand have conductedarchaeologicalinves-
tigationsin Peru since1970. Theirresearchconcernsthe study
of the development of earlycivilizationalong the coastof Peru.
Mailing address:Departmentof Psychology and Anthropolo-
gy, Universityof Texas-PanAmerican,Bdinburg,TX 75841.
E-mail: tpozorski@panam.edu, spozorski@panam.edu
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